Crime and Justice in America Exam 2: Chapter 3

Police are referred to as..

"gatekeepers" in society

The block level

(citizen patrols, safe havens for children, looking after others property when they're away, etc.) is where a large part of anticrime activities take place.

Community oriented policing stresses routine non-emergency interactions between police and the communities they serve by:

1) breaking down areas of mistrust 2) providing mutual problem solving efforts 3) developing critical information about individual and conditions in the neighborhoods because this leads to greater citizen cooperation and law compliance. •The Clinton Administration during the 1990s advocated for this type of policing because it brought about a new approach to policing in which the citizens become an active partner in public safety •In response to this new approach, a type of Professionalism emerged as some police officers and government agencies were not happy about the change. -they felt that it took away from the law enforcement aspect of their job.

Although police training prepares them for high intensity situations, the following 3 things are better tools to help police diffuse situations:

1) patience 2) good communication skills 3) knowledge of human psychology

Police work is organized by:

1) task requirement (sworn or civilian) 2)geography 3)time.

3 Responsibilities of police work

1)Law Enforcement •Make sure citizens are obeying the law 2)Order Maintenance •Make sure society is orderly 3)Service •Provide assistance to those in the community

There have been 3 eras in American policing:

1)Political Era 2)Professional Era 3)Community Era

There are two primary models for police training academies:

1)Stress-based academies •similar to military boot camps •Isolated from other groups •Concentrate heavily on physical fitness -Both a goal and punishment for minor infractions •Incorporate military trappings such as marching •Classroom instruction also includes hands on exercises 2)Campus-based academies •Usually provided at a 2 year community college or vocational school •Curriculum will also get you an associates degree. •Classroom instruction and practical exercises are implemented -Mandatory state firearms certification -Defensive and pursuit driving

The broken windows theory became the foundation for 2 distinct but complimentary changes in police practices:

1)problem oriented policing 2)community oriented policing

Zero tolerance policy

An informal theory of police operations that emphasizes making arrests for all low-level offenses without exception. It is an offshoot of the Broken Windows hypothesis that emphasizes only law enforcement, not order maintenance. •The Professionally oriented police were inspired by NYC's crime decrease during the 1990s which inspired the zero tolerance policy of policing. •Followed Order Maintenance Policing approach...NYC started to focus on low level offenses at this time (sidewalk drug sales, drunk in public, loitering, etc.)...."focus on the little things and the big things will take care of itself" •Basically, arrest as many people as possible for as many things as possible. •Critics: zero tolerance policy might improve things temporarily but it is not a long term solution for a high crime area because it is not addressing larger community issues

Discretion

Flexibility in police response. It is not possible to write a law, or a rule, that will cover every possible situation the police might encounter. The police combine their knowledge with the array of verbal and nonverbal information that attends each unique situation, make an accurate judgement about what's going on (the "situational exigencies"), and decide on the proper response.

Ordered maintenance policing (Wilson and Kelling)

Focus on the small things (misdemeanors) because police would be more effective in deterring serious crime if they focused on lower level offenses that are often overlooked and might lead to more serious crime •Ex: arresting a person for possession before they can start selling drugs

1960'S: CRISES AND RESPONSE

Four major social trends occurred in the late 1960s and early 70s fueled by social individualism: 1) Challenges to mandatory school prayer 2) Free speech movement 3) The "hippies" (sex, drugs, and rock n roll) 4) Rise in both the Women's and Gay rights movements •This new individualistic outlook on society challenged many moral values that these socially and politically conservative police officers at the time believed in, thus causing them to become distasteful and use excessive legal tactics to suppress these individuals. •Police were also being criticized for the rising crime rate at this time because of the number of historical landmark cases (case that has a historical and legal significance) in the 1960s that reasserted the rights of individuals and decreased the powers of the police. -Ex: Mapp v. Ohio - extended the fourth amendment search and seizure exclusionary rule to state courts in 1961. -Ex: Miranda v. Arizona - 1966 required the police to inform criminal suspects of their of their fifth amendment rights against self- incrimination

FEDERAL

Have specific powers under federal law and don't enforce a state or local law. -(ex: the DEA is really just concerned with big time drug trafficking, distribution, etc.) •There are more than 90 federal law enforcement agencies established in the USA. -FBI, DEA, ATF, Border Patrol, etc. •Often in many cases, federal and state jurisdictions might overlap. -Ex: a drug ring or human trafficking might run through many states. -To deal with this issue, federal and state agencies will coordinate their investigations through a Multi Jurisdictional Task Force run usually by a U.S. district attorney.

STATE

State police have two functions: •1. State police have standard law enforcement duties and jurisdiction throughout the state. •2. State patrols are highway patrols who enforce traffic laws on the state interstates and highways •They have police powers and training but no general police jurisdiction •Basically monitor the roadways •States with state patrols may have an independent bureau of criminal investigations that provides criminal investigations and crime labs across the state (ex: GBI- Georgia Bureau of Investigation)

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, FIREARMS AND EXPLOSIVES BUREAU

The Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) Bureau was founded in 1972 when it split from the Internal Revenue Service. •At this time the ATF was still working under the Treasury Department •The 1990's and early 2000's were a rough year for America... -1st World Trade Center bombing (1993) -Oklahoma City Bombing (1995) -September 11th, 2001 •In 2003, The new Homeland Security Act split the existing ATF into two separate organizations. -Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives transferred to the Department of Justice (DOJ) -Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau remained with the Treasury Department

Law Compliance

The voluntary observance by citizens of the requirements of law

Crime prevention

a function of police work that ensures the safety of the community by detaining criminals and diffusing potentially dangerous situations before they turn violent.

Visible Patrol

a method of crime prevention that consists of police actively patrolling the community on foot, in motor vehicles, bikes, or horseback as a means to deter crime. •Being visible in the community alerts potential offenders they are being watched and will be arrested and helps to deter crime in the community or quiet noisy behavior.

Citizen patrols

citizens organize into patrol groups to reduce crime in their community •Additional eyes and ears for police

The Neighborhood Watch

is a program that is established in some neighborhoods or small communities in which the homeowners observe and report any suspicious activity to the police. •Block parties are a sub category of neighborhood watch programs.

Internal affairs

most specialized investigative function •Has the responsibility of investigating crime and misconduct by other police officers in the organization

Law enforcement (3 Responsibilities of police work )

• Police enforce the law by apprehending criminals after crimes occur •Policing is often exaggerated in the media by depicting police work as constantly exciting (i.e. hunting criminals, high speed car chases, etc.) when in reality these events do not happen very often •Police are more likely to deal with petty community issues such as responding to call of a public intoxication. •The relationship between citizens and police is vital in maintaining an orderly society. •The police need to feel that the citizens are going to comply with the laws and be cooperative, while the citizens need to feel that police are not abusing their authority.

BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY

•"Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety" was a 1982 article by Wilson and Kelling that introduced the broken windows theory -Stated "broken windows that go unrepaired signaled that nobody cares about an abandoned property and invited further vandalism" -Wilson and Kelling argued that police should be more attentive to conditions that signal that an area has potential for criminal activity

Political Era

•19th century •Took place when American cities were run by "machine" politics and police were often untrained and corrupt. •To maintain job security these police officers needed to remain loyal to their bosses, even if that meant disregarding the "rule of law"

ORGANIZATION

•Any sworn officer in American Police and Law Enforcement agencies are organized in a hierarchy. •They have a chain of command that conveys information from the front line to the administration and then conveys orders from the administration to the front lines. •In larger departments, patrol officers have to report to their supervisor (sergeants) who report to their supervisor (lieutenants) who report to the precinct commanders (captains). •Precinct and unit commanders report to the Deputy Chief.

Harassment

•Anyone whose appearance screams trouble is more likely to be under scrutiny, especially in interrogations. •Constant police pressure on gangs and drugs is often considered a good thing except when police widen their approaches of people to individuals they may consider as potential criminals based on appearance. -This often leads to the community thinking the police are harassing individuals. •Racial Profiling- still a concern, using race not behavior to justify police inquiry -Ex: NJ and MD documented state police stopping and searching minority motorists cars in large numbers -Ex: belief that African Americans and Hispanics are more involved in drug trafficking than whites

GEOGRAPHY continued

•Beat integrity - keeping an officer assigned to a specific beat consistently in order to develop an understanding of the people there and build a relationship with the community. -This was a significant change from 1960s policing when police were moved to different areas constantly, however, officers today can move beats to assist other officers if needed. •State police agencies must cover the entire state so they organize into troops for the same reason a local police organizes into precincts. •Federal Agencies must cover the nation so they organize into administrative regions and usually have central offices in major cities. -Also work with state and local agencies through regional task forces because crime does not confine itself to jurisdictional boundaries. -Short term task force might work on cases involving serial bank robbers. -Long term task force might work on cases such as human trafficking

Order Maintenance (3 Responsibilities of police work)

•Besides crime, other disturbances in the community can cause disorder, concern, or inconveniences. -Ex: loud house parties, bar fights, noisy arguments •Often times, individuals who call to report disturbances in the community do not expect the police to make arrests, but rather to restore order. •Some situations can be resolved by police mediation between two parties. -Sometimes the police cannot do anything legally because it is a matter for Civil Court but they are present to act as a "referee" and make sure things don't get out of hand. A)Ex: dispute over rent between landlord and tenant -Their presence and authority usually acts as a safe zone for people so both parties can calm down and figure out a solution without the situation escalating.

The 1967 President's Commission Report recommended that there should be three levels of police employment:

•Community Service Officers - uniformed, unarmed, and responsible for "routine" activities (duties now done by patrol officers) •Police Officers - would be free to respond to in-progress calls for crime and disorder and would handle basic criminal investigations •Police Agents- investigative specialists and would handle complex cases (what we now refer to as detectives)

AMADOU DIALLO

•Confronted in the early morning by police officers searching for a rape suspect. •Diallo, who did not speak English very well, reached for his wallet, when the police officers shot him over 40 times. -They thought he was reaching for a weapon. •The issue of imminent possible danger is the difference between the Diallo and Louima cases, however, the issue of racial prejudice is an issue in both cases, like many fatal police arrests because they involved black suspects and white police officers.

CONSTABLES

•Constables (peace officer) have pretty much been abolished or restricted to minor court duties. -In Texas, the office of constables is comparable to a sheriff or county police by serving court summons and providing patrol services in some areas. -Usually found in very small towns -Not much policing authority anymore

Police Corruption

•Corruption is the use of position for personal gain. -Common to refer to police powers as the right to arrest and use force, however it also gives police the power not to arrest or take action at all. -In the 19th and 20th century police often took bribes to look the other way or lose their evidence. •This becomes more problematic when members of a police department become criminals themselves. -"The Pad" in NYC in the early 70s. -Frank Serpico a)stated "Ten percent of the cops in New York City are absolutely corrupt, 10 percent are absolutely honest, and the other 80 percent — they wish they were honest." to the NY times about the NYPD -Police shaking down drug deals, confiscating their drugs, then selling them has been a problem in several cities

FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION

•Created in 1908 -The first director J. Edgar Hoover in 1924 -He is still the longest reigning director of the Bureau (1924-1972) •The FBI investigates 9 different categories of crime: including 1) terrorism, 2) counterintelligence, 3) cyber-crime, 4) Civil Rights, 5) White collar crimes, 6) Violent Crime (adults and children), 7) Organized Crime, 8) Public Corruption, and 9) Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) •FBI investigates over 200 federal crimes, including bank robberies, kidnappings, serial murders, etc. unless Congress specifically designates the jurisdiction to another government agency. •FBI Jobs: Special Agents, Intelligence Analysts, Surveillance, etc. •Criminal acts that cross state lines are investigated by the FBI •FBI Crime lab in Quantico, VA provides forensic support for crime scene investigations •The FBI Academy in Quantico, VA provides training to new agents as well as state and local police officers. •The FBI has also established itself internationally by building offices in other countries and helping to train foreign police officers (National Academy) •In 2005, the FBI began to train all new agents to be intelligence gathering officers, both in domestic and international crime.

DRUG ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION

•DEA was established in 1973 in conjunction with the Controlled Substance Act (CSA) •Combined several existing antidrug agencies at the time under the Justice Department into one agency that is concerned with the growing, manufacturing, or distribution of any controlled substances in the United States. -This includes anything from marijuana to prescription medication. •Primarily responsible for national drug enforcement as well as the responsibility to seize overseas drug networks coming into the United States. -Ex: Cartel

FIELD TRAINING

•Field Training Office (FTO) - provided by most departments to bridge the gap between academy learning, and authority in the field. -Officers in training might ride with patrol officers to expose the rookies to as many situations as possible. -Once the FTO program is complete, the rookies can work independently but undergo a probationary period 1)If performance is poor, they can be released immediately 2)If they pass the probationary period, they will become full members of the agency

Society of Police Futurists- FBI (Intelligence led policing)

•Futures workshop group coordinated through the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) at the FBI Academy. •Assess current trends on specific topics, how individual trends or several trends might create new issues for police. •Allows the government to recognize emerging trends in crime and to do advance preparation for multiple possibilities before they occur.

COUNTY POLICE

•In densely populated areas, county police departments have replaced the duties of sheriffs. •County police are organized like large municipal police departments that patrol the entire county. •County police tend to concentrate on areas that do not already have a lot of police presence or resources and work with the other types of law enforcement within the county if they need to.

MORE RECENT CASES of police brutality

•In late 2014, there were a series of use-of-force events leading to the death of Michael Brown from Ferguson, Missouri, the "chokehold" death of Eric Garner in NYC, the shooting deaths of Tamir Rice in Cleveland and John Crawford in Beavercreek, OH and others. •These led to protests against police brutality across the country -These protests led to the murder of two NYC police officers by a MD man whose mission was to "put wings on pigs" by killing two officers for every citizen who died as a result of police action.

GEOGRAPHY

•In small local police departments, officers are responsible for the entire town. -In larger areas, officers are responsible for patrolling specific areas called beats (territory) •Large agencies are broken up into precincts which contain several beats. -Ex: NYC has 76 precincts, Austin has 6, Minneapolis has 4. -This is established because it is easier to manage smaller areas within a larger city. •Sheriffs departments might be divided into different districts or operate out of a central office. -Sheriff offices might assign deputies to local municipalities known as Contract cities 1)these guarantee basic police duties in smaller cities that need assistance

Federal criminal justice agencies are grouped into three cabinet level departments:

•Justice, Homeland Security, and Treasury. •Many existing agencies were brought under the coordination of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) after the September 11th attacks. -The purpose of this was so the agencies could work together to protect the nation against any future terrorist activity. -DHS now involves the Secret Service, Customs and Border Protection, Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), U.S. Coast Guard, and the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC), Transportation and Safety Administration.

RODNEY KING CASE

•March 3, 1991 in LA •Was involved with police in a high speed chase •Once the police caught up to him, the police pulled him out of his car and brutally beat him. -Struck over 50 times with a nightstick •It was all caught on camera •Clear example of excessive force and police brutality

Local continued

•Most police agencies are small -Most officers enter the police force as a patrol officer and will spend most of their careers there. •In larger departments, there might be more availability for increased specialized jobs (detective, juvenile officer, SWAT) -If this is the case, these positions are often taken in career steps (through promotions) after starting out as a patrol officer.

POLICE AND CAREER PATHS

•Municipal police officers is a single-point-of-entry career -Police officers start as patrol officers, doing shift work, responding to calls •Then there are three career paths that are possible: 1.Officers can remain in patrol 2.Officers can move from patrol to a specialty position (detective) 3. Mixed career filled with supervisory positions and specialty assignments that usually lead to an administrative position.

CompStat

•NYC also used CompStat (weekly stats for police operations) instead of their own knowledge about crime as a rational basis for police decision making and resource allocation. •CompStat did open doors to more sophisticated use of information which has developed intelligence led policing •Intelligence led policing bases decisions on crime analysis and other data. •Advancements in technology now make this more efficient by using mapping tools and analytic software to manage crime data and crime trends that could affect policing operations (ex: trends among demographic groups)

ABNER LOUIMA CASE

•NYC in 1997 •Out of control Police Officer sexually assaulted a prisoner with a nightstick because he thought the man had punched him during a street scuffle. -Clear cut police brutality, personal abuse of authority

Promotion continued

•Only a few cities have full time SWAT or SRT (Special Response Team) squads -But many have personnel that can organize into a team if needed •Smaller cities and towns may participate in regional SWAT teams -Deal with hostages -HAZMAT - similar specialty that requires additional training and equipment for dealing with incidents like toxic waste, chemicals, etc. •Agencies near large bodies of water usually have marine units for monitoring water traffic and for rescue. •Training for these positions are vital because the people and the officers involved need to be safe

SPECIALIZATION

•Patrol officers have a wide variety of general duties that they are expected to perform. -Encounter a different situation every day and need to know how to handle it. •To make sure some police agencies are running efficiently, special police positions need to be filled. •Detectives: -Do not answer calls -Their time is usually spent investigating one case at a time, interviewing witnesses, following leads, etc. -In some departments, detectives can specialize in a certain type of crime (homicides, drugs, etc.) •Gang intelligence and intervention, school resource officers, training coordinator, HAZMAT, etc. are all specialty jobs of a police officer. •Supervision: -Generally, once promoted to Sergeant or above, police do not respond to calls. -Usually observe and assist other police officers. -The higher up in the hierarchy, the more administrative work (paperwork)

Law enforcement in the community

•Police Officers, School Resource Officers (P.O. specifically for schools), police activity league volunteers (P.O. volunteers) and others participate in a wide variety of community building activities. •Ex: Officers might host self-defense classes in the community or have school supported programs on Drug Awareness (D.A.R.E). •By participating in community events, police officers are better able to build relationships with the people in the community and promote law abiding behavior.

Structure

•Police agencies have different mandates depending on the level of political authority, region of the country, etc. •Government police agencies are authorized at the local, tribal, county, state, and federal levels. -The US also has special police forces (ex: SWAT) -18K police and law enforcement agencies nationwide -837K officers and agents nationwide

TIME

•Police and other dispatch services must be available 24/7. •Police agencies staff their shifts according to the volume of activity expected at that time of the day. -Police officers can work 40 hours a week (8 hrs/day x 5, 10hrs/day x 4, or 12hrs/day x 3). -Rotating Shifts: officers will periodically change from day shifts to night shifts -Steady Shifts:hours are determined by a seniority system or bid lottery -Power shifts: provide extra police presence during the active evening hours and weekends. •Smaller agencies might provide nighttime coverage by "on call" arrangements. -Officers would only have to come back and assist at night if they are called for an emergency situation. •Crime scene technicians and investigators work day and night shifts. -Usually minimum staffing or on call for night time hours •Other support positions (civilian positions) work their regular 9-5 M-F shifts.

SPECIAL CONTINUANCES

•Police are often involved in helping those that need special care -Mentally Ill individuals are more likely to be on the streets in the wake of the US deinstitutionalization movement of the 1950s which closed many psychiatric hospitals. -Their behavior may be frightening to others and can potentially be dangerous •Immigrant communities -Language barriers may cause challenges to police, immigrants may be apprehensive of police in the community •Both of these groups may be subject to increased victimization because of their lack of communicative skills with Police Officers -Other people take advantage of them because they do not think they will have the communication skills to report to police

Police officers practice crime prevention in less visible ways, too:

•Police officers help Neighborhoods establish community based self-help activities such as the Neighborhood Watch.

Police subculture

•Police subculture- the views of the world shared by many police officers. -Police discretion, use of force, corruption, etc. are all apart of this concept •Police Subculture stemmed from the politically charged era of the 1960s in which people think that police are at odds with society -Two schools of thought emerged at this time: 1) Police were white racist males who were ignorant, authoritarian, thuggish, and completely out of touch with changing society. a)"mean-spirited bullies" 2) People were drawn to police work because of altruism (selfless) but the nature of the police work changed them. a)Police officers became hardened as a defense mechanism

Problem oriented policing

•Problem oriented policing emphasizes the analysis of crimes and situations to look for patterns that may cross categorical lines. -looking for specific causes that might indicate a rise in similar events and solutions to those problems. •Extends beyond police service by integrating roles from other criminal justice agencies, social services, and private agencies.

FUTURE ISSUES

•Recent terrorist attacks have increased racial profiling against Muslims. -Immigration rules are in flux (changing) -Civil liberties (individual rights) might be threatened in exchange for what is believed to be security against terrorism a)Ex: the right to privacy could be taken advantage of •Technology can pose issues for police -New crimes -Not all police officers know how to work the latest technology -Invasion of privacy issues -Edward Snowden •Some future issues that law enforcement may have to deal with include: 1)Economic issues -Rising prison costs -Overcrowding prisons a)"community control" thousands of prisoners are released early because there isn't enough room b)Reentry efforts might be unmonitored and contribute to the recidivism rate. 2)Nanotechnology- nanoscale technology -Developing rapidly, can have positive implications for medical purposes but if it gets in the wrong hands it can be negative a)Ex: Computer codes for making designer drugs and explosives through molecular assembly 3)Social changes -Drug laws are under attack as being too harsh -Privacy in public spaces (i.e. social media) •All of these present a possible period of radical reform for police and as society changes there will be new challenges that police face.

PROMOTION

•Requirements and qualifications for promotions vary widely -In some places seniority is still practiced ( the person who has been there the longest will get the job regardless of training, skills, educations, etc.) -In other cases there are a multitude of written tests, interviews, and assessment center tests. -Some departments include a "promotability score" based on past performance and supervisors' assessments of the individual's skills that will be necessary for the new job. •Most police agencies have a detective -This is because it is difficult to conduct investigations if one is always being called to respond to something else. -Also, many criminal investigations require time and commitment. •Some agencies consider detective as a rank and in others it holds the same rank as a patrol officer. -However, because of the nature of the job, this position is usually a prized assignment for police officers. •Undercover assignments are a special type of investigation -Officers pretend to be criminals or "fringe players" in order to gather intelligence 1)Ex: counterfeit investigations, or drug deals -The officers identity is a secret to help combat against crimes. -Undercover officers usually get involved in sting operations 1)Ex: posing as drug dealers 2)John detail- used against street prostitution a)police officers, usually women, pose as prostitutes in order to arrest "johns" who solicit them for sex.

Sheriffs departments have a single or dual entry track

•Single-entry track- deputies begin career working in jails, unarmed, supervising prisoners. -When a patrol position is available, deputies have the first opportunity to fill the slot, subject to seniority and testing rules. •Dual-entry track- deputies hired for corrections understand they will be hired to work only in the jail, while those who are wanting a law enforcement career apply directly to the patrol position. -Jail deputies can apply for patrol positions later if they wish but they are not subject to seniority advantages or "inside track" advantages compared to outsiders.

THE BLUE WALL OF SILENCE

•Some police who know of wrongdoings by other officers will not take action against them because of two things: 1. police mistrust their supervisors and fear being given harsh punishments as a way to set an example 2. they fear alienating their brother or sister officer because they depend on them for backup in a dangerous situation. •This blue wall of silence is no longer as strong as it once was because police realize that a rogue officer is as much of a danger to them as criminals

The DEA offers many career opportunities as well, including:

•Special Agent, Analysts, Forensic Scientists, Administrative, etc. •There are field offices both in the U.S. and overseas •Currently: The DEA is concerned with big time drug trafficking rings, including those from Mexico (Cartel) and even drug trafficking happening in the United States (heroine)

Professional Era

•Started in the first half of the 20th century •Public dissatisfaction in all areas of government gave rise to the Professional Era -This era improved hiring and training standards of P.O. and incorporated the scientific method into police investigations. •The development of federal law enforcement was visible at this time -Ex: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under its most famous director, J. Edgar Hoover in 1924

SPECIAL POLICE

•State laws authorize police forces for special purposes -ex: railroads since they run through multiple jurisdictions, college campuses, schools, etc. •There are also part time officers called "reserves" who work for municipal, county, and sheriff's departments, in addition to their regular job. -Can be paid hourly or as volunteers -With proper training they can provide full police duties, especially in rural areas. -Can also help police with community issues 1)Ex: directing traffic

1960'S: CRISES AND RESPONSE continued

•The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s-1960s brought public attention to racial inequality •At first marked by non-violent protests, the more violent protests occurred in the late 1960s in which the news often covered police violence against peaceful protestors to break up demonstrations. •Violent police actions and police brutality precipitated many of the urban riots in the mid 1960s •Federal law enforcement was often in opposition to local police during this Era -Ex: U.S. Marshals protected African American children who were integrating local schools and the FBI investigated hate crimes against black communities. •There was also an antiwar movement at this time for the US involvement in the Vietnam War -At first these protestors were viewed as traitors but by 1968 many more individuals had become opposed to the war. -The 1968 Democratic National Convention publicized police brutality nationwide which also caused tension between police and the citizens

Federal agencies have different requirements than local police officers, depending on their needs.

•The FBI is one of the investigative agencies, and because of the sensitive nature of the work, generally does not hire right out of college (there are some exceptions). •The Bureau looks for agent candidates who have established themselves in the workplace and have a good credit history. •Many aspiring FBI agents work in policing or military before applying until they meet the eligibility requirements. •Other agencies, such as the Border Patrol has expanded greatly, and to meet the demands of the security, generally hire recent college graduates.

The 1970s brought about extensive research conducted by some police agencies hoping that research would bring scientific validation and help to improve their resources.

•The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment found that police patrol had almost no impact on crime, fear of crime, citizen awareness of police, or citizen confidence in police. •New approaches to policing emerged at this time •Herman Goldstein discovered police were too concerned with policing and not concerned enough with what policing accomplished. -Suggested police need to focus on problem oriented policing (POP) approaches, this involves better community oriented policing that focuses on the relationship between citizens and law enforcement

In 1967 report of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice found that the police at this time were poorly trained, poorly educated and poorly led thus...

•The Law Enforcement Education Assistance Administration was established and allowed the government to improve police equipment and training standards •This program financed college education for both serving officers and prospective officers.

THE SECRET SERVICE

•The Secret Service was originally created in 1865 to investigate money counterfeiting under the Treasury Department. •Protection of the US President was added in 1901 after the assassination of President McKinley •Today, the U.S. Secret Service is under the Department of Homeland Security and protects both the national leaders and foreign visitors while still helping to secure the nations financial infrastructure.

LOCAL

•The blue uniforms and patrol cars are stereotypical of local municipal (town or city) police officers. •Legal jurisdiction is usually limited to the border of their town or city that hires them BUT there are a few exceptions 1) fresh pursuit of a suspect- usually happens in serious situations if a suspect is on the run and these officers can cross over jurisdictions to make sure they don't get away. 2) mutual aid compact - some police agencies might have a reciprocal mutual aid compact in which they may help other jurisdictions if they need to. -Usually only happens in a disaster or serious situation in which a neighboring jurisdiction needs back up. 3) Being sworn in as a special officer or deputy for another agency

SHERIFF

•The county sheriff is one of the oldest police offices. -in many states, the Sheriff has authority under the State constitution. -Unique among law enforcement, sheriffs serve as all three branches of criminal justice (policing, courts, and corrections) 1)Provide security to court rooms and serve civil and criminal summons 2)Run most county jails •Deputy sheriffs will likely start their career as correctional officers in the jail and work their way up to uniformed patrol and then investigations. •Sheriffs are elected in 48 out of 50 states, but their duties vary regionally. -In the South and West they are primarily law enforcement services for many rural areas. -In the Northeast, sheriffs tend to be court officers and provide only limited law enforcement because most of their jurisdictions have full time local police.

INTELLIGENCE LED POLICING

•The expansion of criminal enterprises in a global economy have led to better information about matters outside of local boundaries. •The War on Terror has led to the creation of fusion centers to collect, evaluate, and communicate information about possible terrorist activities. •These centers are also tracking other criminal enterprises such as gun trafficking, drugs, gangs, human trafficking, etc.

US MARSHALS

•The oldest federal law enforcement agency in the US created by the Judiciary Act of 1789. •Marshals protect the federal judiciary, transport federal prisoners, and protect endangered federal witnesses (The Witness Protection Program). •Marshals also manage assets seized from criminal organizations, and may run businesses until they are sold under the federal forfeiture laws (basically until it is foreclosed).

IMPROPER USE OF FORCE AND POLICE BRUTALITY

•The power to use force in defense of the law and social order is a vital part of police work. -Most of the time police rarely use force, if they do, its usually used properly. -However, this power can be abused. •Wrongful use involves using force for the wrong reasons, such as disrespecting a police officer •Disproportionate use occurs when the level of force exceeds the level of resistance or aggression of the subject. •Police are also required to protect the life and safety of those they use force against once the situation is under control •Legitimate force may be used to bring resisting subjects into compliance (refusing arrest) -Police use force according to the force continuum- links level of force to resistance of citizen. a)Starts with the presence of the officer, then moves to verbal directions, to the first use of physical force (a guiding push or firm grip). b)Higher levels of force are only applicable to citizens who resist (pain, compliance holds such as wristlocks, pepper spray, taser, etc.) c)DEADLY FORCE IS THE FINAL STEP AND ONLY APPLICABLE TO VERY STRICT SITUATIONS •Police have the power to use deadly force ONLY to save their own life or those of a third party. •A common law "fleeing felon" rule allowed the use of lethal force to apprehend any accused felon. -In 1985 the Supreme Court restricted lethal force to situations of imminent danger. •The publics attention toward this issue was brought by some high profile cases -Ex: Rodney King

Service (3 Responsibilities of police work)

•The third responsibility of police officers consists of giving directions to motorists, funeral escorts, administration of permits, checking in on vulnerable adults, traffic control, emergency responders, etc. •During training, police are trained to respond to a wide variety of situations and tasks that they may encounter while on the job. •Upon being hired, police are usually doing patrol work (responding to 911 calls), exciting events usually happen infrequently. •Those who seek excitement find that their time is usually spent doing social work, helping individuals in the community, resolving low level problems, and building a relationship with the community.

Introduction to Policing

•The vast majority of criminal cases brought before the court are a result of police decisions. •Ultimately, police decide who to ticket, arrest, question, etc. •Although police enforce laws upon those who are not complying with them, arresting individuals is only a small portion of the work involved in policing. •Police may use force to ensure that the law is obeyed and public order is maintained amongst those who are not complying with the laws.

ENDURING ELEMENTS AND ISSUES

•There are some common themes among police work -Police work within a moral framework just as a much as a legal one, assessing situations on the basis of the person they interact with. -"us against them" feeling -Police are the "thin blue line" between civilization and chaos. -Most officers are socially and politically conservative and the police culture is slow to adapt to changes in the social world. a)This might put police at odds with society and can give rise to series of concerns about police behavior. 1)Ex: the manner in which police exercise discretion

Police use discretion when deciding to use force

•This is because it is impossible to write a law for every situation a police might encounter or the certain circumstances surrounding it. •Police combine their knowledge with verbal and non-verbal information about a situation to make an accurate judgement about what is going on and then decide how to respond.

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING

•This type of policing is different from the professional model in many ways. •1. recognizes that police have other non-crime responsibilities in the community. -Quality of life issues (trash in the streets, barking dogs) that might not be considered "real" police work are often of a great concern to the community •Includes community representatives in the decision-making processes of the police department. -Formal advisory boards within the agency help to establish relationship with the community neighborhoods to relay information and concerns. •The goal of community policing is to make neighborhoods and the surrounding community safer. •Community policing advocates to build and maintain a community to self regulate the conduct of its residents and visitors without resorting to the enforcement of the police except in extreme situations. •Flint (Michigan) Neighborhood Foot Patrol Program in 1982 found that citizens were happier with the local police when they patrolled on foot because signified that they were trying to do more than just punish individuals for breaking the law.

COMMUNITY POLICING ERA

•Today, the Community Policing Model is what is implemented in the United States. -Community policing focuses on zero tolerance policing -Also focuses on CompStat models - a program consisting of weekly statistics as a basis to help reduce crime and for other police operations •Each of these models look into the Broken Windows Theory for problem solving tactics.

SWORN VS. CIVILIAN

•Traditionally, any job in the police agency was held by a sworn officer (police officer or plainclothes detective) -Women held ONLY secretarial jobs or "matron" positions (ex: nurses) in jails. •Now, many departments employ civilians to perform tasks that do not require extensive police training and the experience of a sworn officer. -Ex: record keeping, analysts -These personnel are trained only for their specific position, they do not have police powers or carry weapons. -Paid less than a sworn police officer.

HIRING PROCESS

•Traditionally, individuals interested in police careers were hired by that specific agency and then were sent to a police academy for training and state certification as a police officer. •Today, police requirements (training and education) have expanded so other options have developed. -Preservice training- person who is seeking a police career may pay for their own training before being hired, which could give them a competitive edge over other potential hires. -In some states, police certification processes have become apart of a two year community college or vocational program. 1) Individuals will graduate with a certification from the state as a police officer but will not have any police authority until hired by an agency. •Police recruits have to pass multiple tests to be hired -Written, psychological, and physical tests -Background checks for character and conduct -Some agencies require a polygraph test -Some agencies put candidates through testing centers to test skills and instinctive reactions to certain situations. •Preservice training options do not exist for federal law enforcement jobs. -The FBI and DEA have their own academies that train their candidates in Quantico, VA -All other federal agencies train at FLETC centers in GA or AZ

TRIBAL

•Tribal Indian lands have their own police forces in the US. -The Navajo Nation has one of the more developed agencies -Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs also has a separate police force for tribal lands whose territories may cross municipal, county or even state lines. •Tribal police have jurisdiction over everyone in the tribal land, whether Native American or not. -Tribal Jurisdiction over members of the tribe may include traditional methods of resolution (community circles, banishment, property exchanges) as well as more modern resolutions through civil and criminal court.

PRIVATE POLICE

•Usually don't have authorization to enforce the law like a local or state police officer would, however, some are now granted some traditional police powers in small privately controlled areas (ex: vacation resorts). •"private security" •They can also be first responders for alarms (ex: fire alarms), have the power to limit visitors access to the property (make sure nobody is trespassing after hours), and may handle disputes in the same way a traditional police would. •These agencies help people and businesses without having to make sure a local police officer was available 24/7 to do the same job. This helps the local police by freeing up their time so they can respond to other incidents in the community. -Basically if you can afford it, you can hire a private police officer -Many celebrities have them •In recent decades as technology improves, the need for private police officers has decreased due to advanced security features that make many public areas and even private property safe. •Now, some private police officers have come under contract by the public police agencies. -Might help out at crime scenes, prove protection for prisoners at the hospital, and conduct background checks on new employees.

POLICING THE POLICE

•When there is a police scandal, the need for public reform becomes known from the public. -Historically, when this happened there were more rules written, more policies in place for the agencies, more training for officers, etc. and the police would ensure the public that it was just an issue of a "bad apple" •Today, when this happens there are usually lawsuits. -The DOJ uses lawsuits to make consent decrees that specify changes that the agency must make.These changes are usually monitored by other agencies and have to be reported to the federal court. -Lawsuits can take years to settle, so at the local level police misconduct concerns are subject to civilian review. a)This misconduct is heard by a board composed entirely of residents or a mix of residents and other police officers b)Judgements are made whether or not the police was in accordance with the law, policy, and community expectations of conduct.

Juvenile investigations

•Works as an investigative unit in juvenile crime •Works as a support unit that works with social service agencies to get juvenile offenders back on track

The major functions of the ATF are to reduce the risk to public safety from:

•illegal firearms trafficking •Criminals possessing firearms illegally (felons) •Criminal organizations and gang violence •Bombs and explosives •Arson •Also focus on tax laws involving alcohol and tobacco in the U.S. •Career paths: Agents, Analysts, Administrative positions, etc.

Community Era

•late 20th century to the early 21st century •Community policing began in response to the socially turbulent decade of the 1960s when the public began to lose confidence in the police. •However, police wanted to focus on improving citizen satisfaction with police services, reducing fear of crime, improving quality-of-life problems, and enhancing community-building efforts.