communications

hierarchy of needs

(from down-up) physiological needs, safety needs (stability, protection, structure), belonging needs, esteem needs (respect, good reputation, being confident), self actualization.

image repair (theory)

Benoit observed that people encounter damage to their reputation because of their own actual or suspected wrongdoing. he suggests that people engage in "communicative behavior designed to reduce, redress, or avoid damage to their reputation."

true or false? the quality of friendship is not affected by other psychological predispositions.

FALSE.

regulators

Ekman, Ekman, & Friesen; nonverbal movements that control the flow or pace of communication (ex: yawning when you are bored)

emblems

Ekman, Ekman, & Friesen; nonverbal movements that substitute for words and phrases (ex: beckoning the first finger to mean "come here")

adaptors

Ekman, Ekman, & Friesen; nonverbal movements that you might perform fully in private but only partially in public (ex: you might rub your nose in public, but you would probably never pick it)

environmental reinforcers

factors within our environment that contribute to our fear of speaking; behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated and behavior that is punished will be decreased.

communication apprehension

fear and avoidance of communication with other people; not just your typical "butterflies."

disconfirmation

feedback in which others fail to respond to your notion of self by responding neutrally. (ex: a small child repeatedly tried to get a parent to look at something he has drawn, but the parent gives it only a cursory glance)

confirmation

feedback in which others treat you in a manner consistent with who you believe you are. (ex: you see yourself as intelligent, and your parents praise you for your excellent grades)

differences in perception are due to:

physiological factors, past experiences and roles, cultures and co-cultures, and present feelings and circumstances.

what are motivations for initiating relationships?

proximity, attractiveness, responsiveness, similarity, and complementarity

personal distance

ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet; used by most Americans for conversation

social distance

ranges from 4 to 12 feet; used to carry out business in the workplace in formal situations

Which variable can we least control? Which can we control the most?

receiver; message

peripheral route processing (ELM)

receivers give brief attention to the message without elaborated thought; focused on sender, channel, receiver, and environment.

central route processing (ELM)

receivers mentally elaborate on the elements of your message and carefully scrutinize your arguments and evidence; focused on message variables

androgynous

refers to persons who possess stereotypically female and male characteristics; flexibility in gender roles.

complementary relationships

relationships in which each person supplies something the other person or persons lack.

symmetrical relationships

relationships in which participants mirror each other or are highly similar.

What three activities do you engage in during perception?

selection, organization, and interpretation.

CA affects:

self-perception, relationships, work satisfaction, occupational choices, and academic success.

self-talk

silent communications with oneself that influence our perceptions of reality.

transactional communication involves:

simultaneous exchange of messages & interdependent components; establishing immediacy.

individualistic cultures

societies that stress individual assertiveness over group harmony (U.S)

What does SMCRE stand for?

source, message, channel, receivers, and environment

politeness theory

states that we have an interest in positive face (the desire to be liked and respected) and negative face (the desire to be free from constraint and imposition). positive face is threatened when we let someone else know that we do not approve of them or their behavior. negative face is threatened when we order other people to do things or when we ask people to give up freedoms that they would normally hold.

What are the two perception errors?

stereotyping and first impressions

behavioral flexibility

the ability to alter behavior to adapt to new situations and to relate in new ways when necessary; enhances communication.

attribution

the assignment of meaning to people's behavior

What is receiver and its variables?

the audience to whom the message is delivered; age, gender, cultural background, prior knowledge of topic, listening ability, mood, attitudes, values, and prejudices.

ground

the background against which your focused attention occurs. (ex: when you hear your name in a noisy room, your name becomes figure and the rest becomes ground)

journalism

the communication of news, information about events in our communities, our nation, and our world; and commentary.

organizational communication

the communication that is necessary to form and maintain an organization; balancing the competing interests of being creative and being organized.

identity management

the control (or lack of control) of the communication of information through a performance. people try to present an "idealized" version of themselves in order to meet desired ends.

personal space

the distance you maintain between yourself and others and the amount of space you claim as your own.

self-esteem

the feeling you have about your self-concept; that is, how well you like and value yourself.

figure

the focal point of your attention

pitch

the highness of lowness of the speaker's voice

similarity

the idea that our friends and loved ones are usually people who like or dislike the same things we do.

complementarity

the idea that we sometimes bond with people whose strengths are our weaknesses.

responsiveness

the idea that we tend to select our friends and loved ones from people who demonstrate positive interest in us.

self-fulfilling prophecy

the idea that you behave and see yourself in ways that agree consistent with how others see you.

perceptual constancy

the idea that your past experiences lead you to see the world in a way that is difficult to change; your initial perceptions persist.

proximity

the location, distance, or range between persons and things

What is channel and its variables?

the means through which the message is send; live, recorded, teleconferenced, computer-mediated, text-messaged, emailed (all within sight, sound, touch, taste, smell).

What is the message and its variables?

the message the speaker intends to send; length, organizational scheme, use of humor, types of appeals, types of arguments, or use of evidence.

paralinguistic features

the nonword sounds (mhm, uh) and nonword characteristics of language, such as pitch, volume, rate, and quality.

rate

the pace of your speech

true or false: communication allows us to advance our life-agenda

true.

personality traits correlated with high CA

uncertainty, less self-control, less adventurousness, lower emotional maturity, high introversion, low self-esteem, and low assertiveness (CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION!)

personal idioms

unique forms of expression and language understood only by individual couples.

aggressiveness

assertion of one's rights at the expense of others and care about one's own needs but no one else's.

ways to improve understanding of nonverbal communication:

being sensitive to context, audience, and feedback.

intimate distance

extends from you outward to 18 inches

how can you maximize ethos?

-if you have expertise in your topic, describe it to your audience -clearly cite the qualifications of your sources -present your message in an honest and trustworthy fashion -present your message in a prepared, organized manner -adopt a caring attitude toward those receiving your messsage

American culture

1) Americans tend to expect consistent uses of space 2) a greater emphasis is placed on verbal messages 3) Americans' uses of emblems are often for less formal messages 4) eye contact is expected 5) for vocal characteristics, bigger tends to be better

six-stage model of how friendship develops

1) an encounter in which individuals are polite and careful with their disclosures 2) friendly relations occur when they determine that they have mutual interests 3) introduce a personal topic or get together 4) they think of themselves as friends 5) the friends feel established in each other's lives in a stabilized friendship 6) relationship diminishes (not all reach this stage)

factors of disclosure

1) disclosure generally increases as relational intimacy increases 2) disclosure tends to be reciprocal 3) negative disclosure is directly related to the intimacy of the relationship; however, positive disclosure does not necessarily increase as the relationship becomes more intimate 4) disclosure may be avoided for a variety of reasons 5) disclosure varies across cultures 6) disclosure varies by co-cultures (females self-disclose more than males) 7) relational satisfaction and disclosure are curvilinearly related (satisfaction is lowest with no disclosure and with excessive disclosure)

six steps to improve your self-concept

1) have a goal or objective 2) make your goal realistic 3) find information about how to achieve your goal 4) exercise control and restraint 5) gain support from friends and family members 6) accept yourself

the ambiguity of nonverbal communication is caused by:

1) one code communicates a variety of meaning 2) a variety of codes communicate the same meaning

three interpersonal needs that are satisfied through interaction with others:

1) the need for inclusion, or becoming involved with others 2) the need for affection, or holding fond or tender feeling toward another person 3) the need for control

Thoughts about ourselves spoken out loud generate up to ___ times more neuronal firings than random thoughts

1,000

10 most important skills employers seek:

1. ability to work in a team 2. leadership 3. written communication skills 4. problem-solving skills 5. strong work ethic 6. analytical skills 7. verbal communication skills 8. initiative 9. technical skills 10. detail-oriented

McCroskey states that genetics could account for as much as ___ percent of CA

80%

affect displays

Ekman, Ekman, & Friesen; nonverbal movements of the face and body used to show emotion (ex: people's behavior when their favorite team wins a game)

illustrators

Ekman, Ekman, & Friesen; nonverbal movements that accompany or reinforce verbal messages (ex: nodding your head for yes)

status

Mehrabian; communicated by bigger gestures, relaxed posture, and less eye contact.

responsiveness

Mehrabian; exhibited by movement toward the other person, spontaneous gestures, shifts in posture and position, and facial expressiveness.

liking

Mehrabian; expressed by forward leaning, a direct body orientation, close proximity, increased touching, relaxed posture, direct eye contact, etc.

attractiveness

a concept that includes physical attractiveness, how desirable a person is to work with, and how much social value" the person has for others.

co-culture

a group whose beliefs or behaviors distinguish it from the larger culture of which it is a part and with which it shares numerous similarities. (ex: Latinos, African Americans, gays, and women)

learned helplessness

a person feel unable to predict whether a behavior will result in a reward or punishment, therefore he or she avoids the behavior all together if possible. (ex: communication behavior is rewarded one time and punished for the next)

perceptual checking

a process that helps us understand another person and her or his message more accurately. 1) you describe to the other person the behavior that you observed. 2) you suggest plausible interpretations 3) you seek clarification, explanation, or amplification

culture

a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with one another and with their world.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, the fulfillment of one's potential as a person; it is a "being need" or B-need.

three interpersonal communication areas

affectionate and supportive communication, influence, and the development of an exclusive relationship.

vocal cues

all of the oral aspects of sound except words themselves; include pitch, rate, inflection, volume, quality, nonword sounds, pronunciation, articulation, enunciation, and silence.

objectics

also called object language; the study of the human use of clothing and other artifacts as nonverbal codes

chronemics

also called temporal communication; the way people organize and use time and the messages that are created because of their organization and use of it.

with regard to chronemics, Americans of high status:

are granted the opportunity of arriving late.

compared to those who are unattractive, physically attractive people:

are treated differently as children, generally have more success socially, and are more likely to succeed at work.

health communication

clear and effective communication between patients and health-care providers, and among health-care professionals.

what are motivations for maintaining relationships?

co-cultural differences and satisfying relationships.

nonverbal codes

codes of communication consisting of symbols that are not words, including non-word vocalization. (ex: bodily movement, facial expressions, bodily appearance, the use of space, etc)

genetic contributors

combinations of inherited tendencies that may exert influences on our behavioral preferences.

pervasiveness

communication takes place wherever humans are together because people tend to look for meaning, even when a message is not deliberately sent.

small group communication

communication that takes place among three or more individuals who are interdependent, share goals, identify with one another and interact.

intrapersonal communication

communication with yourself; thinking

what are the three types of feedback from others?

confirmation, rejection, and disconfirmation

when interpreting stimuli, people rely on the ________ in which the stimuli are perceived.

context

long-term interpersonal relationship rituals

couple-time rituals (exercising together), idiosyncratic/symbolic rituals (calling each other by a special name), daily routines and tasks, intimacy rituals, communication rituals (getting together for lunch every Friday), patterns, habits, and mannerisms, and spiritual rituals.

collectivistic cultures

cultures that discourage individual assertiveness and stress group harmony (Asia, South America, Arab)

behaviors that reduce defensiveness

description, problem orientation, empathy, equality, provisionalism, and spontaneity

negative self-talk

destructive self-criticism; people with high CA often engage in this, which leads them to believe their own negative descriptions.

pathos

emotional appeals; listen to my message because of the feeling it evokes.

behaviors that create defensiveness

evaluation, control, neutrality, superiority, certainty, and strategy

public distance

exceeds 12 feet; used in public speaking

rejection

feedback in which others treat you in a manner that is inconsistent with your self-definition. (ex: Ford probably believed that he was a good public official, but his loss to Carter suggested that the voters thought otherwise)

generalized anxiety

feelings of anxiety associated with communication in nearly all situations.

rituals

formalized patterns of actions or words followed regularly. (ex: constantly saying "I love you")

factors that affect the amount of space

gender, relationship, physical setting, and culture.

touch varies by:

gender, status, and culture.

four potential causes of apprehension

genetic contributors, environmental reinforcers, personality traits, and cultural factors

highly apprehensive students:

have comparatively lower test scores, grades, and graduation rates than their low apprehension counterparts. they also prefer large classroom sizes rather than small ones.

approaching a cross-cultural relationship

have meaningful personal reaction, maintain equal status, find ways to build interdependence, and respect individual differences

what are motivations for terminating relationships?

hurtful messages, deceptive communication, aggressiveness, argumentativeness, and defensiveness.

relational deterioration

in Knapp's model, the process by which relationships disintegrate. stage 1: differentiating (emphasizing individual differences) stage 2: circumscribing (decreased interaction) stage 3: stagnating (lack of activity; awkward) stage 4: avoiding (reluctance, avoidance, hostility) stage 5: terminating (no longer seen as a pair)

relational development

in Knapp's model, the process by which relationships grow stage 1: initiating (first impressions & sizing up) stage 2: experimenting (sharing personal info) stage 3: intensifying (active participation and mutual concern) stage 4: integrating (mirroring behavior, manner, dress) stage 5: bonding (commit to each other)

relational maintenance

in Knapp's model, the process of keeping a relationship together (depicted as a jagged line)

self-serving bias

in assessing ourselves, the tendency to attribute our own successes to our personal qualities and our failures to the circumstances.

contradictions

in dialectic theory, the idea that each person in a relationship might have two opposing desires for maintaining the relationship.

fundamental attribution error

in judging other people, the tendency to attribute their successes to the situation and their failures to their personal characteristics. (ex: if your friend loses a beauty pageant, you would likely conclude that it is a result of her physical features, weight, or personality)

interpersonal relationships

include two or more people, involve people who are interdependent, use some consistent patterns of interaction, and require that individuals have interacted for some time.

low self-monitors

individuals who communicate with others with little attention to the responses to their messages; they have little idea about how others perceive them and know less about how to interact with others.

personal identity

influences perceptions of others, have some stability and some fragmentation, can be changed to allow people to improve their behavior.

Johari window: blind area

information that is known to others but not to you

Johari window: open area

information that is known to you and to others

Johari window: unknown area

information that is unknown to you and to others.

Johari window: hidden area

information that you know about yourself but that others do not know.

Baxter's dialectic tensions

integration/separation; stability/change; expression/privacy

two factors that determine likelihood to engage in elaborative processing?

listener's motivation to process the message & ability to process the message.

logos

logical appeals; listen to my message because it makes sense.

hurtful messages

messages that create emotional pain or upset.

complementation

nonverbal and verbal codes add meaning to each other and expand the meaning of either message alone (ex: your tone of voice, bodily movement, and gestures can indicate your feeling)

substitution

nonverbal codes are used instead of verbal codes (ex: rolling your eyes)

regulation

nonverbal codes are used to monitor and control interactions with others (ex: you walk away from someone who has hurt your feelings)

defensiveness

occurs when a person feels attacked.

artifacts

ornaments or adornments you display that hold communicative potential.

politeness

our efforts to save face for others.

monochronic

people view time as very serious and they complete one task at a time.

polychronic

people work on several tasks at a time.

active participation

perception in which your mind selects, organizes, and interprets that which you sense.

interpretive perception

perception that involves and blend of internal states and external stimuli.

role

the part and individual plays in a group; an individual's function or expected behavior. they change with context. ex: you are a son or daughter, a roommate, a mother or father, a student, employee or manager.

What is the source and what are its variables?

the person initiating the communication; age, gender, intelligence, education, attractiveness, personality, and voice quality.

self-image

the picture you have of yourself; the sort of person you believe you are. it also involves how others see you.

deceptive communication

the practice of deliberately making somebody believe things that are not true.

similarity

the principle that elements are grouped together because they share attributes such as size, color, or shape. (ex: we choose to interact with those that are similar to us)

proximity

the principle that objects physically close to each other will be perceived as a unit or group. (ex: thinking that two people entering your room at the same time are together; your boss announces that he is forced to lay off 25 employees, and one hour later he calls you into his office - the proximity of the messages leads you to believe that you will be laid off)

symbolic interactionism

the process in which the self develops through the messages and feedback received from others.

bargaining

the process in which two or more parties attempt to reach an agreement on what each should give and receive in a transaction between them.

perception

the process of becoming aware of objects and events from the senses

amoral

the process of communication is ethically neutral

self-disclosure

the process of making intentional revelations about yourself that others would be unlikely to know and that generally constitute private, sensitive, or confidential information.

nonverbal communication

the process of using messages that are not words to generate meaning

interpersonal communication

the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.

mass-media communication

the process of using messages to generate meaning in a mediated system, between a source and a large number of unseen receivers.

public speaking

the process of using messages to generate meanings in a situation in which a single source transmits a message to a number of receivers.

proactive imagination

the process of visualizing yourself having a successful communication experience.

argumentativeness

the quality or state of being argumentative; synonymous with contentiousness or combativeness.

ethos

the receiver's perception of a sender's competence and trustworthiness (credibility); listen to my message because i am a competent, trustworthy, and well-intentioned person.

compliance-resisting

the refusal of targets of influence messages to comply with requests.

repetition

the same message is sent both verbally and nonverbally (ex: frowning at the powerpoint while you ask the speaker what he means)

What is environment?

the situation or context in which the transaction takes place.

face

the socially approved and presented identity of an individual; introduced by Goffman

kinesics

the study of bodily movements, including posture, gestures, and facial expressions.

kinesics

the study of body movement and facial expressions.

communibiology

the study of the biological bases of human communication.

proxemics

the study of the human use of space and distance.

selective exposure

the tendency to expose yourself to information that reinforces, rather than contradicts, your beliefs or opinions. (ex: Liberal Democrats are more likely to avoid Republican programs and listen to sources that support their beliefs)

closure

the tendency to fill in missing information in order to complete an otherwise incomplete figure or statement.

selective retention

the tendency to remember better the things that reinforce your beliefs rather than those that oppose them. (ex: usually, people can easily think of the negative qualities or someone they dislike, but they often find it difficult to think of an admirable person's negative qualities)

selective perception

the tendency to see, hear, and believe only what you want to see, hear, and believe. (ex: if someone accused your friend of 20 years of stealing, you may not listen to the accusations because you believe it is not possible that your friend would do such a thing)

selective attention

the tendency, when you expose yourself to information and ideas, to focus on certain cues and ignore others. (ex: in the elevator, you might notice the conversation between two other people, but not the music being played overhead)

dialectic

the tension that exists between two conflicting or interacting forces, elements, or ideas.

quality

the unique resonance of your voice, such as huskiness, nasality, raspiness, or whining.

emphasis

the use of nonverbal cues to strengthen verbal messages (ex: hugging a friend and telling him that you really care about him)

positive self-talk

the use of positive coping statements instead of negative self-talk.

tactile communication

the use of touch in communication

inflection

the variety or changes in pitch

self-presentation

the way we portray ourselves to others; it is consistent with an ideal self-image, allows us to enact an appropriate role, influences others' views of us, permits us to define the situation in our terms, and/or influences the progress of an interaction

compliance-gaining

those attempts made by a source of messages to influence a target "to perform some desired behavior that the target otherwise might not perform."

high self-monitors

those individuals who are highly aware of their identity management behavior.

How is self-actualization different from the others?

unlike the D-needs, being fulfilled in self-actualization does not mean that we do not feel the desire to have more. the more self-actualized we become, the more we want to be even stronger.

how can you increase audience ability? motivation?

use clear organization, appropriate language, minimize distractions; show relevance (connect to audience)

how to reduce communication apprehension:

use positive self-talk, positive visualization, utilize kinesic inputs, diaphragmatic breathing, change your perspective (attitude about the audience), and be prepared!

contradiction

verbal and nonverbal messages conflict (ex: sarcasm)

facework

verbal and nonverbal strategies that are used to present your own varying images to others and to help them maintain their own images.

in relation to gender and tactile communication:

women are touched more than men, males touch others more than women, women value touch more than men do, females and their daughters touch each other the most.

territoriality

your need to establish and maintain certain spaces as your own

subjective perception

your uniquely constructed meaning attributed to sensed stimuli.