Con Bio Exam 3

Marine Protected Areas

- Aim = protect biodiversity, cultural & economic interests by restricting activities or requiring pollution reduction/elimination in those areas - only 1% of marine systems are protected - need 20% protected in order to just protect the declining stock of fish

American Cream Horse (1900 - present)

- America's only native draft horse - critically endangered (less than 2,000 horses & less than 300 breeding mares)

Hotspot Approach

- Best band for the conservation buck if you protect lands in the most biodiversity lands - the "hotspots" - Ecosystem & wilderness approaches are similar in the sense that you are trying to rope in as much biodiversity as possible with limited financial resources

Bottlenecks

- Bottleneck Effects = special king of genetic drift that occurs when a catastrophic event leads to only a few surviving individuals. Decreases variation, and effective population size are very small & it can take 1,000s of years to regain diversity without influx of genetically diverse individuals - Founder Effects = founding pops consists of only a handful of individuals & thus only have a small amount of variation of the larger pop from which they came — as they reproduce the variation remains low

The Antiquities Act (1906)

- Created by Teddy Roosevelt - Protection of objects of historic & scientific interest - protect all pre-historic and historic sites on US federal lands & prohibit their destruction; areas given the title of "National Monuments" - Spurred the protection of National Parks (Grand Tetons, Grand Canyon) - Provides less protection than wilderness areas or national parks (allows mineral extraction) - Trump administration reduce several of these ares by millions of acres

Biosphere Reserves (special type of PA; Ecosystem Approach)

- Designated by United Nations Educations, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as part of the "Man and the Biosphere" program - 669 n 120 countries as of 2018 - effort requires relevant research, monitoring, education & training - must encompass mosaic of ecological systems (water/land combo) - managed through zoning & management for the conservation of ecosystem & biodiversity

Home range estimators

- Different ways are used to estimate size & shape of home ranges & sometime the intensity of use within it

FL Panther

- Hunting, habitat loss caused near wide-range extirpation in south east US - as few as 30 panthers in 1980s - inbreeding effects are evident (chryptochordism, aortic defects, kinked tails) - current range = south west Florida - intensive multi-agency monitoring effort since 1981 - introduced 7 female TX cougars in 1995 for genetic supplementation - most panthers now have TX genes - current pop = approx. 200 - studies show hybrid cats are doing well

What must the design of a Biosphere Reserve include?

- Legally protected core area: where biodiversity conservation & preservation of renewable resources are the primary focus & where non-conservation activities are prohibited - Buffer Area: limited harvest resources can occur but non-conservation activities are prohibited - Transition Zone: approved practices are permitted to promote sustainable use of natural resources for the benefit of local communities

Extinction Vortices

- Less genetic variation (lower adaptability) - more inbreeding depression - population more subdivided by fragmentation - more demographic variation - lower effective population size (catastrophes, enviro stochasticity, habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation, over harvesting, exotic species) - extinction

Jaguar Corridor Initiative

- Location = Costa Rica - range across huge area of land but a lot of the land is being used by humans & developed which causes issues with jaguar genetic diversity - identified used 13 micro satellite loci - 4 distinct populations at 4 sites - aim of corridor is to allow jaguars to move between distinct populations & start creating diversity - works with government & corporations to help ensure that development within the corridor is compatible with movement patterns of jaguar & prey - collaborates with local community & ranchers to reduce human conflict

Why are small pops more likely to go extinct?

- Loss of genetic variability is more rapid over time because of genetic drift & inbreeding - Increased vulnerability to "Demographic Stochasticity" (demographic fluctuations from random variations in birth & death), "Allele Effect" (inability to find mates or at a critical density needed for key behaviors), "Environmental Stochasticity" (enviro fluctuations like predation, competition, prey, disease & natural disasters)

Minimal Viable Population (MVP)

- QUANTITATIVE assessment of how large a population need to be for long term survival - smallest pop size that can be predicted to have a high chance of surviving into the foreseeable future (usually 99% chance of survival for 1,000 years despite catastrophes) - to determine MVP you need detailed demographic data & enviro assessment

SLOSS Debate

- SLOSS = single large or several small - Advantages = single large area has higher immigration rates & low extinction rates - Disadvantages = "put all your eggs in 1 basket", if all populations in 1 area it only takes 1 catastrophe to wipe the population out, low immigration rate, high extinction rate due to limited resources & small population

Why is genetic diversity important?

- adaptive variation/genetic diversity = health of population - High genetic diversity (heterozygosity) is often indicative of individual fitness & rough indicator of population fitness —- some organism are not genetically diverse to begin with, which can fool scientists to think pop is not well. You can also examine population dynamics to asses the health of pop - measure heterozygosity loss often indicative of genetic problems & potential conservation concern —- BETTER INDICATOR OF HEALTH because loss of adaptive potential is evident as "genetic cards" of survival vanish

De-extinction

- allowed by modern genetic methods (cloning with intact DNA with technologies like CRISPR)

MVP of Bighorn Sheep in Western U.S.

- almost all pops of 100+ individuals persisted beyond 50 years - pops with less than 50 individuals died out within 50 years - small pops were actively managed & augmented by release of additional animals

GAP Analysis

- analytical approach; GIS powerful tool to integrate many layers of data - first started in Hawaii - Realization that species by species approach is not adequate for biodiversity protection - Identifies plants/animals and communities that are not adequately represented in current conservation lands (GAP Species = those not protected at all) - Uses primarily predicted occurrence (but also actual occurrence) species distribution maps - Allows NRC managers/planners to make better land us decisions to create new PAs & corridors

Pleistocene Park (De-extinction + Climate Change Solution)

- attempt to restore mammoth steppe ecosystem - Location = Russia - attempt to resurrect ice age biome - restore high productive grazing ecosystem

Mutations

- change DNA in ways that can be harmful or neutral, or alter gene expression - How? Changes in single nucleotides, loss of nucleotides, deletion or insertion of entirely new nucleotide, or loss of entire or pieces of chromosome - occur at different rate; more common in junk DNA where there is little selection pressure - ULTIMATE SOURCE OF GENETIC VARIATION = measured across generations, slow process

Endangered Species Act (1973)

- conducted by the USFWS and NOAA/NMFS - prohibited inhibited taking, possession, sale & transport of all endangered or threatened species or destruction of their habitats (includes gov agencies) - Authorizes determination & listing of endangered species & their habitats (agency direct listing or by petition from groups) - provide federal gov authority to purchase land & water for purpose of protecting threatened/endangered species - FWS & NOAA fisheries must create Recovery Plan outlying goals & tasks required, costs, and estimated timeline to recover species

Corridors role in stitching the conservation quilt

- connected/link protected areas - create connectivity by facilitating dispersal of organisms from one protected area to another - relative importance of corridor dependent on matrix type & condition (design must be taken into account) - Vital for = migrating species, maintaining metapopulations & providing escape routes - Disadvantages = provide route for disease & invasive species, expensive & increased risk of mortality

Linking New Protected Areas into Reserve Networks (Maintaining/Creating Ecological Connectivity)

- creating effective "conservation quilt" - must use PAs & consider unprotected area land uses - Corridors are best linkage, but habitat "stepping stones" are also useful - Find the current gaps in protection is the 1st step: locate existing & proposed reserves & evaluate surrounding land

Murphy eat al. (2015) Big South Fork KY and TN Black Bears

- estimated 38 and 190 bears on KY, TN study areas - Based on TN estimate, mean growth was 18.3% - compared genetic characteristics of bears sampled between 2010-2012 -contrary to expectations, level of genetic diversity since reintroduction remain relatively constant - no evidence of loss of diversity or deleterious effects - high initial genetic diversity due to founder group + overlapping generations + rapid pop growth

Red-Cockaded Woodpecker

- example of how ecological characteristics of species can dictate genetic structuring - federally endangered - nest in live old growth or 2nd growth long-leaf or loblolly pine trees - only 1% left due to over harvest of tress, conversion to at & timber plantations, suppression of fire - territorial, colonial, less mobile, exist in somewhat metapopulation (genetic diversity highly dispersed)

The Wilderness Act (1964)

- highly protected area set aside by Congress - wilderness = area untrammeled by man; man in a visitor, he does not remain - wilderness areas have many uses (ex. human recreation) - law limits uses to those consistent with the Wilderness Act & mandate that each area must preserve "wilderness character" - Ex. Watershed, downstream municipalities, habitats supporting diverse wildlife - prohibits logging & oil & gas drilling, as well as motor vehicles, or equipment based recreation - 750+ wilderness areas (5% of US lands) - Represenatives = USFS, BLM, NPS, USFWS

Disadvantages of small populations

- isolated - increased tendency to lose genetic variation - loss of adaptive variation - increased risk of extinction - reduced ability to maintain biodiversity & evolutionary trajectories

Lion Decline in Africa

- many isolated populations - unlikely to be viable going into the next few decades - a 50% decline is predicted by 2035

Variation Among Individuals WITHIN Population

- measured as Hp = mean heterozygosity measured at multiple loci - Importance = individual is basic unit upon which natural selection acts, where genetic problems arise, useful to know genetic profile for captive breeding, fundamental unity for understanding what is happening with & among pops

Variation Among Individuals AMONG Populations (total genetic variation)

- measured as Ht = total genetic variation (mean total heterozygosity) - Importance = provides understanding of total genetic diversity, gives spatial idea where important areas of genetic diversity occur in a landscape & where conservation measures can be applied (which pops are more genetically valuable than others for long-term survival)

African Cheetah

- occurred in 4 continents only 20,000 YA - climate change spurred extirpation - survived but wen through bottleneck - current pop suffer from lack of genetic diversity, as they share 99% of all genes within remaining pop (low survivorship, poor sperm quality, more susceptible to disease)

Minimum Viable area (MVA)

- once you know MVP, you need to focus on the amount of habitat needed to support it - first determine the type of habitat (forest, grassland, etc.); second, establish the configuration (patch sizes); third, what is the landscape context (does the surrounding matrix matter) - you can use home range sizes & colony sizes to estimate MVA Average home range size * MVP = MVA

The National Park Service (1916)

- operated by US Military - canada had national park service established 5 years earlier (1911) - new national parks are added through Congressional laws - since 1960s, management for anti-predator, pro-development to natural regulation & de-emphasis on some infrastructure & development

Ecological Corridors

- planning & implementation prompted by dwindling population of many species - Goal = maintain gene flow & maintenance of genetic diversity - Ex. Jaguar —> Jaguar Corridor Initiative

Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative

- regional part of wildlands project - 2,000 miles long (cover position of Northwest Territories in Canada, Washington, Oregon, Montana, Idaho & Wyoming) - links protected lands through unprotected lands - provides corridor for wildlife, especially large, wide-ranging species like grizzlies, wolverine, cougar, gray wold, as well as migratory ungulates like elk, pronghorn & bison

Why is size important when creating protected areas?

- studies show large parks contain large populations of each species as opposed to small parks - only the largest parks contain long term viable populations of any vertebrate species - carnivores need the greatest amount of land to be viable - animals have higher extinction rates in smaller parks

50/500 rule

- thought that in small pops 50 individuals were needed to prevent inbreeding & 500 were needed for sufficient mutation to offset genetic drift - recent studies suggest that the actual number to prevent either of these conditions is much higher; thus, several thousand are need to ensure long-term viability

Genetic Drift

- when alleles are randomly passed down from parents to offspring & its typical that not all individuals in the population reproduce - can remove alleles from pop but cannot replace them - eventually leads to genetic uniformity if there are no other forces (Mutation, gene flow)

Important Legislative Ways That Helped to Create Protected Areas

1) Antiquities Act (1906) 2) National Park Service (1916) 3) Wilderness Act (1964) 4) Endangered Species Act (1973) 5) Marine Protected Areas

2 common terrestrial spatial units used for maintains "conservation quilt" (linking)?

1) Biological Corridors 2) Protect migration routes

What to consider when Identifying priority biodiversity areas?

1) Distinctiveness (irreplaceability): rarity, endemism, genetic importance, quince geology, scenic beauty 2) Threat/Endangerment (Vulnerability): measure using present geographic range size, rate of decline of range & loss of ecological function 3) Utility: Economic & cultural value ***RBAs (Rapid Biodiversity Assessments) ***Bio-blitz

Types of Single (Focal) Focal Species Approach to Conservation

1) Flagship Species = poster/charismatic species, iconic 2) Umbrella Species = by protecting this species & its habitat, many others are indirectly protected (most have large space need or specific habitat requirements) 3) Indicator Species = VERY specific habitat needs & are sensitive to habitat disturbances, act as "canaries in the coal mine", population declines are first indication of ecosystem decline

Examples of protected ares created a single endangered/threatened species

1) Florida panther national wildlife refuge (USFWS) 2) Kirkland's Warbler forest land (Michigan, USFS/USFWS) 3) Key deer national wildlife refuge (FL keys, USFWS)

What are mechanisms for creating new protected areas?

1) Governments: MOST IMPORTANT; has difficulty creating "paper parks" or parks in name only with little real protection of nature 2) NGOS (Non-gov organizations): such as "The Nature Conservancy" or private individuals (ex. Ted Turner's conservation oriented ranches) 3) Indigenous People's 4) Creation of Biological Field Stations (University led, Goal = biodiversity protection + research)

What are 2 factors that bottle neck recovery depends on?

1) Growth rate 2) number of founders

Protected Area Quality

1) Habitat = type, patch size, amount & configuration 2) Minimize fragmentation & edge effects because they eat into/reduce the quality & thus the effectiveness of PA for species that do not love the edge. Too much edge/fragmentation creates "mini-island" effects within patches

What are the important landmark events that influenced the creation of protected areas in the US?

1) Hot Springs, AR (1832): 1st federally protected natural area 2) Yosemite National Park: inalienable trust 3) Yellowstone National Park: 1st National Park 4) Adirondacks, NY: "northern woods" or "circle of wilderness"; recommend the simple preservation of timber as measure of political economy, steady supply of water from streams; NY signed bill to preserve wild forest lands

How does protecting populations help protect species?

1) Ideal plan for conserving a species = protect as many individuals as possible within greatest possible area of high quality habitat 2) Realistic plan for species = how many individuals and how much and what kind of habitats do we require to maintain that species over a specific amount of time with z degree of confidence Ex. Need at least 120 Eurasian lynx & 100,000 acres of acres old growth forest to sustain this population for 1,000 years with a 95% degree of confidence

3 Basic Steps to Create & Connect PAs

1) Identify - priority areas 2) Determine - areas that should be protected to meet conservation priorities using specific tools & general biodiversity capture approaches ——-> [creates new PAs} 3) Link - new PAs to existing conservation network using techniques such as GAP analysis

Individual-Level Genetic Variation Issues

1) Inbreeding = matings between closely related individuals, increased likelihood of inheriting alleles that are similarly due to common decent 2) Queen Victoria & recessive genes for hemophilia; "blue fugates" of hazard, KY had hereditary diaphorase deficiency & bluish tone 3) Info is important for captive breeding programs that attempt to maximize genetic diversity; exhibit what happens when pops become too small (chance of inheriting deleterious alleles that cost organisms fitness or life)

Yosemite National Park importance

1) It's beauty inspired private exploitation of natural wonders, conservationists appealed to Senator John Conness of California 2) June 30, 1864, President Lincoln, signed bill granting Yosemite Valley & Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias to the State of Cali as inalienable trust 3) One of the first protected areas in US

Components of a DNA Strand

1) Locus = particular section of DNA on a chromosome, can be a site that codes for something specific or not 2) Allele - form of sequence of DNA at particular locus **Note that a single base pair change in a gene can change its function or leave it unfunctional; however, non-coding regions are less impacted

How is genetic variation measured?

1) Molecular Clocks = using DNA as a tool with the assumption that there are standard rates of mutation 2) Highly Conserved Pieces of DNA = used to measure longer time span relationships/differences among organisms - lethal Mutations = occur when coded DNA that is important for protein change & affected individuals die shortly after birth - Non-lethal changes = occur over long period of time; slow rate 3) Non-coding DNA = used to test relationships among closely related species/organisms - changes rapidly when there is a change - ex. Paternity test, parental analysis, forensics, micro satellite DNA, SNPs

What are 2 measurements used when identifying priority biodiversity areas?

1) RBAs (Rapid Biodiversity Assessments) = when biodiversity data are scarce, quick surgery & mapping by scientist is used to help make a decision 2) Bio-blitz = public participation equivalent of RBA

What are 4 spatial scales/strategies used for creating PAs?

1) Single Species Approach = flagships, umbrellas & indicator species 2) Ecosystem Approach = find best representative site "best chunk of ecosystem" 3) Hotspot Approach = hotspots/center/high concentrations of biodiversity 4) Wilderness/Megascale Approach = preserve large blocks of land relatively undisturbed by human activity (watershed, continental)

4 Important Characteristics to Consider When Creating Protected Areas

1) Size 2) Shape 3) Quality 4) Landscape Context

What are some examples of protected areas in KY?

1) State Nature Preserves & Wilderness Areas: Beaver Creek, Clifty (have highest protection) 2) National Parks: Mammoth Cave & Cumberland Gap (second highest protection)

IUCN Classification System of Protected Areas

1) Strict nature reserve/wilderness area (managed for science or protection) 2) National Park (managed for ecosystem & recreation) 3) Natural Monument (managed for conservation of specific natural features) 4) Habitat/Species Management Area (managed for conservation through management intervention) 5) Protected Landscapes/Seascapes (managed for landscape/seascape protection & recreation) 6) Managed Resource protected area (managed for sustainable use of natural systems)

Why are protected areas important?

1) They protect biodiversity: serve as conservation "surrogates" for regional biodiversity with attempts to capture as much important components of biodiversity, ecosystem, and function as possible. 2) They protect human livelihoods: water, quality of flood control, food supplies, culture & Indigenous people 3) Protect human sanity: contact with nature/recreation 4) Economic: protected areas serve as sources of animal and plant resources for harvest activities usually outside protected boundary 5) Reference system: to compare more distributed areas with

Important factors that determine effective population size (Ne)

1) Unequal Sex Ratio = number of breeding males & females 2) Variation in Reproductive Output = disproportionate output of offspring (highly fecund individuals) 3) Population Fluctuations & Bottlenecks = pop size varies dramatically from generation to generation

3 Typical Measured Levels of Genetic Diversity

1) Within individual variation 2) Within population variation 3) Among population variation

Knowledge Checklist for Species Conservation

1) current population size (how many & location) 2) MVP (# of individuals needed to sustain pop) 3) MVA (what kind & how much needed to support MVP) 4) Habitat availability & quality (is there enough available, do you need to create more) 5) Population dynamics (pop growth rates, birth/death/immigration/emigration) 6) Threats (type, impact, timeline) 7) Harvest/Exploitation models 8) public support

Genetic Issues in Conservation Biology

1) deleterious effects of inbreeding on repro & survival 2) loss of genetic diversity & ability to evolve in response to environmental change 3) Fragmentation of pops & reduction in gene flow 4) Genetic drift overriding natural selection 5) Accumulation & loss of deleterious mutations 6) Genetic adaption to captivity & adverse effects of reintroduction 7) resolving taxonomic uncertainties 8) defining management units within species 9) use of genetic analyses in forensics 10) use of molecular genetic analyses to understand aspect of species biology 11) Deleterious effects of fitness that sometimes occur as a result of out-crossing

Statewide GAP Analysis: Using Ecological Data to Build Florida's Ecological Network

1) existing & proposed conservation 2) new FWC habitat models for species that need additional habitat protection 3) FWC species richness hotspot 4) FL panther habitat data 5) crested caracara nesting zone habitat 6) FNAI species habitat conservation priorities 7) FL black bear habitat model 8) FNAI priority surface water protection buffers lands

Important Processes that Influence Genetic Variation

1) gene flow (immigration) 2) Mutation 3) genetic drift

Why should we be concerned with genetic diversity?

1) genetic variation is the RAW MATERIAL for future adaption & is the basis for evolutionary flexibility & responsiveness 2) Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the environment 3) Rate of evolutionary change (adaptive potential) in a population is proportional to amount of available genetic diversity (Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection) 4) Biodiversity, at genetic level, is PRIMARY level of biodiversity 5) Conservation benefits from genetic research; theory can tell genetic structuring of populations, causes of loss, phylogeny & guide decision making

2 types of genetic variation among population structure types

1) panmictic 2) metapopulations

Name 3 mutagens (external factors that cause mutations)

1) viruses 2) chemicals 3) UV radiation

Gene Flow v. Mutation in helping Small Populations

1) with large pops, mutation can compensate for loss of alleles due to genetic drift (in pops less than 100, mutation isn't enough to counter genetic loss caused by genetic drift) 2) high gene flow tends to reduce genetic differences among pops 3) gene flow is dominant force affecting genetic variation in small pops

How much wilderness area is the UFS responsible for?

18%

Corridor Design

2 Important Attributes = Width & Quality 1) Width = more desirable when larger species present, longer distance between PAs, longer spans of time need to maintain link between PAs, when matrix less compatible to species needs (human dominated) 2) Quality = more compatible with species needs the better it is

How much wilderness area is the USFWS responsible for?

22%

How many chromosomes do humans have?

23 * 2 copies for each gene at particular locus

How much wilderness area is the BLM responsible for?

4%

How much wilderness area is the NPS responsible for?

56%

What percent of KY is public land?

6%

What percent of KY is private land?

94%

Importance of GAP Analysis

A clear "gap" but conservation coverage among protected areas. Conservation partnerships led to legal conservation easement on a large ranch which restricts land uses & development that would be incompatible with biodiversity conservation.

Landscape Context of PA

A piece of land/habitat/patch/fragment can have all the food, shelter & other necessary resources for a species to survive but if it is surrounded by lands that are mainly or completely incompatible to a species they will not be inhabited. Thus, the surrounding matrix of a PA matters, especially to a disturbance-sensitive species.

Reserve System

A system of protected areas. The "quilt"

Murphy et al. (2019): Substantial Red Wolf Genetic Ancestry Persists in Wild Canids of SW Louisiana

About = red wolf extinction caused by hybridization with coyotes led to the capture and removal of wild wolves from SW Louisiana & SE Texas. - red wolf mitochondrial or DNA persists in 55% of contemporary wild canids sampled in SW, LA Findings = build support for declaring red wolves a distinct species; shows critical need for US gov to adopt a hybrid policy & suggests for reassessment of canid management & taxonomic classification in SW, LA - the high levels of red wolf ancestry was surprising because of having such a small pop that has remained in a given area & interbred with coyotes for about 12 generations

What event caused the principle of wilderness preservation in a park to be written into the state constitution to keep the area "forever wild"?

Adirondacks, NY 1894

What state has the largest wilderness area?

Alaska: contains 52% of all US wilderness area land

Where are the most protected areas in North America located?

Along the east coast and out west

Protected Area

An area of land/sea managed for the wild protection and persistence of biodiversity and other natural processes through constraints on incompatible land uses. In todays human dominated and highly fragmented world, protected areas can be thought of as "patches" in greater conservation quilt.

Establishing a home range

Animals usually disperse from natal range (where born & raised) to set up their own place (home range). It can be adjacent to, overlap with, or be hundreds of miles away from parents.

This law allows the US President to designate areas as National Monuments without need for Congressional approval

Antiquities Act of 1906

Example of a small pop going extinct? Graph on slide 52, led 16

Bird species on Channel Islands with a barn owl - extinction decrease as pop size increase - pops with less than 10 breeding pairs have 39% probability of extinction

How does genetic drift influence genetic variation?

Causes loss of genetic diversity — the smaller ethe pop the faster it occurs & can have a negative impact on genetic variation

Genetic drift is die to a ______ event

Chance

Panmictic

Contiguous single population of interbreeding individuals. **retains genetic variation well

Continental Conservation: The Wildlands Project (Wilderness Approach)

Continental = attempt to preserve biodiversity, ecological processes & services through protection of core wild lands, key linkages & sustainable use of buffer lands (Yellowstone to Yukon initiative)

What species was reintroduced to Alligator NWR in 1980s?

Coyote-red wold hybrid - coyotes now colonized area, genetic swapping of wolves and shooting have led to decline of wolves

Event that caused fear of loos of commerce in NY city?

Declining water in Erie Canal & Hudson River (early 1880s)

The proportion of heterozygosity remaining after (t) generation (Ht) ______ overtime

Decreases

The proportion of original heterozygosity remaining after each generation (H) is strongly influenced by _______

Effective population size (Ne = number of breeding individuals)

Species with mobile taxa tend to have lower genetic diversity among populations than those that are not very mobile

Ex. Amphibians, insects, mollusks have high heterozygosity & fishes, mammals & birds have low heterozygosity

Gene Flow

Exchange of genes among pops via immigration & emigration - facilitated by good connectivity (landscape permeability) among pops; good connectivity. Indicates that organisms are highly mobile - more habitat fragmentation + more incompatible matrix = more difficult for individuals to move from one pop to another (reduce gene flow) - higher gene flow = less genetic variation - in areas with significant habitat fragmentation, wildlife managers sometimes move individuals among pops (translocation) to maintain gene flow

Once a population drops below a certain size, it enters an _______ vortex in which the factors affect small populations tend to drive its size progressively lower. This downward spiral leads to extinction.

Extinction

A GIS analysis that attempts to identify areas lacking protected areas & corridors, but which are "worthy" of conservation are known as?

GAP Analysis

Process by which genetic variation is lost randomly and in most cases slowly is called?

Genetic drift

Linking Genetics to Conservation

Genetic variation & thus adaptive potential are important for ALL organisms. In conservation, we worry about small pops because they have fewer adaptive genes to play when confronted with environmental changes, thus increasing their risk of extinction.

Non-invasive genetic sampling: Black Bears

Goal = determine genetic diversity within and among populations - In colonizing populations, like black bears in KY we can determine where individuals may be coming from if we have DNA from those possible sources

Green River Watershed

Harbors one of the most diverse assemblages of fish & freshwater mussels in the US. More than 150 fish species & 70 mussel species have been found in the river

How does gene flow & mutation influence genetic variation?

Help maintain genetic variation (heterozygosity). Mutation acts slowly to maintain genetic variation, while gene flow (immigration) can quickly increase it

Why is outbreeding depression a problem with species reintroduction?

Heterosis - increase in progeny fitness upon outcrossing and is measured as an increase in the fitness of the first filial generation in relation to parental fitness - Heterosis is increases when outbreeding occurs between pops due to increase in heterozygosity & reduction of fixed alleles - Disadvantage = cross breeds have weaknesses of breeds from which the descend from & heterosis in initial crosses declines with any backcrossing parental breeds

When expanding a protected area globally, what places an area in the "high priority category"?

High threat & high irreplaceability

What was the first federally protected natural area?

Hot Spring, Arkansas (1832)

________ are targets for protection because of their high biodiversity, endemism, & significant threat of imminent extinction.

Hotspots

What happens when allele reaches frequency of 0?

It is lost forever from a population unless recovered via mutation or reintroduced into the local gene pool from an immigrant that has the allele

When is genetic variability lost?

It is lost randomly over time through genetic drift.

Species loss =

Loss of genetic diversity

Effective population size is almost always ______ than the total population size

Lower

What is a Biosphere Reserve found in KY?

Mammoth Cave Area - represents karst system characterized by complex underground water courses & multilayered cave system with unique fauna & mineralization features - cultural interest = prehistoric peoples explored & extracted minerals from the caves & used them for shelter & cultivation - located in rural area, where farming has been a mainstay - Significant ISSUE = ability to achieve sustainable development that improves economic & social well-being of local people & compatible with conservation values - CONCERN = impact of agricultural, commercial & residential land use on ecosystems (groundwater pollution on cave biota)

Migration Routes

Migrations span protected & unprotected lands - challenge for science & management Ex. Porcupine Caribou Herd Migration along arctic Coastal Plain US (Alaska) and Canada, African Elephant Migration in Mali, Africa, Annual Wildebeast Migration in Tanzania & Kenya

The total number of individuals that is considered the bottom threshold for how many one needs to try & avoid extinction is

Minimal viable population (MVP)

Metapopulations

Multiple, typically smaller populations connected by occasional dispersal of individuals. **tends to lose genetic variation faster than single pop because some of the smaller units go extinct over time.

Habitat "Stepping Stones"

Not usually as good as a corridor but it can maintain connectivity between PAs - smaller distances between stones are needed when: high contrast between panthers & matrix, concerned with small or specialist species, or concerned with species that have visual cue needs (if it can see next patch it won't move off current one)

Mutational Meltdown

Occurs when a number of deleterious alleles get fixed into a population resulting in decreased survival of individuals that can lead to a downward spiraling of species fitness towards extinction - "fixed" allele = when allele reaches frequency of 1 (100%), at that point, genetic drift no longer impacts allele because everyone has it

Using FL Panther example, how do you identify priority areas of conservation for northward movement of panthers? How can you prioritize which areas to conserve based on other species needs as well?

Panthers are essentially "boxed" into south FL because of development & open wetland. If the goal is to expand the number & range of the panthers, considering the endangered species recovery plan, the only feasible option of expansion is due north, a "pinch point" that is rapidly urbanizing & could become closed off. Considering a proposed panther corridor area & black bear, and endangered fox squirrel ranges, the red area would get the highest conservation priority with an overlap of panther, bear & squirrel ranges. Hot pink get second highest because only the panther & bear overlap. Forest & woodland would be high priority, as all 3 species need them.

This species of endangered wild canid is suffering from genetic introversion with its close cousin, the coyote

Red wolf

One of the best examples of the importance of genetic diversity among populations and the need to carefully manage what is essentially a natural metapopulations caused by colony formation is this species

Red-cocked woodpecker

Inbreeding Depression

Reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding - causes decrease in fitness

Ultimate goal of ex-situ conservation?

Reintroduction of species back into the wild

Reasons for Migration

Reproduction, latitudinal, food/water, altitudinal

Biosphere Reserve Cooperative

Responsible for coordinating the program in the biosphere reserve that features monitoring for water pollution sources, establishing geographic information systems, & educational & cultural heritage prjects

Outbreeding Depression

Results in decrease in fitness when individuals are crossed from 2 different populations, subspecies, or species and the resulting offspring are sterile or have decreased fitness - Ex. Animals (diff & same species), troublesome plants, plants of diff & same species

What section of the Endangered Species Act allows public litigation to enforce law (aka "citizen suit clause"

Section 11

SNPs

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms "Junk" DNA between genes which occur in humans at around 1/1000 nucleotides

Loss of genetic diversity is usually _______ than the time frame which conservation actions occur

Slower

It is easier to lose rare (potentially valuable) alleles to genetic drift in ______ _______

Small populations —- especially those on islands or in fragmented landscapes

What region of FL has the most EXISTING conservation efforts?

South FL

Where are some examples of state and local protected areas in the US?

State parks, state forests, state wildlife management, local parks, local forests, local trail systems

What kind of observational experiments on humans could you do in a captive animal facility (ex. Zoo) that help you identify potential flagship species?

Surveys

This place houses the "Seed Ark" for the planet and is considered essentially a Doomsday storage house for seeds

Svalbard seed vault

What is a current threat to animal migration?

The Serengeti highway project

Home Range

The area within which an individual typically travels in its daily activities to satisfy needs. Ranges tend to shift seasonally to meet needs, but often consistent over most adult lifetime.

What region of FL had the most original ecological greenways & network boundaries?

The panhandle & top of western region

Why was the Biosphere Reserves created?

To promote & demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans & biosphere

What is microsatellite DNA?

Type of non-coding DNA that is used to test for relationships among closely related individuals

Heterozygous

When sequence at given locus is different on both chromosomes (Ex. Aa)

Homozygous

When sequence at given locus is identical on both chromosomes (ex. AA or aa)

What are some examples of federally protected areas in the U.S.?

Wilderness areas, national parks, national wildlife refuges, national forests, national marine sanctuaries, military lands, and Bureau of Land Management

The first national park in the US, established in 1872?

Yellowstone

What was the worlds first national park?

Yellowstone

Are Yellowstone wolves unprotected lands?

Yes

Are places the size of Yellowstone large enough to sustain wide-ranging species?

Yes

Does shape (configuration) and size matter for protected areas?

Yes 1) Shape = low edge:area ratio important 2) Long thin protected areas sensitive to edge effects 3) Long perimeter boundary = higher maintenance costs (as you approach boundary length of 1 the area increasingly resembles a circle & the edge:area ratio decrease (less edge effects))

Can a species serve as both a flagship & umbrella species?

Yes (ex. Leopard, tiger, monkeys, pandas)

DNA is the ______ of most life

blue print - genes regulate all biological process on the plant.

Recombination & Mutation can lead to the ___________

formation of different alleles

Coding Sections of DNA aka "active blueprints"

make proteins & are called "genes" <--- this is where adaptive genetic variation is found

Biological Corridors

narrow passes through which species can move from reserve to reserve without crossing an excessively human-dominated landscape - connected protected lands - connect populations - allow for dispersal & genetic diversity - maintain viable populations (Ex. Jaguar corridor initiative)

Non-coding Sections of DNA

neutral genetic variation

Corridors

strips of habitat that connect separated populations that the animal travels across

Gene Pool

sum total o genetic variation (info) within a population.