Critical Thinking in Psychology Exam 1

Karl Popper

"Science proceeds by falsification".

Hypothesis

A statement that describes or explains a relationship between variables; "best guess".

Variable

Characteristics or conditions that change or that have different values for different individuals. Ex.- weather, health status, age.

Range effect

Occur when a dependent measure has an upper or lower limit.

Apprehensive subject role

Presents him/herself in a "good light".

Falsifiability

Scientific hypotheses and theories must always be stated so that the predictions derived from them could potentially be shown to be false.

Predictive validity

Scores obtained from a measure accurately predict bahavior according to a theory. Does the test predict behavior known to be associated with the behavior being measured? Ex. Does the GRE predict performance in graduate school? Does a new test of attention deficit disorder predict distracted behaviors?

Construct validity

Scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Do the results of a test correlate with what is theoretically known about the construct being evaluated? Ex.- Does a test of childhood pessimism predict later depression?

Concurrent validity

Scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable. Does test score correlate highly with score from a measure of known validity? Ex. correlate scores on a new self-report depression scale with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory.

Rational method

Seeking answers by the use of logical reasoning, takes the form of premises and conclusions. Limitations- logical conclusions are only valid if premise statements are true (method assumes premise statements are true), people are not very good at logical reasoning.

Good subject role

Supports the experimenter's hypothesis.

Shifting the burden of proof

The person who would ordinarily have the burden of proof in an argument attempts to switch that burden to the other person. Ex. If you don't think that the invisible pink unicorn exists, then prove it!

Non sequitur

"It does not follow." Make claim A, present evidence for claim A, conclude that therfore claim C is true. The conclusion does not follow from the premise (the starting point doesn't lead to the end point). Ex. Amy is afraid of the dark. Amy is three years old. Therefore, all three-year-olds are afraid of the dark.

Steps in the research process

1. Find a research idea, select a topic, and search the literature to find an unanswered question. 2. formulate a clear research question 3. Form a hypothesis. 4. Identify the population of interest (participants or subjects for the study), decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment. 5. identify the variables of interest and how they will be measured (operationalize measurement) 6. Select a research strategy (type: qualitative or quantitative, descriptive, correlational, or experimental). 7. Select a research design. 8. GET INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) APPROVAL 9. Conduct the study. 10. Analyze/evaluate the data. 11. Report the results. 12. Refine or reformulate your research idea (return to step 1, 2, or 3).

Steps of the scientific method

1. Observe a behavior or other phenomena (direct observation or literature review). 2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis). 3. Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction. 4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations (collect data). 5. Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis.

Deductive reasoning

A general statement that is the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples. (Hypothesis---> prediction). Deduction= decrease.

Characteristics of pseudoscience

A set of ideas presented as science that are not really science. Using situation-specific hypotheses to explain away falsification of a pseudoscientific idea or claim. Reliance on a confirmational strategy rather than a disconfirmational one to test ideas or claims. Shifting the burden of proof to skeptics and critics away from the proponent of an idea or a claim. Reliance on anecdotal evidence and testimonials to support an idea or claim. Avoidance of the peer review process that would scientifically scrutinize ideas and claims. A failure to build on an existing base of scientific knowledge. Excessive use of impressive sounding jargon that lends false credibility to ideas and claim.

Inductive reasoning

A small set of specific observations is the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations. (Observation---> hypothesis). Induction= increase.

Ratio

Absolute zero point which represents a complete abcense of the variable being measured, can apply mathematical operations and make ratio comparison, parametric statistics, continuous or discrete. Ex.- number of level presses (discrete); income (continuous); height; weight; reaction time; number of errors on a test.

Negativistic subject role

Acts contrary to the hypothesis.

The scientific method

An approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and systematically finding answers, combines several different methods of acquiring knowledge.

Fallacy

An incorrect conclusion derived from faulty evidence, common errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of your argument, they can be illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, they lack evidence to support their claims.

Critical thinking

An intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information. Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence. The art of analyzing and evaluating one's own thinking with a view to improving it.

Empirical method

Answering questions by direct observation or personal experience. Limitations- observations can be misinterpreted, sensory experience can be swayed by beliefs, time consuming and sometimes dangerous.

The process of critical thinking

Ask important questions and define important problems, clearly and precisely; gather and assesses relevant information; arrive at well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and evidence/standards.

Self-report

Ask participants direct questions to study behavior.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

Assumes if A occurred after B, then B must have caused A. If one event chronologically follows, then the first event must have caused the second. Ex. John had not won a race so far this season, but then his girlfriend got him a new pair of sneakers. Afterwards, he won the next three races. John concludes that the sneakers are what caused him to win the races.

Argument from ignorance

Assuming that unless something is proven to be false, it must be true. This rests on the concept of falsification or disconfirming evidence. A belief is not with any support by the fact that other can't prove that it is false. Ex. psychoanalytic theory.

Ad hominem

Attack on the character of the person rather than his or her arguments.

Physiological

Based on manifestations of the underlying constructs. Provide objective measures. Require extensive equipment, may not provide valid measure of constructs. Ex.- Galvanic skin response and MRIs.

Behavioral

Based on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured.

Test-retest reliability

Compares the scores of two successive measures of the same individuals and correlates the scores.

Reliability

Consistency of a the measure (over time, within the instrument itself).

PsychINFO

Contains abstracts of scholarly journal articles, book chapters, books, and dissertations.

PsychARTICLES

Contains full-text versions of peer-reviewed and scientific articles in psychology.

Parallel-forms reliability

Different pre- and post-test (form A and form B), must be parallel or equal in what they measure

Applied research

Directed toward solving practical problems.

ESP and the little green men, invisible pink unicorn

ESP, like the little green men and the invisible pink unicorn can not be observed, so they can not be tested by a hypothesis or falsified.

Principles of the scientific method

Empirical- answers are obtained by making structured or systematic observations. Public- observations are available for evaluation by others. Objective- outcome is not skewed by bias.

Characteristics of science

Empirical- based on objective, systematic observations. Rational- follow the rules of logic, consistent with known facts. Testable- verifiable through observation and can be disproved. Parsimonious- provide the simplest explanation with the fewest possible assumptions. Generalizable- apply beyond the original observations on which they are based. Tentative- never accepted as absolutely correct. Rigorously evaluated--constantly evaluated for consistency with evidence, generality, and parsimony.

Faithful subject role

Follows instructions to the letter (ideal subject).

Inter-rater reliability

Have two or more observers rate the same subjects and then compare their observations. Agreement between two observers who simultaneously recorded measurements of the behaviors.

Ordinal

Higher scale of measurement than nominal scale, different values of a variable can be ranked according to the quantity, mathematical operations likely to produce misleading results. Ex.- self-esteem- high, moderate, or low; place in a race- first, second, third; t-shirt size- small, medium, large; socioeconomic status- upper, middle, lower class.

Content validity

How adequately does a test sample behavior it is intended to measure? A measure has content validity if the items are relevant to the construct being measured. Ex. If items on an exam sample the course material, the exam has content validity.

Criterion validity

How adequately does a test score match some criterion score? Types- concurrent and predictive validity.

Slippery slope

If A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,... X, Y... Z will also happen, equating A to Z. Ex. We have to stop the tuition increase or they will soon charge $50,000 per semester!

Primary source

Includes a full report of a research study including methodological details, the authors describe their own observations. (Ex. peer-reviewed journal articles (preferred source), books that report on the author's own research).

Tenacity

Information accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. Belief perseverance- failure to adjust beliefs even in light of contradictory evidence. Limitations- potential inaccuracies, no method for correcting erroneous ideas. Ex. Black cats are bad luck.

Intuition

Information accepted on the basis of a hunch. Limitation- no method for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge. Ex. One has a "feeling" that today is not going to go well.

Elements of critical thinking

Intellectual (not emotional), disciplined, active process, skill, art.

Sections in a journal article

Introduction Method Results Discussion Conclusion

Basic research

Involves studies that are intended to solve theoretical issues.

Sensitivity

Is a dependent measure sensitive enough to detect behavior change, an insensitive measure will detect subtle behaviors. Ex.- If you are testing the effects of a new drug and effects of similar drugs are reported to be 10-20 ms and you use a watch that only records full seconds, your measure is not sensitive.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

Logical- the logical conclusion of a logical argument. Testable- all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observed. Falsifiable/refutable- can be domonstrated to be false. Positive- must make a positive statement about the existence of something.

Face validity

Measurement procedure appears to measure what it claims to measure. Assessment of adequacy of content, least powerful method. Ex. "Do you feel depressed?" on a measure of depression.

Experimenter bias

Measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter's expectations regarding the outcome of the study. Ex. imagery study assessing experimenter bias on demand characteristics.

Straw person

Oversimplifies a person's viewpoint then attatcks that empty argument.

Participant reactivity

Participants modify their natural behavior in response to knowing they are in a study.

Sources of research ideas

Personal interests and curiosities, casual observation, reports of others' observations (includes but not limited to the scientific literature review), practical problems or questions, behavioral theories (test a theory or elements of a theory in a particular population).

Multiple measures

Provide more confidence in the validity of the measurements. Convergent measures add strength to your findings and help you understand what is really going on. Desynchrony- lack of agreement between two measures, can identify problems with a particular mode of measurement if it contradicts other modes.

Demand characteristics

Refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that suggest to the participants the purpose and hypothesis of the study and influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

Relationship between reliability and validity

Reliability is a prerequisite for validity, a measurement procedure cannot be valid unless it is reliable. It is not necessary for a measure to be valid for it to be reliable.

Authority

Relies on information or answers from an expert in a field. Good starting point, often the quickest, easiest way to obtain answers. Limitations- does not always provide accurate information, often accepts expert's statements as fact (method of faith) without investigating further, not all "experts" are experts. Ex. Failure to get second opinion from doctor because one believes a single doctor's opinion is sufficient.

Nominal

Represent qualitative differences in the variable being measured. Lowest scale of measurement involving variables whose values differ by category. Values of variables have different names, but no ordering value is implied. You can count the number of observations falling into categories, but cannot apply mathematical operations. Ex. college major- anatomy, biology, psychology, etc; race; gender; occupation.

Interval

Scale of measurement on which the spacing between values is known, no true zero point, can apply mathematical operations, cannot make ratio judgments, can be discrete or continuous, parametric statistics are used. Ex.- rating a book on a scale ranging from 1 to 10; inches on a ruler; the time on an analog clock (12 hour); time in seconds; weight in pounds, temperature in Farenheit.

Divergent validity

Showing little or no relationship between the measurement of two different constructs. Does the test distinguish between one construct and another? Ex. correctly classify depression versus another disorder or no disorder

Split-half reliability

Splits theitems on a quentionairre or test in half computing a separate score for each half, and then calculate the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.

Convergent validity

Strong relationship between the scores obtained from two or more different methods measuring the same construct. Does the test agree with different types of measurement of the same construct? Ex. New self-report measure agrees with clinical interview.

Secondary source

Summarizes information from a primary source, the author discusses someone else's observations. (Ex. textbook, introductory sections of research reports).

False binary opposition

The "False Dilemma." Posing a choice as either-or, when there are other less extreme alternatives. Black and white thinking. Ex. Nature versus nurture, instead of a complex interface and integration of both.

Validity

The appropriateness of the measuring instrument. Does it measure what it is intended to measure?

Operationalism

The attempt to define all scientific concepts in terms of specifically described operations of measurement and observation. Why is it important? Evidence supporting a concept or theory, can be replicated by anyone with the knowledge and skills to do so.

Why conduct a literature search?

To gain a general familiarity with the current research in your specific area of interest, to find a small set of research studies to serve as the basis for your research idea.

Getting ideas for research from a published research article

Use the suggestions for future research in the discussion section Combine or contrast existing results (e.g., design a study that compares two treatmentsor tests two proposed mechanisms of a behavior) Address limitations of the study (those you discovered through critical reading or thosesuggested by the authors) Test an application of a basic research study

Floor effect

When a dependent measure has a lower limit allowing little or no possibilities for decreases in value. Clustering of scores at the low end of the measurement.

Ceiling effect

When a dependent measure has an upper limit it allows little or no possibility of increase of value. Clustering or scores at the high end of a measurement scale.

TU QUOQUE

You too! Charging an adversary with being or doing what s/he criticizes in others. To discredit the validity of someone's argument by pointing out his/her failure to act in accordance with the claim. Ex. A doctor who is overweight tells you that you need to lose weight and you think that their argument is invalid because they are overweight, too.