Communication Capstone SDSU
Distinguish communication axioms given exemplars of each.
1. Communication is comprised of both symbolic and non-symbolic, verbal and nonverbal, and intentional and unintentional processes. 2. Communication occurs on both analogic (nonverbal) and digital (linguistic) levels. 3. Communication occurs on both content ("report") and relationship ("command") levels. 4. Communication is comprised of both nature (genetic) and nurture (environment), and communication choices are not always choices, driven instead by both central (rational/analytic) and peripheral (emotional/impulsive) processes. 5. Communication is contextually contingent. 6. Communication varies between thought (reference), symbol (sign) and referent (signified). 7. In social contexts, communication is inevitable. 8. Communication is functional. 9. Communication is a systemic process. a. Communication is holistic (non-summative) b. Communication is complex. c. Communication is irreversible. 10. Communication is socially constructed and constructive. 11. Communication generally reduces entropy. 12. Communication involves distortion and inaccuracy, or, "You are rarely as competent a communicator as you think you are."
Identify correct principles of Andersen's cognitive valence theory **(BPACO)
1.) BEHAVIOR 2.) PERCEPTION 3.) AROUSAL 4.) COGNITION 5.) OUTCOME *Look at chart in notes
Identify and differentiate features and principles of Fisher's narrative paradigm.
1.Humans are storytellers (W. Fisher) how persuasion occurs through the process of narrative. 2. Experience is narrative in nature (choice creation and re-creation of experience ) 3. persuasion is based on "logic of good reasons" 4. good reasons influenced by culture, history, values, Rationality is based on narrative fidelity and coherence Rationality: coherence: (probability): does a story hang together. structurally or argumentatively. Materially, compared to other stories. Characterologically: do the protagonists and antagonists behave consistently. Fidelity (not factuality) (truthfulness): the logic of good reasons. (elements that provide warrant for accepting or adhering to communicative advice. if you view the story as true it provides warrant Good reasons: 1. fact: what are the implicit and explicit values embedded in a message 2. relevance: are those values appropriate bases for ascendance or action? 3. Consequence: what would be the effects of adhering to these values 4. Consistency. are the valued affirmed in ones experiences with the world 5. transcendence- are the values a good "ideal" basis for ascendance or action. if you excitable your stories (dig into them) you will discover there is bedrock value which is what fischer would refer to as transcendence. Most important value- value you base ideas on. once we get there its tough to persuade . Dramatic arc- lousy story teller, may not tell it well.
Identify when the first spoken language is thought to have emerged among humans
100,000 years ago
Diagnose proper premises and conclusions of syllogisms
A=B, B=C therefore, A=C MajPrem: Asians are more collectivistic than Americans. MinPrem: Satoko is an Asian. ∴, Satoko is more collectivistic than Americans
Distinguish how communication is defined from alternative definitions.
ACA : The field of communication focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across varied contexts, cultures, channels and media. This field promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication. Sciences : The systematic application of method and observation in the pursuit of discovery and testing of reasoned conjectures regarding the description and explanation of worldly phenomena. Or the systematic search for explicable and replicable pattern(s). Humanities : The textual exploration of the myriad meanings and implications of personal and human existence and possibilities. Communication is defined as "all of the procedures by which one mind may affect another" (Shannon & Weaver, 1964, p. 3).
Identify and differentiate patterns of self-disclosure in relation to developing intimacy
Altman & Taylors social penetration model: Stage models: wheelers stage model As you go deeper into the layers people self disclose more personal information Depth developed gradually because you have to get to know someone before disclosure Breadth: goes up very fast then once you know someone it stays at a certain level. you exhaust the ability to go any higher b/c u already know Reciprocity goes down negative disclosure goes up very slow because we don't like talking about our mistakes. *intimacy=decrease in breadth of self disclosure and increase in depth
Identify & differentiate specific behaviors associated with and differentiating conflict styles Slide 7
BARGAINING & NEGOTIATION: Interaction process between two or more interdependent parties pursuing mutually acceptable outcome(s) in context of perceived divergent preferences (Druckman, 1977). starts with the assumption that we have something to gain from situation. we both may have something to gain. Bargainer is for the person vs in a mediation situation the mediator is for the conflict instead of being on one persons side MEDIATION/ADR: Conflict between parties moderated by an impartial facilitator (i.e., mediator) who structures the interaction to enable parties to find a mutually acceptable solution (Hale & Thieme, 1997, p. 205) specific structured form of bargaining and negotiation but involves a third party who mediates the situation. facilitating your conflict: figuring out a way to get you to resolve conflicts yourselves. AGGRESSION/VIOLENCE: (Intentional) Behavior that attempts to inflict or inflicts injury on person(s) or property (Bandura, 1973) Styles, Strategies, Tactics: certain things make strategies most competent Strategies: valence & directness model. Collaborating style: win win orientation Competing: Avoidance: avoid conflict, Compromise: the norm of reciprocity, you do something i do something. both a win win and a lose lose strategy. give up something to gain something. Half a loaf is better than none.
Differentiate "alternative" and "complementary" approaches to non-Western medical practices.
BOTH EASTERN ADN WESTERN PRACTICES holistic, systemic, spiritual: Finding balance between various elements in the body, understanding and managing emotions, and being attuned to the flow of energy in the body and environment are all examples of traditional Eastern practices that could be included as an alternative (replacement) or complement (in addition to) to Western medical practices. biopsychosocial-spiritual model. Although that particular model was proposed primarily for adoption at end-of-life care, the ideals that health includes a search for transcendence, a balance of all relationships (including both personal relationships and relationships with the physical world), and a feeling of peace and spiritual well-being can be applied in many situations.
Analyze and identify the functions of elements of the competence model of conflict management
Competing Avoiding Compromising Accommodating Collaborating Avoiding (low self-orientation & low other orientation) • Avoid open discussion of differences with my partner • Try to keep conflict with my partner to myself • Try to avoid unpleasant exchanges with my partner Accommodating (Low self-orientation; High other orientation) • Accommodate the wishes of my partner • Give in to the wishes of my partner • Go along with the suggestions of my partner Competing (High self-orientation & low other orientation) • Use my power to win a competitive situation • Use my authority to make a decision in my • Be firm in pursuing my side of the issue Compromising (Dead center of graph) • Use "give and take" so that a compromise can be made • Propose a middle ground for breaking deadlocks • Look for the middle ground in disputes Collaborating (High self-orientation & High other orientation) • Integrate my ideas with those of my partner to come up with a decision jointly • Collaborate with my partner to come up with decisions • Try to work with my partner for a proper understanding of the problem I.The parable of the orange( anyone remember this) Two people want the same orange they decide to split it up, but after they do they realize one wanted the juice and the other wanted the rind. there are things you can do in any given conflict that can draw out what is negotiable between wants and needs II.Wants Vs. Needs /Interests: A.Wants: what you desire B.Interests: what you need, or what benefits your ability to function in the world, short- and long-term. C.The interplay of interests, wants, and expectancies Expectancies can be based on either or both, wants or interests, complicating competence III.Exemplar—Egypt vs. Israel: Both are desert countries What interests do they have (think Maslow)? Physiology (hunger, thirst), safety (security), social (belonging), esteem (face), actualization Thus, a cooperative agriculture program.
Identify the implications of verification procedures for CA (e.g., naturally-occurring, sequential organization).
Data are naturally occurring talk and embodied activities. - involves the direct examination of recordings and transcriptions of naturally occurring verbal, embodied (e.g., gaze, gesture, touch, and the use of instruments or objects), and nonvocal communication activities interactions that would be occurring whether or not a recording device was present Interaction is sequentially organized - During communication, participants continually reveal their orientations to and understandings of moment by moment interactional involvements. In the precise ways speakers construct and respond to turns at talk, and related embodied actions, they demonstrate first for one another (and subsequently for analysts' inspections) their real time and practical understandings of evolving conduct in interaction. Exactly what gets achieved in communication is thus a result of how speakers construct and make available to one another their understandings of the local environment of which they are an integral part
Deductive vs. Inductive
Deductive Argument Necessary to have a good understanding of deductive reasoning Relates a general statement to a particular case GENERAL TO SPECIFIC Thus facilitating the emergence of a conclusion Inductive Argument Take a set of individual bits of information and advance a conclusion that accounts for them Moves from particulars toward a conclusion Examine instances of something, then generalizes about the whole group SPECIFIC TO GENERAL
Specify the nature of dialectical processes in the management of relationship development
Dialectical theory: Assumption: behavior is a product of conflicting tendencies. you are motivated to do things that are not compatable with one another. motivated by opposite. Behavior is how you manage opposing tendencies. e.g I want to be skinny but i want ice cream. Or I want to be independant but I also want to be involved and close with another person.Dialectical Theory: A. Core internal dialectics: • Autonomy vs. Connection (spending time on hobbies vs. spending time with partner) • Openness vs. Closedness (disclosing oneself vs. maintaining some individual privacy) • Predictability vs. Novelty (seeking predictable routines vs. seeking new experiences) E. Core external dialectics: • Inclusion vs. Seclusion (seeking inclusion of friends & family vs. withdrawing from a social network) • Revelation vs. Concealment (disclosing one's relationship to others vs. seeking to control such disclosure) • Conventionality vs. Uniqueness (conforming to social expectations vs. doing things 'their own way') Managing Dialectic Tensions: • Selection (favoring one pole over the other) • Cyclic Alteration (taking turns on the poles) • Segmentation (compartmentalize activities and issues by poles—e.g., You are conventionalist so your atheist partner attends religious services with you, and your partner is unconventional so you attend cosplay and fantasy groups with your partner) • Integration (finding synthesis of poles—e.g., seeking both predictability and novelty by making Friday 'date night,' but every date night will be something new)
Digital Analogic
Digital : Linguistic (ex: digital clock showing numbers to display time) VERBAL -signs (i.e., anything used to represent something else that is understood as having meaning; "stop" signs, bathroom signs, finger-pointing, the 'peace' symbol, words, etc.) meanings (i.e., an interpretation or sense-making), code (i.e., a set of conventions for understanding and action) morphology (i.e., rules for word formation) phonemics (i.e., rules for sounding and pronunciation) syntax (rules for word arrangement in phrases and sentences) semantics (i.e., rules for meaning attribution to words and sentences) Analogic : Nonverbal (ex: a clock with minute/hour "hands" to display time) NONVERBAL -This includes bodily (kinesics, facial expression), paralinguistics (vocalics), optically (oculesics), odiferously (olfactics), dermically (haptics), and artifactually (physical appearance, dress, adornment, etc.).
Identify and differentiate distal and proximal variables from outcome variables.
Distal variables : factors in the deep past of a person, group, institution, culture or society that influence the process. Usually found at the beginning of the modeling process as they are from the distant past, and often precede proximal factors (biological sex, individualism/collectivism, education/income) Proximal variables : represented by the things that occur within the current or immediate context that influence the phenonmenon or interest. Outcome variables : the dependent variable(s) or the result(s) of the process being explained. Since each factor has a direct effect on the next factor, the outcomes are the end product of the distal/ proximal factors and the mediating/moderating factors.
Differentiate approaches in negotiation
Distributive negotiation: process of claiming value or dividing resources. Parties try to maximize gains, minimize loses. Integrative negotiation: focus on creating value and expanding the resources available for a settlement. Strive for gains for both, focus on what they have in common and ways to meet each others needs and interest. (page 213)
Identify the components and principles of Altman & Taylor's social penetration model
During the initial stages of interaction, communication is somewhat superficial and is focused on a narrow range of topics, such as TV shows, general interests, and local events. As two people interact more frequently (and in a positive and rewarding manner), the communication becomes more intimate and covers a broader range of topics This model also talks about depth and breadth of self disclosure. Depth: how much details a person discloses as the relationship progresses Breadth: the range of different topics the person talks about as the relationship progresses Entertainment Social Competence SES/education Health Altman & Taylors social penetration model: Stage models: wheelers stage model As you go deeper into the layers people self disclose more personal information Depth developed gradually because you have to get to know someone b4 discolor Breadth: goes up very fast then once you know someone it stays at a certain level. you exhaust the ability to go any higher b/c u already know Reciprocity goes down negative disclosure goes up very slow because we don't like talking about our mistakes.
Specify the implications of various Boolian and wild card operators in the search process.
Either limits or expands the search based on keywords being used Boolian - conditions; they can either delimit or expand the search net. (ex : searching for scholarly journals only can eliminate a lot of options, so can "cues" in the keyword. Wildcard - "what you use" at the end of a search it will find any other related version of that word. It can be valuable or invaluable. (ex: if you search "step" the results will include "stepped" and "stepping" - other versions of the word
Communication reduces Entropy
Entropy: a measure of the degree of randomness...in the situation
Specify the extent to which targeted populations tend to be exposed to health campaign efforts
Exposure: about 40% of intended target population, under ideal circumstances;
Identify and differentiate the four main categories of stress-buffering support. ETIB
Four common behavioral categories: Emotional support Tangible support Informational support Belonging (i.e., relational) support
Distinguish between the elements of different models of health.
Historical models : Paradigms for conceptualizing and studying health communication. Illness/Biomedical : the body as a clockwork mechanism; single root cause; Western cultures Biopsychosocial : more holistic, emphasizing empathy and relationship, more inclusive, taking into account the individual ; emotional just as important as physical (biomedical) Psychosocial : more patient driven, giving them a voice, empathize with them (Combo of biomedical and biopsychosocial) Consumerist : "down to business" task oriented ; the consumerist perspective is characterized by a high level of patient question-asking and a somewhat limited, primarily advice-giving physician role. Alternative/Complementary : holistic, systemic, spiritual, integrating eastern and western approaches. Patient-Provider Models: • Doctor/Disease-Centered: Symptom 'checklist' PDR approach • Patient-Illness-Centered: Patient narrative construction of symptoms • Relationship-Centered: Contextual framing of episode • Interactionally-Enacted Care: Emergent interaction
Identify and differentiate humanistic (or interpretive) paradigms from scientific paradigms.
Humanistic (interpretive) : If a scholar is seeking to arrive "at ethical or aestethic judgements about the phenomena themselves, or about the event, or events, with which the phenomena are associated. Scientific : factual generalizations about similar phenomena not encompassed by the observations that have been made, then it is science. Both paradigms serve essential functions in higher education and society. From this perspective, science is cumulatively progressive. Unlike religion, which is fundamentally conservative in holding to tradition, belief and faith, science is radical in its ongoing pursuit of newer, better, understandings (Fuchs, 2001). Religious institutions may occasionally mimic science (as in declaring sections of a text as apocryphal), but such mimicry is predicated less on external evidence, and instead based on concerns of consistency with prior presumptive beliefs or ideologies. Science never forgets the past (so as neither to repeat its mistakes nor forget to benefit from its previous discoveries), but it is fundamentally forward-looking toward what is yet unknown. It cannot rest on its foundations nor accept any article of faith without test or observation. Instead, it must continuously build upon, evolve, expand, and innovate new ways and contents of understanding. No text is without potential error, and no text or article of faith is beyond doubt. Thus, the past is mere prelude to the present, and the present is always geared to a future that renders the present partially inadequate. It is in this sense that traditional religion seeks to reify its past as the strictures of the present; to accept that what once was known must be cherished as inviolate in the present. Science, in contrast, views the past as something to grow beyond. Humanities, in contrast to science and religion, are working toward different types of claims, envisioning the ways in which human activities and endeavors mean things for us, empower or liberate us, or should or should not be pursued. It follows that the role of "theory" will be somewhat different in the sciences (to explain, predict, and control) than in the humanities (to interpret and intellectually enrich). In order to appreciate the ways in which theories can be evaluated, criteria for evaluation need to be established.
Identify and differentiate which criteria are being used in criticizing or evaluating a theory or model.
I. NECESSARY CONDITIONS: 1. Explanatory Power: The theory must provide a sensible account of the phenomena of concern. 2. Construct and Conditionship Specification: The theory must indicate the nature of the constructs and the relationships among these constructs (i.e., necessity, sufficiency, parameters, function form, generality, etc.). 3. Boundary Specification: The theory must indicate the domain of its legitimate scope and relevance. 4. Intra-Boundary Generality: The theory must provide statements of relationship that hold across all phenomena of concern. 5. Internal Consistency: The theory must maintain logical consistency of all statements of conditionship, assumptions, and units. 6. External consistency: The theory must avoid contradiction of "known" data. 7. Verifiability/Falsifiability: The degree to which a theory's components can be observed and tested. II. DESIRABLE CONDITIONS: 1. Precision: The more the theory allows prediction of phenomena, the better the theory. 2. Parsimony: The more elegant and simple the theory, the better the theory. 3. Correspondence with Observables: The more of the theory units that are observable, the better the theory. 4. Breadth: The broader the scope or range of the theory, the better the theory; i.e., verisimilitude. 5. Control: The greater the potential for strategic manipulation of the phenomena, the better the theory. 6. Synthesis: The more the theory facilitates the organization and inclusion of existing ideas and information, the better the theory. 7. Precision: The more the theory allows prediction of phenomena, the better the theory. III. RELATIVE CONDITIONS: 1. Heurism: The more the theory suggests new scholarly questions and endeavors, the better the theory. The more the theory explains new facts or counterintuitive facts, the better the theory. 2. Competition Principle: Theories should compete favorably vis-à-vis their rivals. 3. Money in the Bank Principle: "We are warranted in continuing to conjecture that a theory has high verisimilitude when it has accumulated 'money in the bank' by passing several stiff tests" (Meehl, 1990, p. 115). IV. CRITICAL CONDITIONS: 1. Aesthetics: The higher the narrative fidelity, aesthetic satisfaction, and/or perceiver interest in the theory, the better the theory. 2. Generative capacity: "the capacity to challenge the guiding assumptions of the culture, to raise fundamental questions regarding contemporary social life, to foster reconsideration of that which is 'taken for granted,' and thereby to generate fresh alternatives for social action" (Gergen, 1994, p. 109). 3. Counter-suggestiveness: "What we need here is an education that makes people contrary, counter-suggestive, without making them incapable of devoting themselves to the elaboration of any single view" (Feyerabend, 1970, p. 63).
Differentiate wants vs. needs/interests
I. The parable of the orange II. Wants Vs. Needs /Interests: A. Wants: what you desire B. Interests: what you need, or what benefits your ability to function in the world, short- and long-term. C. The interplay of interests, wants, and expectancies • Expectancies can be based on either or both, wants or interests, complicating competence
Identify and differentiate the five canons of rhetoric.
IDSMD Invention (constructing the content to be presented) Disposition (organizing the content into a coherent presentation) Style (using language appropriate to the audience and to make the message clear) Memory (the ability to keep all of the pieces of presentation in one's head) Delivery (the actual presentation of the content, in a lively fashion and, with adjustments for actual conditions, in a manner similar to how one planned the presentation)
Identify the key defining and differentiating features of symbols and icons
Icon: An object that resembles or is directly reflective of what it stands for (Sounds like/Looks like) i.e. Pedestrian crossing sign, saying "woof" to describe someone as a "dog." VERY STRAIGHT FORWARD Symbol: any object or action that conventionally (and arbitrarily) represents (i.e. signifies) something else Symbols are... - Arbitrary: Arbitrariness of representation (sick = ill/really cool) - Conventional: Intersubjective agreement (surfing logo; Hodad = say they know how to surf but don't know) - Intentional: Intended mutuality of representation (evoke some degree of intention) - Triangularly related: reference ßà referent ßà symbol Iclicker: Words of a "kiwi crossing" = Symbol
Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning strategies
Inductive Argument: reasoning from particulars to general claims intended to represent features of the particulars as a collective. Ex. Out of the 50 or so Asians I have encountered, far more of them seem collectivistic than the typical American I have encountered. So Asians tend to be more collectivistic than Americans. Deductive Argument: intended by the arguer that provides a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion provided that the arguments premises are true. Both deductions and inductions are potentially deeply flawed Deductive Argument: syllogisms often take causal forms which are used to develop theoretical claims.
Analyze how induction & deduction fail to prove claims.
Inductive logic cannot prove propositions because it is always incomplete Deductive logic cannot prove propositions because it depends on the truth of its own premises, which themselves are not proven. They can be proven wrong and therefore permit falsification. -Lack of proof -Popper (1970) realized that although there is no guaranteed way of proving a proposition, it is entirely possible to disprove propositions.
Identify competency levels of current college-educated students for the job market
Information technology application 3% Teamwork/collaboration 8% deficient Critical thinking/problem solving 9% deficient Oral communication 10% deficient Ethics/social responsibility 11% deficient Creativity/innovation 17% deficient Professionalism/work ethic 19 Leadership 24% Written communication 28% deficient
Identify the components and principles of the competence model of interpersonal communication
Interpersonal Communication Definition: Any exchange of message(s) in which meanings (effects) are elicited. (does not mean you have to get the meaning intended) Not positive on this one. Co-Construction: all interactional achievements are co constructed Mediation/Moderation principle: impressions of competence mediate behavior outcome Expectancy: to optimize odds of competence seek to fulfil positive expectancies If expectancies are negative seek to: Appropriately violate, or Negotiate new expectations Probability Principle: Motivation knowledge and skills do not constitute the impression of competence- they simply make more probable, Excess: Too much good skill is bad Learning-delay speculation: Due to mindfulness, competence decreases before improving when learning Diagnostic principle: When a situation (i.e outcome) goes badly it is a function of: Motivation knowledge Skills Context Outcomes Time/development/ change I. Judgments of competence are subject to: 1. Curvilinearity: The same behavior (e.g., eye contact) that is competent in any context can be incompetent if performed to excess (e.g., 60% eye contact vs. 100% eye contact). 2. Locus: Self, conversational partner(s), and third-parties will tend to perceive a given communicator's performance differently. 3. Context: Contextual factors influence judgments of competence (e.g., culture, relationship, discounting effects of complexity or situational challenges, etc.) 4. Biases: Cognitive and affective information processing distorts judgments (e.g., 'Wobegon,' or 'better-than-average' & self-serving effects). 5. Ambivalence: The preferred judgmental values can be in tension with one another. 6. Equifinality: Different behaviors (e.g., warmth vs. humor) can produce the same outcome in the same context (e.g., bad news delivery). 7. Multifinality: The same behavior (e.g., smiling) may produce different outcomes in different contexts (e.g., a prayer service vs. a party). 8. Therefore, competence is a subjective judgment, not an objective ability 9. Competence does not inhere in the ability to perform a behavior, but in the social evaluation of behavior by a given perceiver in a given context. 10. Thus, competence is an impression, or an evaluative inference; not an ability or set of skills or behaviors per se.
Identify and differentiate nonverbal codes (e.g., haptics, vocalics, etc.)
Kinesics: The study of body movements Oculesics: The study of eye movements (gaze, eye contact, etc., blinking) Haptics: The study of touch Proxemics: The study of the use of space Chronemics: The study of the use of time Vocalics: The study of the use of voice and tonality Physical appearance*
Identify why the Guttenberg printing press is the most important scientific achievement of the 2nd millennium
Knowledge can travel even when most people don't, no more just local, but rather a "common knowledge." -Compressed Time and Space
Identify and differentiate the defining characteristics of language & symbolism
Language, in most ordinary uses • consists of signs (ex: something that is understood as having meaning) • meanings (ex: an interpretation or sense making) • code (ex: a set of conventions for understanding an action) Which comprise a conventional system, posessing morphology (rules for word formation) phonemics(rules for sounding and pronounciation), syntax (rules for word arrangement in phrases and sentences, and semantics (rules for meaning attribution to words and sentences) Language has the properties of : • productivity ( capable of generating new words and language) • recursivity (capable of self-reference, or using itself to refer to itself) • displacement (capable of referring to things not present)
Identify and differentiate a moderating from a mediating variable
Mediating Variable - a variable that intervenes between the independent and dependent variable to explain the relationship in between the two variables. Moderating Variable - A second independent variable believed to have a significant contributory effect on the original independent-dependent variable relationship; a qualitative or quantitative variable that affects the direction or strength of the original independent-dependent relationship Mediator: accounts for the relationship Vs. Moderator: amplifies, diminishes, or alters direction of relationship. e.g moderating variable: have you cheated before?
1000-1200 C.E.
Oldest European Universities (Eadie: universities resembling modern conceptions, not until 17- and 1800s)
Identify the mechanisms and processes of paradigm change.
Paradigm Change : usually only occurs when a new paradigm exhibits the ability to accomplish what the existing paradigm does, as well as provide something more, and recognizes what went before. Paradigm is seen as both a view of the world, as well as a method of viewing.
Recognize the ways in which patients present passive or proactive roles in response to medical authority.
Patient Narrative Frame : Legitimacy : Patients seek to establish the legitimacy of their medical concerns through elaborating upon their medical history or attributing the source of concern to a third party ; Risk minimization : Patients reassure themselves (and seek doctors' reassurance) by minimizing the severity of their cancer risk Patients : want to share narrative and context of their illness/wellness with their healthcare providers; seek reassurance from health care providers in regard to their significant fears; want to demonstrate that they are "doctorable" and have a legitimate need for medical intervention. • As a response to doctors' medical agendas, patients have often been described as passive: They defer and subordinate themselves to medical authority (Street, Krupat, Bell, Kravitz, & Haidet, 2003; Street, Gordon, Ward, Krupat, & Kravitz, 2005). Gill (1998) has shown that patients are tentative when offering explanations for their problems - cautious about taking positions on medical issues when talking with medical experts, and hesitant to draw attention to their varied needs and desires (e.g., expectations, hopes, fears, and uncertainties). Patients' fears about cancer, and other health issues, are often raised indirectly - only hinted at with cues and clues (Beach, in press; Beach & Dozier, in press; Beach, Easter, Good, & Pigeron, 2005; Beach & Mandelbaum, 2005). • However, patients are also frequently proactive: They initiate a wide range of actions such as explanations, requests, invitations, offers, or clarifications (Beach, 2013b, in press). At times patients and parents also resist or challenge doctors' positions; for example, when parents seek antibiotic prescriptions for their children when pediatricians are unwilling to assist (Stivers, 2007), when a cancer patient disagrees that difficulties swallowing are caused by radiation treatments rather than the possible return of cancer (Drew, 2013), or even when doctors seek specific details of drinking and alcohol consumption that patients are unable or unwilling to provide (Beach, in press; Halkowski, 2013). Patients may also display being skeptical that their conditions are as serious as doctors claim they are (Pomerantz, Gill, & Denvir, 2007), at times even justifying their wellness when being treated for cancer (Beach, 2013b)
Specify and distinguish among the phases, and challenges, of medical interviews unfold in phases
Phases/Stages of Medical Interviews 1. Openings: Doctor seek to develop a relationship w/patients 2. Justification: Patients provide reasons for the clinical visitation (narrative) 3. Exam: Taking a verbal history and/or conducting a physical examination 4. Diagnosis: Doctors consider patient's condition 5. Prognosis: Detailing further treatments and/or investigations that may be needed 6. Closing: Doctor terminates & thus closes the consultation READ NOTES
Identify and differentiate which criteria are being used in criticizing or evaluating a theory or model.
Power : Does it explain the theory for you , does it make sense ? Specificity: Does it specify exact relationships (cause vs. correlation, neccesary and/or sufficient) Boundaries: Does it avoid logical contradiction ? Verifiable : Can it be tested through observation? Precision : Does it predict ? Parsimony : Is it efficient in its explanation (simple and elegant) Heurism: Is it suggestive of new questions? Lead to new insight ? Synthesis: Does it simplify existing theories? Competitiveness : Is it better than its rivals ? Praxis: Does it improve society ? Morality: Does it advance ethical objectives ?
Identify the key events of the modern era of the communication discipline
Printing press ( 1 to many) 2 way communication (1-1) ex : phone , telegraph Recorded media (1 - many) photograph, sound recording, movies Electromagnetic spectrum ( 1- many) radio, television Social media (many-to-many) internet, facebook, twitter Revitalizing our political system Promoting physical/mental health Emerging global organizations Understanding basic human relationships Magna Cart Printing Press Areopagitica (an appeal to Parliament to rescind government control of publishing—i.e., censorship) Robert Hooke experiments with sound transmission 1685- oldest newspaper 1776- American Revolution French Revolution Cooke & Wheatstone-1st telegraph Charles Babbage develops 'difference engine,' basis for computing Daguerre (Camera) Samuel Morse establishes telegraph link between Baltimore and Washington Reis invents the telephone First transatlantic cable Alexander Graham Bell gets to the patent office first (telephone) Edison patents electric light Hertz discovers electromagnetic waves Edison invents the kinetoscope Marconi demonstrates wireless radio transmission Fessenden broadcasts music and voice Fleming invents vacuum tube Lee DeForest patents audion, basis for all electronics until the transistor Ludwig Wittgenstein writes 'Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'...This treatise ushers in perhaps the first (post?)modern philosophy of language Zworykin invents iconoscope and kinescope, bases for television "The Jazz Singer", the first 'talking picture' Edwin Armstrong perfects system for FM radio Alan Turing lays out the logic that enables computing (& helps defeat Germany in WWII) Von Neumann elaborates the theoretical model for the modern computer Colossus, London code-breaking centre at Bletchley Park, project directed by M.H.A. ('Max') Newman. U.S.S.R. launches Sputnik In response to Sputnik, D.o.D. issues directive 5105.15, establishing the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which was the genesis of the internet. Pioneer 10 (and later 11, and Voyager) provided "universal" forms of communication to prospective extraterrestrial intelligence.
Identify roles of communication processes/factors influencing the effectiveness of public health campaigns
Public Health Communication Campaign : "purposive attempt to inform or influence behaviors in large audiences within a specified time period using an organized set of communication activities and featuring an array of mediated messages in multiple channels generally to produce noncommercial benefits to individuals and society" Stakeholders : any entity or party whose outcomes are affected by the health risk or campaign. Theory of Reasoned Action/ planned behavior : Belief - (surgery will help my back pain) Attitude -( i would love to be free of pain) Perceived behavioral Control -( they have the resources and believe they can overcome whatever obstacles; self efficacy) Subjective Norms - (my friends and family think surgery is a good idea) perceived Controllability - extent to which the performance is up to the actor Intention - how hard people are willing to try Results - (ill have the surgery) READ NOTES
Identify and differentiate compensatory from reciprocal responses
Reciprocity/Matching/Convergence: Engaging in behavior that is similar to the other communicator's behavior. Compensation/Compensatory/Divergence: Engaging in behavior that accentuates differences between self and the other communicator. *In a circumplex model of human interaction, reciprocity/matching tends to be more competent on the affiliation axis (love meets love), whereas compensatory behavior tends to be more competent on the power axis (dominance meets submission)..
Identify fundamental assumptions of CA regarding reliability, validity, and generalizability.
Reliability: consistency of observation or measurement (across time, observers and items) Validity: evidencing that the measurement is observing what it is intended to observe (there are many forms of validity) ○ The validity of a study means that the observations the research is based on accurately observing the phenomena studies, (i.e., if you want to observe love you won't just observe kissing.) Replication/Generalizability: demonstration that other similar studies yield similar results o Without all three, a concept is nothing more than a primitive term (it is so basic is could take on multiple meanings) ****To be valid a measure must be reliable but reliability does not ensure validity according to the discovery method
Identify and differentiate intuitive from scholarly ways of knowing.
Scholars have to be able to conduct research to see "what's already known." Self-doubt, assume they're wrong. Intuitive - people often come to "know" things without or in spite of evidence or research. Form beliefs about what is and whats not true based in part on political, cultural, personal values.
Identify the implications of viewing different methodological paradigms as distinct magisterium
Science vs. Religion: should not clash, should not overlap. You become ignorant to other paradigms. Key dimensions: Foundational: there is one way, one reality Reflexive: much more open to different views of the world, multiple realities, Empirical: only care about what can be experienced in the world (show) (observe). Analytical: interpret experiences through other people's experiences, what people think is going on in the world, thoughts, experiences, feelings matter. (LOOK AT THE CHART ON PARADIGM LECTURE PPT) High empirical, high reflexive end: use grounded theory-go out and explore. let the data of the world speak. may make sense of data by theory. subjective messages- how I understand differs from how others view it-makes someone reflexive. more local (claims) arguments- only speak about what they observed and experience, not making generalizations. Let audience conclude what it means. seek insight. want to understand not control. reality is a social construct. No foundational reality in comm and behavior. people construct their reality over time and experiences. (ethnography, performance studies, semiotics, strucutralism symbolic interaction)
Identify and differentiate humanities from sciences.
Social Sciences Human nature : Determinism -human action determined by causes external to the will. •Presumptions : Reality description; objectivity; cumulative generalization • Goals : Understand and predict • Theory : Deduction and Induction • Focus : Particularism (Reductionism) Methods : Survey; true experimentation; textual analysis. Humanities Human nature : Pragmatism - assess truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application •Presumptions: Realities (interpretations) subjectivity; reflexivity, uniqueness; reinvention • Goals : Understand and change • Theory : Induction → Deduction • Focus : Holism Methods : rhetorical criticism, standpoint criticism, textual interpretation, ethnography, performance studies.
Examples of symbols and Icons
Symbol + Icon → Cigarette with a circle and a dash over it. Symbol → $ or a yield sign Icon → Hand pointing right
Identify and differentiate symbol, reference, and referent
Symbol: The word or phrase spoken by the speaker. Referent: The object, concept, or event the symbol represents. Reference: The memory or past experiences audience members have with an object, concept, or event. Example 1: Symbol: Word "love" Referent: Picture of a heart Reference: Memories of affection. Example 2: Symbol: Word "Dog" Referent: Picture of a dog Reference: Barking Symbols are anything that is conventionally used to stand or something else. Letters, words, language, numbers, and other code systems (e.g., sign language, music notes, etc.) are all symbols, as they are arbitrarily formulated by people to have relatively standardized meanings within a given language or group of people who learn the conventions and rules (e.g., semantics, syntax) regulating those symbols. References are the ideas, thoughts, cognitions, feelings, and subjective concepts that a person is attempting to encode into a message. The referent is a thing or set of things in the objective sensory world to which messages and referents refer. A communicator may want to talk about the death penalty. The ideas that this communicator has about the death penalty are references, the messages communicated about these references are symbols (and the nonsymbolic behaviors employed as media of these symbols), and the actual execution of prisoners in the world are the referents.
Symbols References Referent
Symbols: are anything that is conventionally used to stand or something else. Letters, words, language, numbers, and other code systems (e.g., sign language, music notes, etc.) The referent is a thing or set of things in the objective sensory world to which messages and referents refer. References: are the ideas, thoughts, cognitions, feelings, and subjective concepts that a person is attempting to encode into a message. Ex: A communicator may want to talk about the death penalty. The ideas that this communicator has about the death penalty are references, the messages communicated about these references are symbols (and the nonsymbolic behaviors employed as media of these symbols), and the actual execution of prisoners in the world are the referents. Symbol: Word "love" Referent: Picture of a heart Reference: Memories of affection. Example 2: Symbol: Word "Dog" Referent: Picture of a dog Reference: Barking
differentiate tactics, strategies and styles
Tactics: Specific behaviors functioning to move the relational system toward or away from the conflict resolution. Strategies: General goals within an episode toward which tactics can be functionally directed. Styles: Consistent behavioral tendencies across episodes.
Identify and differentiate scholarly paradigms by empirical/analytic and foundational/reflexive dimensions.
The Empirical/analytic dimension : refers to the degree to which a scholar believes evidence is primarily located in the observed and measured world, or in the mental categories and judgements our mind uses to make sense of the world. Objective more scientific Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Structuralism, Conversational Analysis (Beach) The Foundational/reflexive dimension : refers to the degree in which a scholar believes reality pre-exists the observer and abides by causal principles, or is co-created by social actors and the observer- participant. Subjective More humanistic Ethnography (Geist), performance studies, semiotics, structuralism, symbolic interactionism.
Identify and differentiate the three evaluation processes of health communication campaigns
The Formative Evaluation Stage: the design stage. Mainly to plan the campaign and decide the goals, audience, etc The Process Evaluation Stage: Implementing the campaign materials The Summative Evaluation Stage: evaluating the campaign's effectiveness READ NOTES
Identify and differentiate which criteria are being used in criticizing or evaluating a theory or model. Read about it in study guide.
The most fundamental criterion for theory evaluation is QUALITY. Categorized into 4 categories : necessary, desirable, comparative, and critical standards. Necessary qualities are those functions a theory must fulfill in order to even be considered a theory (vs. a primitive metaphor, a story, a description, a taxonomy, etc.). Desirable qualities are those features of the theory that connote generally higher quality the more of these characteristics (e.g., parsimony) the theory possesses. As Einstein articulated: "The grand aim of all science is to cover the greatest number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms." Comparative qualities are those characteristics of the theory that are advantageous compared to other potentially competing theories. Critical qualities are those characteristics of a theory that provide better directions or guidelines for pursuing future action.
Identify and differentiate features and criteria for theory & Identify the nature of a paradigm
Theory: generalized, internally consistent, and verifiable conceptual system of interrelated propositions explaining relationships among a set of phenomena; systematic explanation of a process or phenomenon A theory is a verifiable conceptual system of interrelated propositions explaining conditionship among a set of phenomena. The essence of a theory is that it explains an event, a process, or a set of phenomena. Make sure it's verifiable, testable, falsifiable Paradigm: conceptual metaphor or artifact that guides collective practices in an academic discipline. Kuhn (1969) broadly defined a paradigm as a collective set of practices among a group of SCHOLARS. Paradigms tend to house theories. Two of the most commonly recognized paradigms in higher education are the humanities and the sciences. They represent your worldview. how you interpret and make sense of the world
Identify explanations for limitations in deception detection inaccuracy
There is no scientific way to know if someone is being deceptive. • Most lies in close relationships are small (we expect partner to be generous and honest) • People tell fewer lies to friends and lovers • People generally believe their lies are accepted (59%) • College students tell two lies a day, on average and lie to 1 of 3 people they meet • Non-college individuals report telling about 1 lie per day, lying to 1 out of 5 people • But, these estimates are biased by "superliars;" those who lie extensively
Identify and differentiate levels and areas of study according to Powers' typology. MCLS
Tier One: Messages --> The messages exchanged. Tier Two: Communicators: cultural theories, social interaction theories, individual theories. --> Types of individuals exchanging the messages Tier Three: Level: interpersonal communication, group communication, public communication. -->Levels of complexity involved in the comm context Tier Four: Situation: family, religious, medical, educational, sports, business, legal.Powers circular "map" includes basic contents and topics of the Comm discipline. -->And the particular social situations where messages are exchanged.
Specify the meaning and implications of the Wobegon effect
We're under duress: About half of all incoming college freshmen consider their emotional health to be average or below; almost a third feel "overwhelmed" (HERI, 2011) But, we think we're hanging in there (Wobegon effect): •Yet, 66% expect to achieve at least a "B" average (HERI, 2011), & •Most view self as "above average" or in the "top 10%" of: •Ability to work cooperatively with diverse people (78%) •Tolerance of others with different beliefs (72%) •See the world from someone else's perspective (66%) •Ability to discuss and negotiate controversial issues (62%) •Openness to having their own views challenged (60%) (HERI, 2009) College students think they are a scale-point higher in attractiveness than their friends think those students are -Far more think they are above communication skills than is true
Plagiarism
is defined as the act of incorporating ideas, words, or specific substance of another, whether purchased, borrowed, or otherwise obtained, and submitting same to the university as one's own work to fulfill academic requirements without giving credit to the appropriate source.
Multifinality Equifinality
multifinality (i.e., any given path, behavior, message, tactic, or strategy can lead to multiple possible outcomes) equifinality (i.e., any given multiple possible paths, behaviors, messages, tactics, or strategies may yield the same outcome)
The relative efficacy of health communication campaigns
• Effectiveness: about 5% stop an existing behavior, & 12% adopt a new behavior; • Overall compliance: about 7-10%, optimistically Low credibility risk messages are more effective than high credibility risk messages. Fear appeals have a small effect, regardless of message features. Futhur, they have an approximately equal impact on defensive responding, thereby virtually cancelling out their efficacy.
Identify and differentiate methodological paradigms.
•The discovery method assumes a singular objective reality, and although no method can reveal this objective truth in the social world, the discovery method uses various methods of objectification, including experiments, control, and quantification in an attempt to inch ever closer to that reality. •The conversation/textual method assumes that because communicators accomplish everyday life based only on the behaviors they display through their communication (as opposed to reading each other's minds), researchers can understand such behavior best by observing and precisely analyzing such naturally occurring activities. •The interpretive method assumes that reality is socially constructed; that there are as many realities as there are people perceiving and influencing such perceptions through their communication. •The critical method assumes that reality is always influenced by underlying systems of often hidden influence and power, and such structures must be evaluated through an evaluative perspective that reveals these hidden forces, thereby presenting opportunities for pursuing more noble or practical ends.