Critical Thinking: Chapter 3

Evaluating

So, how well did you do? Always gauge how well you think you did on a test or assignment and then keep track of your scores. Your score should be close to what you actually got on the assignment? If not, then work toward that goal. Also, keep in mind that people are not always good at spotting their own limitations, and instead, they tend to overestimate their own abilities (Dunning, et al., 2003). When asking 141 students in a psychology class to estimate their own performance on the test they had just taken, Dunning, et al. (2003) found that the lowest performing students overestimated their performance by around 30%. You may think that their research is an isolated case, but it isn't. Time and again researchers have found poor performers in a variety of tasks from spotting grammatical errors to quizzing "hunters about their knowledge of firearms" (p. 84). Dunning, et al. (2003) also discuss the "Double Curse" for poor performers (p. 84). This curse occurs because the skills that a person needs "to evaluate the accuracy of one's responses" is almost identical to the skills a person needs to "produce and recognize logically sound arguments" (p. 85). In these cases, the student needs to recognize that they have not developed the skills needed to master the material. So, they need to identify those weaknesses whether in reading comprehension, grammatical usage, oral communication, critical thinking, etc. and seek out additional resources and tutoring. But, the student, must be motivated to succeed. The student must also have the right mindset. Some students are not motivated to succeed because they believe in a "Fixed Mindset," which is the belief that you have a fixed amount of intelligence and that your intelligence can never change. This is an archaic belief that is not true. A person can become more intelligent with learning (Dweck, 2016). A "Growth Mindset" is where a person knows that he or she can get smarter with hard work and perseverance. Yes, learning is hard work, and yes, some people learn certain topics more quickly than others, but in the end, you can learn how to do it. Keep in mind what Shank (2017) asks and answers, "How do people adapt to a rapidly changing workplace and quickly changing job skill needs? They learn to learn better and faster. Metacognitive strategies are among the methods used to help people understand and regulate their learning" (p. 43). So, utilize this metacognitive process and strategies not only for college, but also in the workforce.

Planning

Step 1: Understand all parts of the task The most important step is to understand all parts of the assignment that you have been given whether the assignment comes from your professor or from your boss. Never say you understand a task when you don't really know what that person wants you to do. You should always ask for clarification until you understand all parts of that task. However, keep in mind that you should never ask the person how to do the task; otherwise, you aren't using your critical thinking skills, but theirs. Your boss and your professor will expect you to take up the challenge and tackle the assignment. It's okay to check along the way to see if you are on the right track with a project, but again, it is your project not their project. In the classroom, one way to understand the task is to determine the learning level of the assignment. Dr. Saundra McGuire (2015) suggests that you utilize Bloom's taxonomy chart. Benjamin Bloom first established this learning pyramid that was later revised by his graduate students, and educators have been using this chart for years to develop student learning objectives or outcomes for their courses. Before you read further, find your syllabus for this course, and at the beginning of the syllabus you will see the student learning objectives. Look at the chart below and see what level of learning this course requires of you. Now, let's step through each level of the pyramid: Remembering (lowest level): recalling information from your memory. For example, you could be expected to memorize information and recall it. Understanding: comprehending information that you have heard or read. For example, you could be expected to be able to teach what you have learned to someone else or put what you have learned in your own words without distorting the meaning. Applying: Taking the information that you learned and using it. For example, you could be expected to carry out a procedure where you have used the information that you learned. Evaluating: Examining what you have learned from a variety of perspectives using set standards. For example, you could be asked to examine the viewpoint of an article to determine if it is a credible source. Creating (highest level): taking what you have learned and producing something new. For example, you could be asked to research the behavior of crickets, and in doing so, you learn that no one has examined how crickets react to vibration. Therefore, you conduct an experiment testing how crickets react to vibrations. Pyramid of student learning objectives, revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy Learning Pyramid (Anderson, et al., 2001). From bottom to top: remembering, understanding, applying, evaluating, creating So, you now know how professors apply Bloom's taxonomy to your courses, but let's look at how you can apply Bloom's taxonomy to your studying (McGuire, 2015). Examine the Bloom's taxonomy chart again, and ask yourself, "At what level am I operating at now when I study for my courses?" Be honest with yourself. And now ask yourself, "At what level do I think I need to operate in order to make A's in my college courses?" (McGuire, 2015, p. 36). You should also ask yourself, "At what level should I study to master these skills like critical thinking and written communication in order to be able to use them in the workforce?" Each level of Bloom's taxonomy is often paired with action verbs, so take the time to do an internet search for "Bloom's Taxonomy and Action Verbs" to see what lists of verbs you can find.

Defining Metacognition

As discussed in Chapter One, metacognition supports critical thinking with the idea that in order for a person to learn to become a deliberate critical thinker, then you must be able to analyze your own thinking skills. This analysis of your own thinking is called Metacognition. The term, "metacognition," was coined by John Flavell in the late 1970's when he was studying how children learn, and metacognition has now been applied to learning strategies for adults (Flavell, 1979, p. 906). Flavell (1979) believed that there were four phenomenon that made up metacognition. The first is Metacognitive Knowledge, which is a person's knowledge or beliefs having to do with the many ways that people process information as thinking human beings (Flavell, 1979). Flavell provides this example, "a child's acquired belief that unlike many of her friends, she is better at arithmetic than at spelling" (Flavell, 1979, p. 906). There are three major categories of factors that can affect one's mental tasks: "Person, Task, and Strategy" (Flavell, 1979, p. 907). The person category would be everything you have come to believe about observing yourself and others as how people think and making comparisons (Flavell, 1979). There are three ways that people observe thinking. First, these differences can be determined by noticing how you process your own thoughts, which is called Intraindividual differences where, for example, you may notice that you can learn song lyrics better by listening to them on the radio rather than reading a transcript of them (Flavell, 1979). You can also determine differences in thought processes in how you think versus how others think, which is called interindividual differences (Flavell, 1979). For example, you notice that one of your friends has an easier time learning mathematics than you do. The third way to examine Metacognitive Knowledge is to notice universals of cognition, which are thought processes consistent among people or groups of people (Flavell, 1979). For example, people learn the concepts of thought processes like "remembering, communicating, problem solving, etc." (p. 907). As we are learning about thought processes, people "can fail to understand something or someone in two different ways: a) by not achieving any coherent representation at all, or b) by understanding incorrectly, that is, misunderstanding" (Flavell, 1979, p. 907). Therefore, you must carefully consider all factors and interactions of how thought processes work and make sure that when analyzing what others are thinking, you don't jump to false conclusions. The task category concerns us with the information we learn for how to manage a thought process (Flavell, 1979). For example, Flavell (1979) states that "the child will come to know that some cognitive enterprises are more demanding and difficult than others, even given the same available information. For example, it is easier to recall the gist of a story than its exact wording" (p. 907). You must carefully consider the learning task and understand exactly what you are asked to do. For example, if your Composition professor gives you a list of vocabulary words and definitions and then tells you that you will have a test on them, but the test will be in the form of a crossword puzzle where the word goes in the blank and has to be spelled correctly, but the crossword puzzle hint is the definition, then you would need to select a strategy to meet this specific task. Your professor further explains that writers need to be able to select words that fit the meaning that they want. Not understanding the task can lead you to select the wrong learning strategy. You need to make sure you understand all parts of the assignment or task that you have been given. If you don't understand, then ask for clarification. Not knowing the exact structure of the task could cause you to select the wrong strategy. The strategy category concerns us with choosing an effective strategy for a given learning task (Flavell, 1979). For example, a student may find that it is an effective way to learn new information by taking what is read and putting it into his or her own words. Looking at the example in the paragraph above, ask yourself, what is a good learning strategy for taking this crossword puzzle test? Think about it before you continue reading. Okay - let's work this one out together. Normally, you might create flashcards with the words on one side and the definitions on the other. In the past, you said the word out loud and then memorized the definition on the back of the card without looking at it, so when you see the word, you will know what it means. But wait, with a crossword puzzle, the professor is going to give us the definition, and we have to provide the word and spell it correctly. In class, she explained that's how writers work, they look for words that have certain meanings when they write. So, let's alter how we study and take those same flashcards, but this time, we read the definition and then say the word, spell the word, then say the word again. We perform this strategy until we can use the definitions to identify the words without looking at the back of our flashcards. Flavell (1979) also mentions that most metacognitive knowledge involves all three of these concerns: people, tasks, and strategies. For example, you might believe that unlike your sister, you should recall the words out loud with their definitions on flash cards instead of writing them down ten times when trying to memorize a new set of vocabulary words and definitions. Different strategies work better for different people, so explore different types of strategies until you find one that fits the task and works for you. The second phenomenon of metacognition is Metacognitive Experiences, which are conscious behavioral or emotional experiences that accompany and pertain to any intellectual task (Flavell, 1979). Flavell (1979) states, "An example would be the sudden feeling that you do not understand something another person just said" (p. 96). Flavell (1979) believes that these experiences can "occur at any time before, after, or during a cognitive enterprise," and it can cause you to alter your metacognitive knowledge by "adding to it, deleting from it, or revising it" (Flavell, 1979, p. 907). The third phenomenon of metacognition is Goals or Tasks, which is the planning used to determine an objective for a mental achievement (Flavell, 1979). For example, a student may use her Metacognitive Experience with having difficulty on multiple choice exams to devise a goal to read all the choices carefully and eliminate the obvious incorrect choices before selecting the final choice. When that goal is carried out, then it becomes an Action or Strategy, which is the fourth phenomenon of metacognition (Flavell, 1979).

Suggested Study Strategies

Dr. McGuire (2015) has study strategies that she suggests for these areas: Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Previewing and preparing for active reading - As opposed to passive reading where you read without comprehension, you want to strive for active reading. Give yourself a reason to read the text. Before you begin reading, ask yourself what you want to learn or experience by the time you finish with the text. Once you have a goal in mind, then skim through it and look at headings and bold words. Jot down what you will basically be learning about as you read. If you don't have headings, then ask yourself a few questions while you skim through the text. You can ask yourself, "What specific task is this passage about? What is being described in this passage?" if you're reading fiction, then you may want to ask "Who are the main characters in this story? Where does it take place? What kind of story am I reading - a mystery, a social piece, etc." (p. 46). Reading actively - Develop your own questions as you read. For harder texts, go slowly and figure out what the author is trying to tell you paragraph by paragraph and take breaks when your mind stops paying attention to what you are reading. Read without other distractions if possible. Paraphrase the information as you read paragraph by paragraph until you have a completed summary of the piece. This process may take time, but for difficult pieces, you will reap the reward on your tests. Some textbook definitions are difficult to decipher, so take your time and even look at other sources for another wording of the definition if that term is difficult to understand. You can create flashcards to help memorize terms and concepts, and you can create outlines and map out the information.

Preparing and a Plan of Action

Dr. McGuire (2015) has taught various strategies to her students and with great success. Students failing tests utilize strategies that work for them, and these same students come back to her reporting that they made A's on their tests, assignments, and yes, their courses. Before we get to her strategies, she discusses her "Study Cycle," which is a suggested plan of action that you can follow or model to write your own plan of action. Study Cycle: Students are asked to follow these steps: Step 1 - Preview - "Skim the chapter, note headings and boldfaced words, review chapter summaries and chapter objectives, and come up with questions you would like the lecture to answer for you" (p. 39). Step 2 - Attend - "GO TO CLASS! Answer and ask questions and take meaningful notes" (p. 39). Did you know that you are more likely to remember the information if you handwrite your notes instead of type them on a computer? The process of typing actually interferes with the memory process (Mueller and Oppenheimer, 2014). Step 3 - Review after Class - "As soon after class as possible, read your notes, fill in gaps and note any questions." Step 4 - Study - "Repetition is the key. Ask questions such as 'why,' 'how,' and 'what if.' For intense study sessions, you should study 3-5 times per day (Refer to the Intense Study Session Plan below). For weekend reviews, read notes and materials from the week to make connections" (p. 39). Step 5 - Assess your learning - "Periodically perform reality checks and ask yourself, 'Am I using study methods that are effective? Do I understand the material enough to teach it to others?"

Process for Practicing Metacognition

Schraw and Moshman (1995) devised three ways of enacting Metacognition, which is called Metacognitive Regulation. These include planning, monitoring, and evaluating your thinking. Planning involves identifying cognitive tasks and selecting strategies and cognitive resources to meet that task. Monitoring consists of being aware of your progress when performing the cognitive task and being able to accurately determine what your performance will be on that task. Evaluating has you look at your final performance and determine if that outcome is what you wanted or if your cognitive task needs to be adjusted in order to be more effective.

Basic Strategies for Learning Material:

Using the textbook even if it is not required - If your course has a textbook, use it - even if the professor doesn't. Textbooks like other outside sources can help you learn the material for the course. Professors may sometimes leave out or gloss over information that they take for granted, but that you do not know. Having another source to refer to and fill in those knowledge gaps is important. If you don't have a textbook for your course, then try getting additional information from the tutoring center or finding sources in the library. If you find sources on the internet, just make sure they are credible and written by someone you would trust. Going to class and taking notes by hand - Going to class is the most important element of a student's success. Now, I challenge you to not only go to class, but also to engage in the class discussions. Be an active participant and ask questions. You cannot reproduce the learning that occurs in the classroom with your professor and fellow students. Also, as mentioned previously, take notes by hand. Leave the computer at home. If you have to miss class, then at least get notes from a reliable classmate. Doing homework without using solved examples as a guide - Homework is designed to give you practice, but that practice can be short changed if you only do the problems that have the answers in the back of the book. Treat homework as an opportunity to test yourself. If there is a problem you can't answer, then you have just told yourself that you have a gap in the information that you learned. Always try and power through the problem and do it yourself, and then take your work to the tutoring center or a professor for additional guidance if needed. Remember, it is always better to make a mistake on your homework, than it is to make a mistake on the test. Don't be afraid to make mistakes though because learning is all about making mistakes. How many times do you think it took Thomas Edison to learn how to make a light bulb? I can guarantee the answer isn't one try, but many and over years. And, guess what, he wasn't even working alone. Teaching material to a real or imagined audience - Every professor can tell you that they truly learned the material that they are teaching to you when they were forced to teach it to someone else. Nothing is stopping you from having that same experience. Find a friend, a parent, a sibling, a stuffed toy, an action figure, or even a lamp and teach it everything that you have learned until you are sure that it has learned it too. Explaining concepts out loud will help you identify gaps in your understanding that you can then use to target areas for your study plans. Working in pairs or groups - Find a study friend or create a study group. Teaching the material and reviewing it with others in your class can help you identify areas of confusion and examine each other's thinking. It's a chance to correct each other and hear how others think about the material. Creating practice exams - Testing yourself is a great way to deepen the knowledge you have learned. Go back through those terms in bold and the key concepts, and test yourself on them. Get with a group of classmates and create a mock test. There could be questions they construct that have not occurred to you. Frequent testing is great practice.

Monitoring

While you are practicing your study strategies, monitor how well you are learning the material. What have your test scores been like up to now? If you don't feel that you are learning the material, then rewrite your plan and change your strategies. Most importantly, be honest with yourself as to how much you are learning and how well you are doing in the course. Here are some monitoring tips to help make sure you are learning the material (National Research Council, 2000). Understanding versus Memorizing - Make sure you are understanding the material and not just memorizing it. You want what you know to enter your long-term memory, so it can become knowledge or a skill that you can use in life. Time to Learn - Make sure you are spending enough time each day devoted to studying the material to learn it. Learning a new topic is not easy. You have to devote time to learn it and practice it. Deliberate Practice - Make sure you are practicing what you are learning. Once you understand the information, then don't stop there. Give yourself practice tests. Do the homework without help. Motivation to Learn - Make sure you are motivated to learn the material. Take the time to understand how learning this information can enhance you as a person, contribute to your life, and become an essential skill when you enter the workforce. Transfer of Learning - Try to practice transferring what you have learned to the real world. How could you see yourself utilizing this information outside of the educational world?