Criminology Final
An end-to-end model of theory building would most likely include all of the following EXCEPT: A bridging theory. A fully-integrated theory. A micro-level theory. A macro-level theory.
fully integrated theory
specific deterrence CH13
•The view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts. •Incarceration may delay recidivism. •Harshest treatment may increase rather than reduce crime. -Punishment may breed defiance rather than deterrence -Harshest punishments may case psychological problems -Neighborhoods may feel victimized
Operant learning CH12
-how does the environment effect individual behavior and how consequences of that influence that individual -all behavior is the result of past life events in the person -reinforcement and punishment determine the frequency of a particular behavior being increased or decreased
evaluating routine activities CH13
-the theory is very popular •Explains crime -Among different groups of people -In different locations -Accounts for changes in crime rates over time•Not a lot of "why do people commit crimes"
age graded theory - Sampson and Laub CH14
-Crime in the Making (1993). - course of a criminal career can be affected by events that occur later in life. •There are specific turning points (events) that can alter its course. -Criminal Careers start at different times and are influenced by life-event variables. •Parents - children •Friends - teens •Marriage/work - adulthood. -Social capital - positive relations with individuals and institutions that are life-sustaining. •Role of Social Capital creates opportunity for turning points. •Military •Marriage •Career/Work. Cumulative disadvantage - prior problems create future ones. •Parental incarceration - reduces income, social capital, increases antisocial peers, stigma, etc. Turning points - events •Jobs/Careers - turn to conventional lives. •Marriage - conventional ties to family reduce deviance. Love, marriage, and criminality •Key is that marriage is to a "non-criminal". •Holland research supports this conclusion. •This assumes relationships endure - which is problematic. •McCarthy/Casey - found romantic love fills emotional void as people break from parents. •Love (not sex) is the key. •Loveless sex creates more problems then it solves. •Conger - Nurtured kids are good marriage partners. •Quality of how a person was parented that influences successful romantic unions in adulthood. Testing age-graded theory •People change over life course. •Carriers are dynamic. •Blocking career paths of offenders ties them to deviance. •Deviance is cumulative as is Social Capital.
propensity theory - wilson/herrnstein CH14
-Genetic makup/intelligence/body size + poverty + family dysfunction predispose someone to a choice of crime. -Latent traits - these traits are stable over time, and onset early in life. •Low IQ, impulsivity, brain chemistry issues, -Propensity - stable, but opportunities vary. -Crime and human nature -Self-interest.
Neutralization Theory CH11
-Gresham M. Sykes and David Matza -focus on delinquent guilt and shame -Delinquents neutralize guilt through denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, appeal to higher loyalties
self control theory CH14
-crime similar to "analogous behaviors" -excessive drug use -speeding -smoking -drinking -unprotected sex HOW? -they all provide quick gratification -they all are engaged without regard to future cost -engaging in these behaviors means -people choose short term rewards over potential long term consequences -self control means the ability to delay gratification -putting off the short term reward in the light of the long term consequence -it accounts for crime as well many poor decisions such as excessive drinking, drugs, fast driving, unprotected sex, etc -this is a trait that is fixed early in childhood and is enduring throughout life -it is stable in the life course
Learning theories CH12
-focus on socialization -differential association -differential identification -social learning -differential reinforcement
evaluation of containment theory CH11
-which comes first, self concepts or criminality? -does positive self concept -prevent delinquency lack of empirical evidence
social learning theory Akers CH12
1. Behavior is learned through operant conditioning with social learning principles such as banduras' modeling. 2. Learning occurs both in social and non-social ways and situations trigger cues for behavior. •Fight/Flight/Accomodate 3. Non-social learning exists, it occurs where groups provide the reinforcement -Peer Pressure 4. Groups provide stimuli based on their position in society -Powerful groups influence more than weak ones. -Race/Class/Gender all play a role. 5.This provides the basis for differential reinforcement. -We all have different situations/groups available to us. 6.Learning any behavior is a function of reinforcing stimuli and contingencies for reinforcement based on the social situation of the individual. -Bad can be good. 7.Social situations give reinforcers and these include attitudes and behaviors. 8.Individual learned behavior is predicted by a combination of immediate reinforcement and the conforming or deviant values from past reinforcement. -Fool me once 9.The frequency and duration of a behavior depends on the amount, frequency, and probability of reinforcement. -Social reinforcements vary by the groups with which we "hang" -Our Position in society determines the patterns of behavior based on our values and definitions of "acceptable".
elder - life course CH14
1. Lives and historical times. Studying people over time allows us to gauge the impact of history on our lives. •2. The timing of lives. The timing of our lives refers to the occurrence, length, and sequence of events that occur in our lives and how they affect us. •3. Linked lives. Life-course theory supports the idea that human lives are interdependent. • 4. Human Agency. Finally, life-course sociology acknowledges that individuals make decisions that impact their own lives. Life-course study investigates human agency within a social context (Elder, 2001). Using a life-course perspective allows us to consider events that are common in life and measure their influence on the peoples' life trajectories.
social learning theory CH12
Albert Bandura -theory of aggression -aggression is learned, not biological learning aggression and violence -social learning theory maintains that delinquent behavior is learned through the same psychological processes as any other behavior -responses to behavior either reinforce it or extinguish it
rational choice theory CH13
Assumes that Victims and potential offenders weigh the costs/risks and benefits/rewards of engaging in crime •Modern inspiration comes from economic models of rational decision-making -Related to concepts of Exchange theory -Admits that desirability is socially structured.
social learning bandura CH12
Bandura suggests that there are instigators that will elicit behavior: -Aversive instigators - Physical assaults, verbal threats and insults -Incentive instigators - Rewards -Modeling instigators - Observed violence. -Instructional instigators - Being taught to be criminal. -Delusional instigators - Bizzare beliefs that violence is necessary.
differential reinforcement CH12
Burgess and Akers suggests that: -The persistence of criminal behavior depends on whether or not it is rewarded or punished -The most meaningful rewards and punishments are those given by groups that are important in an individual's life. -Punishment by those unimportant to us mean nothing. -People learn to behave in a violent or aggressive way, but perhaps something within the personality of a criminal creates a susceptibility to aggressive or violent models in the first place. •Predisposition.
control balance theory CH15
Charles R. Tittle •Exertion of control of other people •Some people more easily controlled by others •Crime is a result of too much exertion of control or too much control by others
Routine activities theory CH13
Crime occurs when three things converge in time/space -Motivated offender -Suitable target -Lack of capable guardian Routine activities serve to bring offenders and victims into the same space at the same time. -Certain spaces are more conducive to "targets" being soft.
life course theories CH14
Criminality follows the developmental processes of life: -Criminality is a dynamic process •Age of onset - most desist. •Early onset - strongly predicts criminality. •.Truancy, Substance abuse, Cruelty to animals, lying, theft, violence. •Earlier the more likely it is to persist and become more serious.
Drift Theory CH11
David Matza -extension of neutralization theory -people "bond" to the moral order - how can we strengthen, and/ or how can we weaken this bond -once used, we become in a state of drift which make delinquent behavior acceptable. - therefore delinquents drift in and out of criminal behavior based on their used of neutralization you can drift from conformity to non-conformity based on social forces -situational instigators allow for drift in and out -neighborhood, groups, etc all provide the foundation for our behaviors
integrated strain control theory CH15
Delbert S. Elliott •Integration of strain, social learning, and social control theories -Childhood socialization affects bonds •Attachment is key variable •This is differentially related to neighborhood organization •Failure to bond and social strain weaken social bonds •Weak bonds lead to crime.
Albert J. Reiss (1951) social control theorist CH11
Delinquency is the result of the failure of control mechanisms: -a failure to internalize socially accepted and prescribes norms of behavior -a breakdown of internal controls -a lack of social rules or a break down in those rules, that prescribe behavior in the family, the school, and other important social groups He suggests that macro and micro approaches combined assist in predicting delinquency -delinquency happens when these three things happen at the same time
Social learning Bandura CH12
Direct Experience -What people learn from direct experience is determined by what they themselves do and what happens to them. -The individual's behavior in the first instance and their restraint are said to be "reinforced" by the rewards and punishments they receive. -Violence and aggression may be learned, but they may not be expressed until they are elicited.
Per-Olof H. Wikstrom Situational action theory CH15
His main research interests are developing a unified theory of the causes of crime -(Situational Action Theory), -Interested in knowledge-based prevention policies Crime is a function of the 1.convergence of propensity to commit crime 2.and exposure to a setting that is conducive to commit crime. Because these vary crime commission varies. •Analysis relates to -Persons engaged in the acts decisions -Predicting if a crime will occur depends on •Perception-choice process •Social setting/milieu 1.Social setting/milieu 2.Level of social/moral development of the individual 3.Factors that underlie criminal motivation •These underlie the propensity to take any action in a specific setting. •Degree of self-control plays a role of the setting interpretation as well.
All of the following were mentioned as difficulties in using terrorism in the development of criminological theory EXCEPT: Motivation is not a government concern so that part of theory is left out. It does not seem to fit well in conflict oriented frameworks. It is politically determined and therefore, politically defined. Terrorists may vary according to who officials object to at any given time.
It does not seem to fit well in conflict oriented frameworks.
Differential reinforcement CH12
Jeffrey -counter argument to DAT -adds to the 6 principles -satiation -deprivation Jeffrey- summary -People vary in their past experiences -Daily experiences have distinct meanings -Meanings are related to previous criminal activities -Criminal behavior is not reinforced of punished each time it happens •Past experiences thus can't always predict future.
Strain theories concept summary: anomie theory, institutional anomie theory, relative deprivation, and general strain theory CH14
Major premise strengths research focus
self control theory CH14
Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi's -general theory of crime -crime stems from a lack of self control -focus on impulsivity -crime = acts of force or fear in pursuit of self interest •Hirschi reject his former ideas about social bond -Argue that people commit crimes because they lack self-control. -Social bonds are spurious to crime. -Low self-control people don't bond with conformists anyway. •They start with an INDUCTIVE look at crime and attempt to describe how this behavior occurs.
Differential reinforcement CH12
Most important forms of reinforcement -Material objects are most important. -Thus people are not important reinforces of crime. (DAT) •Stuff received reinforces it. -In total, Soc, Psych, and Physiology all predict criminal behavior continuance. Poverty predicts -Health/Diet/pollutants •Brain development - Opportunity structures •Social options - Structural reinforces •CJS responses to poverty.
Social learning - Bandura CH12
Observational Learning: Albert Bandura argues that people learn violence and aggression through behavioral modeling. -Physical and verbal assaults, and insults train a child to behave in this manner. -Cultural "macho" man stereotypes reinforce this behavior. -All people self-regulate but links to pro-social activities (church, education, etc) assist self regulation. -Behavior is socially transmitted through examples. We cannot "invent" that which we do not see. •Models come primarily from the family, the subculture, and the mass media.
Lifestyle theory Hindelang CH13
Position in social structure effects victimization •Higher status = lower victimization -Why? Activities are less risky Rational component - what behaviors are desirable?•What we see as desirable is related to our structural backgrounds, and thus creates greater risk of victimization •Conscious decisions can change these patterns.
discriminative stimuli CH12
Present before or after an action -knowledge of reinforcement/punishment likelihood (advertising) -schedules of consequences -the frequency of occurrence and the likelihood of a consequence will occur (swift v long term timing of punishments)
Punishment - averse stimuli CH12
Reduces the frequency of the behavior it follows -positive=presenting an averse stimuli (spanking) -negative=removal of a reward (no makeup on quiz)
differential reinforcement CH12
Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers Merged differential association and psychological idea of reinforcement -Would later become the more recognized, contemporary social learning theory
general strain theory CH14
Robert agnew: -adolescent strain results not only from failure to achieve economic goals, but from failure to achieve noneconomic goals -negative effect (anger) Multiple sources of strain: -failure to achieve positively valued goals -disjunction of expectations and achievements -removal of positivity valued stimuli -presentation of negative stimuli consequences of strain: -strain leads to negative "affective states" -feelings that can lead to action coping with strain: this theory acknowledges that not everyone who experiences strain becomes a criminal. WHY? -many are quipped to cope with their frustration and anger -the capacity to deal with strain depends on personal experiences throughout life -this can vary over time
Social learning theory Akers CH12
Social environment is the most important source of reinforcement -Most deviant learning is social. -Sub-cultures predict which how a stimuli will be received •SADD (students against drunk driving) - vs - DRUNK -Definitions of behavior are moral components of a "right or wrong". Definitions of "right/wrong" once learned form the basis of how we describe a stimuli. -These can be general- "don't drink" or "everyone drinks" -Approval of a behavior is a reinforcing agent in the action. •We all drink and joke about it.
Which of the following was the example used in the text of someone who changed criminal tendencies over the life-course? The young man who was an Al-Qaeda terrorist. The young gang member who moved to Canada. The young woman who had been a teen prostitute. The juvenile in the Philadelphia Birth Cohort study.
The young man who was an Al-Qaeda terrorist.
Integrative and critical theories CH15
These theories are contemporary in criminology •They take a variety of perspectives •Frequently try to integrate ideas from competing theories •Frequently suffer from logical flaws.
control balance CH15
Three types of behavior restores balance for those who sense a deficit: •Predation: direct forms of physical violence •Defiance: challenges to control mechanisms •Submission: passive obedience Three types of behavior restores Those with an excess of control engage in: •Exploitation: using others to commit crime •Plunder: using power without regard for others •Decadence: spur of the moment irrational acts
Social bonding theory (aka social control theory)
Travis Hirschi -most popular criminological theory today -focus on how bonds influence inner containment
Containment Theory CH11
Walter Reckless Key concepts: Inner Containment -internal pushes -internal pressures Outer containments (less common) -external pressures -external pulls
Inner containment CH11
a personal control ensured by a number of personal characteristics. the most important container -capacity to withstand temptations toward deviance, internalized morality, integrity, fear of punishment and the desire to be good interior motivations and components such as self control, good self image and ego strength, frustration tolerance, ability to concentrate, goal orientation and many others
life control theories CH14
also known as developmental theories -utilize all disciplines in conceptualizing the causes of crime -focus on longitudinal studies
4 bonds - Hirschi CH11
attachment: attachment to conformists. this may include parents, school and peers commitment: commitment to or investment in conventional action, including vocational aspirations, educational expectations involvement: involvement or preoccupation with activities that promote the interests of society. How much time is spent? belief: consists of assent to the society's value system. Can you win if you play by the rules?
Reinforcement CH12
any event that follows the occurrence of behavior and that alters and increases the frequency of behavior -positive=rewards -negative=removal of something
According to Thornberry, a child will avoid deviance if first successful in: Establishing inner containment. Sports or other school achievements. Making close friends with neighborhood children. Attachment to parents.
attachment to parents
Rational choice theory is most strongly identified in the work of: Clark and Cornish. Hindelang, Gottfredson and Garofalo. Gottfredson and Hirschi. Cohen and Felson.
clark and cornish
All of the following can be used to describe rational theories EXCEPT: -Classical. -Process-oriented. -Micro-theoretical. -Conflict-oriented.
conflict oriented
assumptions of control theory CH11
control theory involves the classical human nature assumption -all good people are self interested and free to engage in delinquency. what hurts their inner controls is if they have a broken, or weakened bonds to society or their stake in conformity is low -society must serve as the restraining influence on behavior that is inherently self interested each of these 4 elements affects the bond between the person and society -if one element is weakened, the others can be weakened as well -control theory assumes that a failure to bond early in life does not necessarily follow a person research supports social control theory but it is enhanced dramatically when joined with other structural and process theories -social control theory primarily explains delinquency, not adult crime -Hirschi has failed to clearly define affective values, beliefs, norms, and attitudes that inhibit delinquency, a lack of one or more which are purported to cause delinquency -Hirschis conception of social bonds has complemented competing explanations of group level criminality such as gang behavior -Hirschi has since abandon his theory suggesting that these bonds are "spurious" to one other important indicator of crime and delinquency
The integrated theory that brings together theories of rationally-motivated offenders, routine activities, victimology and ecology is called: Adolescent subculture theory Revolutionary context theory Critical incident metatheory Crime and social context
crime and social context
Reckless - containment CH11
explains that the probability of deviance is directly related to the extent to which internal pushes, external pressures, and external pulls are controlled by ones inner and outer containment - criminals are generally people who lack a positive self concept and therefore are not able to resist temptations when they arise
A routine activities theorist would argue that victims and targets are randomly distributed through all types of settings.
false
According to Semiotic theory the reality of the criminal justice system is defined by the person, the setting and the application of situational norms.
false
Race and social class plan an important role in self-control theory. True False
false
basic principles of learning CH12
learning happens bc of the consequences of a behavior reinforcement=likelihood punishment=avoid the act variation occurs in behavior bc of past experiences
The subjective perspective of crime, of which cultural criminology is an example, is also known as: Self-help. Functionalism. Phenomenological. Chaos.
phenomenological
evaluation of neutralization/drift theories CH11
popular ideas -when does the neutralization occur? -before or after criminal act? -serious offenders do not necessarily experience guilt -has some empirical support
stability of self control CH14
self control can be taught but ONLY very early in a persons life -the lack of self control is the cause of crime -poor parenting does not teach self control -the theory advocated programs designed at intervening with children within the first 6 to 8 years of life
Basic principles of behavior CH12
skinner behavior is shaped by consequences -positive and negative reinforcement, positive and negative punishment, discriminative stimuli, schedules
Routine activities can be considered a continuation of the Chicago School because of its emphasis on: Case studies and crime prevention. Social disorganization and ecology. Learning styles and social class. Ecology and culture conflict.
social disorganization and ecology
All of the following are sources of strain that may lead to deviance according to Agnew EXCEPT: The removal of intensive negative stimuli. Peer pressure to engage in delinquency. Perceiving oneself to be the victim of discrimination of injustice. Insufficient coping skills
the removal of intensive negative stimuli
Rational choice theories developed in the midst of social events that included all of the following EXCEPT: The Anti-Immigration Protests. The Victims' Rights Movement. The Prison Expansion Era. The Drug War.
the anti immigration protests
Positive blockage and negative avoidance combine in general strain theory to create: The highest rates of delinquency and deviance. The lowest rates of delinquency and deviance. Low rates of delinquency except in persistent offenders. Low rates of delinquency except in dysfunctional families.
the highest rates of delinquency and deviance
contemporary theories CH14
these are the most commonly used theories in criminological research today -they each are derivatives of other theories
deterrence considerations CH13
type of offense: Instrumental - Committed for material gain, done with planning. Expressive - committed for emotional reasons, done with no planning. •High/Low commitment to offending -Professional -Amateur •Public/Private setting of crime -Public crimes are more "deterable". Marginalization of deterrence •High commitment - less deter-able. •Criminals are optimists •They don't expect to get caught.-Do you?•Minimal chances of getting caught •Clearance rates are low. •Minimization of impact of incarceration. •Sanctions with no meaning
Ray Jeffrey CH12
uses ideas of the Staats - behavior modifications -publishes to support DAT (differential association theory) and Sutherland
types of deterrence CH13
•Absolute - Against the law •General - I saw you get punished so I won't do it because I fear that punishment •Specific - I was punished, I learned my lesson, never again. •Objective - Impact of the legal punishment •Subjective - Perception of certainty.
life course terms CH14
•Activation: the ways delinquent behaviors, once started, continue §Acceleration: Increased frequency of delinquency. §Stabilization: Continuing of behavior. §Diversification: Propensity to become more involved in different types of delinquency. •Aggravation- developmental sequence of events that lead the individual into more serious types of delinquency. •Desistance - slowing down the frequency of delinquency.
Neoclassical Perspectives CH13
•All theories under this banner view criminals as rational •There are three (3) theories in this area: -Routine activities -Lifestyle -Rational choice theory
deterrence theory CH13
•Assumes that potential and actual legal punishment can deter crime -Do you shoot someone at the police station? •Swift •CERTAINTY - KEY Variable •Severe
related concepts CH13
•Committing crime for first time (initiation) •Ceasing to commit crime (desistance) •Situational factors •Opportunity
Life Course Fundamentals (continuity of crime) CH14
•Continuity of Crime -Best predictor of future criminality is the past. -Troubled kids are more likely to be anti-social teens. -Most criminal adults are the ones who continue bad behavior in prison. -This is "state dependent". •A lack of survival skills, employment, etc lead to crime. •Delinquents who desist have more emotional support, better job satisfaction, closer peers, and few mental health issues.
Cornish and Clarke CH13
•Criminology had neglected the actual decision-making process •Included concepts of: -Benefits -Fun -Excitement -Prestige
Life Course Criminology CH14
•Developmental, or life course theories of crime are all explanations of onset, continuance, escalation, de-escalation, and desistance of offending behavior. -Glen Elder (2001) is one of the founders of the life-course concept. -He proposes four central themes to the life-course paradigm that make it unique as a method for study.
limitations of rational choice theory CH13
•Exaggerates the rationality of offenders •Violent crimes are often emotional crimes •The presence of drugs/alcohol in the offender's system -Selective disinhibition effects
economic rational choice CH13
•Gary S. Becker -Choosing to engage in crime is similar to choosing to make a consumer purchase -Expected utility model •What options do you have for economic survival? •Are these the same options for criminals?
deterrence research CH13
•General deterrent effects of legal sanctions are small/nonexistent -Death penalty •U.S. has highest murder rate in the Industrialized world •Only one to use DP. •Specific deterrent effects of legal sanctions are small/nonexistent
lifestyle theory CH13
•Hindelang - why are some more likely to be victims than others? •Answer = Lifestyle -Theory has three core ideas •Social roles we play are socially constructed and effect our behavior. •The more social outings you have, the increased your victimization -Youth victimization thus makes sense.
Rational Choice CH13
•Humans have free will •Structures create conditions for life choices •These conditions determine the social interactions between people and society. •These interactions create the opportunities we have in our lifestyles and activities. •These lifestyles are the critical element in placing at risk for crime. •Changes in society lifestyles creates changes in risk of victimization and possible offending. •We effect our victimization risk through decisions to act in certain ways. •Lifestyle choices increase or decrease likely victimization.
evaluation of self control theory CH14
•One of the most popular theories today •Circular reasoning •Effects of low self-control are not very strong •Low self-control a constant over the life-course? •Assumption that all crime is spontaneous and unskilled
expected utility model factors CH13
•Opportunity to earn money through legitimate occupations •Amount of actual money people can earn legitimately •Amount of money gained illegitimately •Possibility of arrest•Possibility of being punished
event decisions CH13
•Preparing to commit a crime •Selecting a target •Committing the crime •Escaping •Aftermath of the crime
Life Course Fundamentals (problem behavior syndrome) CH14
•Problem Behavior Syndrome -A cluster of antisocial behaviors frequently are found in individuals. These may include •family dysfunction, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early pregnancy, educational underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking, and unemployment, as well as crime. -Crime is a social problem rather than a result of other social problems. • Linked to: individual level problems such as: •Impulsiveness, rebelliousness, low ego, conduct disorders, ADHD, drug abuse, low intelligence. -Crime IS a social problem, not a product of them. •People involved in crime may fall prey to other social problems. •Criminal conduct increases the chances of: •Short life, death from accident, suicide, homicide. •The more crime you commit the more likely you are to die younger.
Life Course Fundamentals CH14
•Relationships and behaviors determine adult life course. -Begins very early. Children learn conformity to social rules and to function effectively in society. -Later begin careers, leave parental homes, find permanent relationships, and marry and begin families. Normal transitions take place in order. -Disruptions in these can be destructive. -Low SES and family dysfunction are most susceptible during transitions.
interaction theory CH14
•Terrence P. Thornberry •Emphasis on peer associations and social bonds •Focus on school bonds •Used to explain antisocial behavior at different stages of the life course
life course persistence CH14
•Trajectory Theory Pathways to crime Moffitt - two pathways •Adolescent-limited and life course persistent offenders •Start with minor scrapes, leads to more serious, declines around 18. •Trajectory Theory §Pathways to crime Moffitt - two pathways •Life course persists. •Start early and continue throughout life. •Family dysfunction + neurological issues -May stem from maternal drug use, poor nutrition, toxins. Social support from delinquents. §Late starters and abstainers •Late starters - more likely to be involved in property and non-violent crimes. •Abstainers - have all the reasons to offend but don't. •Moffitt - Social introverts •Farrington - Personality traits - shy, few friends, non-deviant families. •Chen & Adams - Abstainers have prosocial friends who are good students and abstain. • §
life course fundamentals: transition too early or too late CH14
•Transitions too early or late Early sex hazards - Urban Youth •7th grade: 31% of males and 8% of females reported sexual initiation; •10th grade, these figures were 66% and 52%, respectively. •RECENT SEX MALES: 20% at 7th, 39% at 8th, 54% at 10th grade with 6% father a child by 10th grade. •RECENT SEX FEMALES: 5% at 7th , 15% at 8th, 42% at 19th grade with 12% had been pregnant by grade 10. •Early initiators had an increased likelihood of having had multiple sex partners, •been involved in a pregnancy, •forced a partner to have sex, •had frequent intercourse and had sex while drunk or high. •Guttmacher http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3326801.htmlTeen PG •Transitions too early or late Early sex hazards - •Income deprivation •Drop out rates •Delinquency •Increased susceptibility to disease •Cervical cancer •STD's •Emotional development •Mental health issues •http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23517003 •http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK43750/
self control study CH14
•Tremblay and Craig 1995: "Developmental crime prevention" -Researches took "at risk" preschoolers and randomly assigned them to groups, then followed them longitudinally. -Students and parents in the experimental group were give self-control training. Control subjects received nothing. -Study supports the claim that teach self control in early childhood decreases delinquency later.
evaluation of other social learning theories CH12
•Very popular variety of theories •Causal ordering issues •Reasons for peer influence not addressed •Not all criminal behavior stems from peer influences •Admits to non-peer causation, doesn't explain it.