Cultural Anthropology Exam 2
Why did Hunter-Gatherers switch to Agriculture?
-progress theories may cause people to believe that sedentary agriculture was easier and less dangerous. -Specifically, progress theories are focused on Western ideas of progress and development and are not suitable to the lifestyles of many non-state, non-industrialized peoples. -agriculture actually increases desertification rather than reduces it
Monsanto
-owns most of intellectual property of food in the USA
structural functionalism
-politics are necessary for social order -societies develop structures to function -Ex: in an organism, you have organs, eyes, etc. to help you function -Takes away change (a healthy organism won't change) -takes away ideas of inequality
Ju/'hoansi
-readily available plant foods, such as the nutrient-rich mongongo nut, are the mainstay of the Ju/'hanse diet -this is sometimes supplemented by both small and large game animals -Ju/'hanse women and children often forage for mongongo nuts and other local resources to provide for their families
Rites of Passage
-transitions from one social role to another -can take hours or years to complete -getting license, bar mitzvah 3 stages: 1. Separation 2. Liminal (the between stage; neither/nor) 3. Reincorporation (reintroduced into society in new role)
Lewis Henry Morgan'a evolutionary cultural organization model
-unilineal evolution -savage...barbarian...civilized -he associated it with key features lie technology, language, etc. -Ex: home phones (savage), Razr (barbarian), iPhone (civilized) -Pigeon-holes people -racist
Kevin's Law *Food Inc*
-would give power back to the USDA to shut down plants with contaminated meat products
Evaluate the statement ""no freedom is absolute"—including the right to freely practice one's religion."" What types of boundaries do you think exist to regulate religious beliefs? *Fasting to the Death*
The courts exist for this reason. You can't just kill and steal things because it is your religion, or else everyone who did so would just claim it was their "religion".
Who sold the lands? *We Belong to the Land*
The former Kenyan President (Moi)
How do Jains view the treatment of all life? *Fasting to the Death*
They believe in nonviolence. For example, one woman even plucked out all her hair so she wouldn't have to kill lice.
When did this panic occur? *Vampire Panic*
It occurred in the 19th century (the 1800s)
What was problematic about the trial in Nyeri? *We Belong to the Land*
It was conducted in English
How common is vampire lore? Describe some of the accounts that are mentioned in this article *Vampire Panic*
It was fairly common, one example of vampire folklore is the Jewett City Vampires.
Who are most likely to participate in santhara/sellekhana? *Fasting to the Death*
Those who are old or very ill
Describe the Jain philosophy of death in general. *Fasting to the Death*
Jain philosophy views death as a welcome gateway to the next birth. Like many of India's great religions, followers of Jainism believe in reincarnation and karma.
Where is santhara/sellekhana practiced and by which religious community? *Fasting to the Death*
Jainism in India
What is another name for the Samburu? *We Belong to the Land*
Loikop
How does Bell complete his research? *Vampire Panic*
Part of Bell's research involves going along on "legend trips," the modern graveside pilgrimages made by those who believe, or want to believe, that the undead stalk Rhode Island. On legend trips, Bell is largely an academic presence. He can even be a bit of a killjoy, declaring that the main reason that "no grass grows on a vampire's grave" is that vampire graves have so many visitors, who crush all the vegetation.
Who was Lena Brown? And how was her story embedded in popular culture? *Vampire Panic*
She was a young girl whose mother and sister also died. Her dad agreed to have her heart cut out because everyone was afraid she was a vampire and slowly killing her brother.
What has happened to the Samburu since 2009? *We Belong to the Land*
Since 2009, community members have reported violent evictions, the torching of their homes, assaults and theft of cattle by government police, and in November of 2011, the murder of a community elder.
class
System of stratification that can be altered (allows mobility) by marriage or other increases in access to power, wealth, and prestige. Ex. Socio-economic classes in the US. -You can increase or decrease your standing (tend to repeat our parents...so not as mobile as we think)
delayed reciprocity
a form of reciprocity that features a long lag time between giving and receiving
government
a separate legal and constitutional domain that is the source of law, order, and legitimate force
reciprocity
back-and-forth exchange of products, gifts, and objects; symbolizes obligations and individual relationships as well as satisfies material needs and wants.
spheres of exchange
bounded orders of value in which certain goods can be exchanged only for others
NonCentralized Political Systems
dispersed power and resources. Commonly found in bands and tribes. (typically don't have external governing bodies)
prestige economies
economies where people participate seeking rank, prestige, and power rather than for a direct material benefit (e.g., Cofradía, moka, potlatch).
today, __________ are the principal distribution mechanism in many societies.
markets
commodities
mass-produced and impersonal goods with no meaning or history apart from themselves
political power
refers to how power is created and enacted to attain goals that are presumed to be for the good of a community, the common good.
market
social institution where goods and services are exchanged, often using a currency
Ultimately, the form of reciprocity (and the general context of the economic exchanges) tells us about the _________________________ between the participants. This relationship marks the social distance between individuals and groups.
social relationship
social distance
the degree to which cultural norms specify that individuals or groups should be helpful to, intimate with, or emotionally attached to one another. -the perceived or desired degree of remoteness between a member of one social group and the members of another, as evidenced in the level of intimacy tolerated between them. -The closer the relationship is perceived to be, the more that will be shared with little to no expectation of return.
surplus value
the difference between what people produce and what they need to survive
barter
the direct swapping of goods
neoclassical economies
the economy is a division of labor and the exchange of goods and services in a market
substantivism
the economy is the substance of the actual transactions people engage in to get what they need and want
E. Coli (now strong and mutated) is a product of.... *Food Inc*
the cattle's diet and living conditions
redistribution
the collection and distribution of goods by a centralized authority. -Keep in mind that redistribution does not mean that it is a "fair", or "even", distribution. -chiefs may benefit their friends and family first, then redistribute the rest to everyone else
division of labor
the cooperative organization of work into specialized tasks and roles
Forager Landscapes
today, foragers occupy diverse landscapes from the arctic, rainforest, to the desert. -contemporary examples include populations in the kalahari of africa, the pirahã of the amazon, the sentinelese of the andaman islands, populations in central africa, and the spinifex of western australia
in some communities, cultivation techniques have since intensified (increased yields) and plow or irrigation based agriculture has replaced slash-and-burn and other horticulture techniques
traditional agriculture - horse carriage thing, simple plows industrial agriculture - big plows and tractors and shiz
exchange
transfer of objects and services between social actors
achieved status
using personality, skills, and with the approval of many other members of the society to gain status. Ex. Bigmen/Bigwomen roles.
globalization
when communities are interrelated across the world
global economy
when everyone contributes in some way to the economy
The grocery store is just an ___________ ______ ____________________. *Food Inc*
illusion of diversity, really its just a few companies.
State societies with Class and Caste Structures *examples of centralized political systems*
greatly marked distinctions and heritable positions, prestige, wealth, etc. where some individuals are denied access to basic resources. -Major differences exist in access to wealth, power, and prestige. -These differences often endure through generations. -some individuals denied access to necessities on a daily basis
consumption
the act of using and assigning meaning to a good, service, or relationship
Anthropologist as Problem Solver: Teresa Mares p. 176-177
*-Who is it about*: food anthropologist Teresa Mares *-Where is it located?*: Vermont *-What is it about?*: -dairy farming is a difficult year-round job -it has unreliable financial returns due to fluctuations in the price of milk -it has shifted in the past 60 years from being managed primarily as small-scale family-run operations to what is now a highly mechanized industry consolidated into a small number of larger farms -most of the workers are undocumented laborers from Mexico. -Teresa studies how diets and foodways of Latino immigrants change as a result of migration. She set out to research what the lives of these workers are like and how their dietary patterns have changed now that they work on dairy farms -she found that working on a dairy farm is stressful and isolating -rarely get away rom their places of work bc they are afraid of being deported -they don't have ability to go to grocery store. Have to rely on others to do their shopping. (Usually employer or someone near farm) This is a prob because Spanish-English miscommunications. -Irony: the people producing the food themselves suffer from food insecurity and hunger. -Another Irony: they left their homes in mexico originally bc of food insecurity -She created a program that would make seeds, tools, and technical guidance available to farm-workers so that they could plant their own vegetable and herb gardens on the dairy farms.
Classic Contributions: E.E. Evans-Pritchard on Segmentary Lineages
*Who is it about?*: british social anthropologist E.E. Evans Pritchard *Where is it located?*: the Nuer in a region that recently split from the Sudan *What is it about?*: -Evans-Pritchard is a proponent of structural functionalism -Among the Nuer, he could find no central government, central chiefs, or powerful individuals, and he noted that the Nuer were frequently feuding over stolen cattle, their principle form of wealth -He called it "ordered anarchy" -The Nuer tend their herds of cattle in small lineages of several dozen men descended from a single ancestor -Whenever a smaller lineage group faces an external threat, such as aggression from a distantly related lineage, it works together with the closely related lineages to confront the threat. -Political unity of the Nuer was flexible and non-centralized, allow them to create larger groups according to need and dismantle them quickly. -He described this political system as "segmentary lineages"
Domestication, particularly of plants, requires an increased in sedentary lifestyles (stationary living).
-(Some resources are not mobile (plants) or need to be stored for later use. -This is important because it helps people to: 1. Ward off predators 2. Prevent theft of plants and animals 3. Nurture and provide additional care 4. Produce and store surpluses of consumable products (need storage locations and devices) (baskets, etc)
Some consequences of agriculture
-*increased labor requirements*: people now need to invest significant amount of time in food production including storage of these products, or spend more time performing other labor tasks to produce exchangeable goods or services -*reduced mobility* : this could reduce social networks, spread of gene pools, and also lead to the overuse of local resources. The effects are decreased by media and transportation technologies -*environmental conditions like droughts or increased rain can be more significant* (a lot of resources get condensed to one area) Ex: lots of stuff is grown in CA. When they have drought, grocery prices go up (broad regional consequences) -*increased diseased food* - some parasites and disease bearing creatures (mosquitos, rats, herded animals, cats, dogs, and others) flourish in large sedentary populations. (Also social diseases..i.e. STDS) and interpersonal diseases (measles, small px, mumps) flourish in higher populations -*increased waste and waster management issues* - diseases relating to sanitation as well as creating culturally appealing living spaces (littering) (Ex: people in England used to throw poop out their window into narrow alleys that people walk through and spread diseases) --disease much more prevalent when compared to that of foragers --mosquitos - malaria, zika, west nile --rats = plague --cows = measles --densely populated areas = diseases spread easier Ex: mumps here in NWA spreading bc of dense pop.
Other results (non necessarily good or bad) of Agriculture and Sedentary Lifestyles
-As technological complexity increases, fewer individuals worked directly with food production; in non-industrial societies more than 80% of the population is involved in food production compared to 1-2% in industrialized systems. (allows for other jobs like doctors, lawyers, etc) -Leaders of condensed settlements need to organize labor to construct public works like: roads, defensive fortifications, and irrigation networks. -Conflicts and disputes between families may require outside mediation and settlement requiring leadership positions to handle these incidences.
Strategies Employed by Leaders
-Both persuasive and coercive power techniques are often employed to ensure the completion of tasks. -killing, maiming = physical coercion -That is to say that leaders can try to convince (persuade) others using thing charisma OR they may use force and authority to command actions through coercion.
Hunter - Gatherers (Foragers)
-most to all of their subsistence (how they transform environmental resources into food) is based on the gathering, hunting, and fishing of wild materials. -this was the primary mode of subsistence for the majority of human existence
there are 4 major theoretical approaches to how economies create value used in anthropology:
-neoclassical economies -substantivism -Marxism -Cultural Economics
Chiefdom
-Extensive agriculture, intensive fishing -Medium Population Density -Redistribution through chief, reciprocity as lower levels -Ranked Social Stratification -Lineage or clan ownership of land, but with strong sense of personal ownership -limited mobility-sedentary -Charismatic chief with limited power, usually based on giving benefits to followers -May have informal laws and specified punishments; chief has limited access to coercion -Ex: Kwakiutl, Precolonial Hawai'i
Cultures differentially value resources and will encourage specific behaviors that emphasize these differences
-For example, while many north americans assign monetary value to all things, there are obvious problems with attempting to convert sentimental value or historical significance to monetary value -Additionally, there are cultural and community sentiments relating to what people think and feel is right and appropriate to share in any economic exchange. In other words, the value is not intrinsic but is culturally assigned and not all things are considered appropriate for exchange. -Ex: difference in what metals were precious. Up north it was copper, down south it was gold. -How would you begin to assign value to the statue of liberty/liberty bell? (Maybe consider cost of materials, revenue from visitors, etc.) It would be hard to consider it just as a sum of its parts bc it has sentimental value, it is priceless. -your stuffed animal when you were a kid. (priceless to you but not to others)
Thinking about Transitions from Forager Lifestyles to Agricultural States
-For the majority of human existence (at least 150K-200,000 years), people lived in small-scale, nomadic bands of 30 to 100 people. They subsisted by gathering wild plants, fishing, and hunting small animals and some large game. -then...the agricultural revolution
Band
-Foraging -Low Pop. Density -Reciprocity as economic exchange -Social Stratification: Egalitarian -highly nomadic -Little to no sense of personal ownership -Leadership: informal and situational; headman -No formal laws or punishments; right to use force is communal -Ex: Inuit, Batek, !Kung San
How do markets work?
-Goods and services are bought and sold as determined by the preferences of cultural groups or communities. -This means that some goods/services are deemed unfit for exchange (e.g., drugs, alcohol, and sex may not be appropriate in some cultures or communities but are readily available in others). -Sale of these goods/services may occur in underground markets or be distributed using other systems of exchange, such as gifting. -Not to say that you cant access drugs, alcohol, and sex; they're just regulated. -Ex: prostitution in vegas, pornography, strip clubs (so you CAN sell it, as long as the group deems it appropriate)
Purposes of Reciprocity
-Helping someone in need by sharing with them. -Creating, maintaining, strengthening, or weakening relationships. -Or, obtaining products made by others for oneself. -When we see people giving gifts, there is an obligation to receive and an obligation to return the gift-giving
Tribe
-Horticulture and pastoralism -Low to Medium pop. density -Reciprocity and trade as economic exchange -Social Stratification: Egalitarian -limited mobility -Lineage or clan ownership of land and livestock -Leadership: Charismatic headman with some authority in group decision-making -No formal laws or punishments; right to use force is held by lineage, clan, or association -Ex: Yanomamo, Nuer, Cheyenne
potlatch
-It can be tied into the status of individuals or descent groups (i.e., it is a prestige economy). -an opulent ceremonial feast at which possessions are given away or destroyed to display wealth or enhance prestige. -In the potlatch ceremonies associated with funerals, names, status, and privileges can be transferred to the person who is most generous. -The Canadian government saw this as irrational economic behavior and made participation illegal (outlawed it) from 1885-1951. -Similarly, the moka rituals allow Big Men in Papua New Guinea to compete for status
Production choices may impact leadership needs in populations
-Leaders may help organize communal labor efforts and may be directly involved in the redistribution of resources -Leaders may also take on roles in helping to mediate or settle intra-family disputes or in maintaining the socially accepted behaviors. (act as mediators) -In general, the larger and more densely populated an area is, the greater the need for formalized leadership positions.
Hunting and gathering societies
-Marshall Sahlins called it "The original affluent society" -they have far more leisure time -studies of hunting and gathering societies suggest it is not as harsh and dangerous as it is assumed by many
Foragers tend to to be....
-nomadic (highly mobile) and have low population density -duggar sized family would be negative in nomadic situations (how do you transport them and all the things they need?) -the more people you are transporting, the more likely you are to lose someone along the way
So if it is not all about money, nor about acquiring material benefit in general, than what are these non-monetary economic interactions focused on?
-Some may emphasize personal relationships, others emphasize prestige, and yet others might focus on the success of the larger community via emphasize on redistribution. -For example, prestige economies are economies where people participate seeking rank, prestige, and power rather than for a direct material benefit (e.g., Cofradía, moka, potlatch). -These may seem like irrational behaviors from a neoclassical economist's perspective as they often indebt the highest status participants. -Prestige economies - vision of success is focused on the group/community success rather than just an individual or family -Cofradia - indiviuals who attain political offices are expected to distribute resources through entire group (feast events), in these societies, that person deprives themselves for the benefit of the group -Moka - pigs are primary measure of status and standing; not how many pigs you own, its how many you can call in in a moment and redistributed (demonstrates who supports that individual)
Misconceptions about Foragers (ALL WRONG)
-That they have a difficult time finding food -That they need to compete with dangerous conditions in nature like wild animals -That they consume mostly meat products -That they work very hard long hours -That they are more prone to illness and injury Truths about foragers: -Inuits are the exception to the meat product misconception bc plants and stuff don't really grow there -Increased leisure time compared to us -illness/injury actually increases with sedentary lifestyles.
Summary of Some of the Purposes of Exchange Systems
-They establish and maintain community and kin relationships. -They can establish rank systems enabling people to earn status and prestige. -They can help identify relationships that have soured or otherwise need attention. -They can facilitate the transformation of goods into items with symbolic and/or monetary value. -They can be used to share productive services -They can be used to produce wealth
Anthropologists have gained significant emic insight into the roles that local beliefs and cultural models have in shaping and guiding economic activities.
-They have repeatedly found that the ideas of economic rationalism and individual self-aggrandizement are not universal and even in the economic modes that emphasize these behaviors that there are often other social and cultural factors in action (e.g., blat system in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia). -Some models of economy may not be applicable in cross-cultural contexts -success is measured differently in a cross-cultural perspective (not all cultures will see wealth and wealth acquisition as necessarily positive) -blat system: give and take exchange where individuals exchange favors -Ex: going to apply for a job, you might have your neighbor watch your kids, with the idea that you will return the favor in the future
Ju/'hoansi "insulting the meat"
-To prevent the best hunters from getting too proud and boastful, the Ju/'hoansi will ridicule and joke about the meat provided. -foods are shared equally among all members of the group, using generalized reciprocity as their primary form of exchange -make sure people don't get too boastful -applies to hunted, large game animals - limit individual resources to prevent them from getting too wealthy
Ritual Giving: Kula
-Trobriand Islanders define and maintain their social identities by participating in the Kula, a ritualized pattern of delayed gift-giving involving the exchange of many items including necklaces (clockwise) and armbands (counterclockwise). -Goods were exchanged between trading partners. When an item does not get returned or replaced, a possible break or change in the social chain may be recognized as a possible cause. -sets up political networks
generalized reciprocity
-a form of reciprocity in which gifts are given freely without the expectation of return -these exchanges do not track the specific values of items traded -There is an assumption that these exchanges will somewhat even out over time but not within any defined period nor with any urgency. -signifies close social ties -Ex: inuit sharing of whale blubber
negative reciprocity
-a form of reciprocity in which the giver attempts to get something for nothing, to haggle one's way into a favorable personal outcome -where people attempt to get the better deal, or create debts for others -Includes haggling. Some indigenous markets include harder bargaining and haggling in their pricing of items—particularly applied when entering and exchange with a non-local person. -May be used in societies with no money to acquire non-local goods. Therefore, they may exchange with non-locals at a higher rate to afford the exotic goods they desire. -diff pricing for community members vs. non-community members. (If you did this to a community member you would be seen with shame. Whereas they are proud of you and tell stories about you if its a non local because you are "clever"
heteroglossia
-different words/tongues -the idea of different viewpoints in society -agency - everyone can impact their cultures (prisoners don't have agency)
Ranked Societies like Chiefdoms *examples of centralized political systems*
-distinctions in access or acquisition of status and wealth based on kinship exist, but access to basic resources do not have important restrictions. -There are few high-ranked positions available. -kin groups and their members (i.e., by seniority) can be ranked, with greater ranks obtaining greater rewards. -vast majority of group reliant on those leaders to distribute items
Forager houses
-foragers live in structures that range from permanent (e.g. rock shelter) to temporary - based on level of group mobility and availability of local resources
Economics
-in general, this term is used to describe how people make their living. (Includes the production, use, and exchange of resources) and how they acquire resources. -Anthropologists are not only interested in how people meet their material needs (e.g. through various forms of exchange, or direct production) but question WHY people desire various goods, services, life ways, etc. -Ex: sometimes drinking coke might signify wealth (making connections through goods/services)
State
-intensive agriculture -high population density -markets and trade; redistribution through state based on taxation -Social Classes -sedentary -Private and state ownership of land -Sovereign leader supported by aristocratic bureaucracy -Formal laws and punishments; state holds all access to use of physical force -Ex: Aztec, Inca, Euro-American monarchies and representative democracies
Positive Results attributed to Agricultural Lifestyles
-it enables greater surpluses of resources -it reduces the distance needed for individuals to seek food (probably have options of grocery stores, etc) (goods typically travel about 1500 miles before it reaches you) -it allows for population size and density to increase (can have bigger families, etc) -it frees up a large portion of the population to engage in other (non-production based) occupations. (other jobs)
Awamales
-live in New Guinea -transition into manhood -spending time with women isn't allowed during process because we're "polluted" 1. Separation (taken from mom, food/water restricted, subject to beatings) 2. Removal of female pollution through penis cutting 3. learn what it means to be a man 4. sweat ceremony 5. reincorporation ( severe penis cutitng/nose bleeds) #2-5 are liminal stages
Horticulture
-mode of cultivation focused on small gardens or fields to support basic family needs -Often this requires access to large tracts of land to allow soils to replenish (fallow). This is particularly true of slash-and-burn (swidden) horticulture practices which may have extensive lag time between nutrient use and replenishment.
Mauss says gift exchange has three dimensions
1. obligation to give 2. obligation to receive 3. obligation to return the gift in appropriate ways
Chickens are now 2x as big and slaughtered in _____ the time. *Food Inc*
1/2
In the 1970s, the top 5 beef packers controlled 25% of the market, today 4 beef packers control __________ of the market. *Food Inc*
80%
What is santhara/sellekhana? *Fasting to the Death*
A tradition where a person who is very old or very ill decides to stop eating in order to die.
What did the AWF do when they heard about the ownership dispute? *We Belong to the Land*
AWF gifted the land to the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), a Kenyan governmental entity that manages the country's national parks.
Pastoralism
Adaptations based on tending, breeding, and harvesting the products of livestock. Herd animals include: cattle, camels, llamas, alpaca, yaks, reindeer, sheep, goats, horses... Probs: -Ex: ghost mushrooms - have radiation from chernobyl Then the reindeer eat them, etc.
Who bought the lands? Why? *We Belong to the Land*
African Wildlife Foundation. They didn't think anyone lived on it and being a tributary of the Ewaso Nyiro River, it is a vital water source.
agricultural revolution
Approximately 10-12,000 years ago, some populations began to plant crops and domesticate wild animals. These people had become sedentary, living in settlements of 200 to 2,000 people. -enabled them to experience surpluses
What is the "Great New England Vampire Panic" in general? *Vampire Panic*
Basically, people were freaking out and thinking dead people were rising from their graves to kill people because everyone was getting sick and dying.
Why is it problematic to judge Eastern religions using Western laws? *Fasting to the Death*
Because, we do not share the same religions and worldviews as them. So who are we to tell them that their religion is wrong? We can't judge them based off of our views. It is similar to the foot binding beliefs. We might think it is weird or wrong, but it is normal to them.
Do other religions participate in fasting rites? How may they be similar versus different from santhara? How so? *Fasting to the Death*
Christians practice Lent. Muslims have Ramadan. The Jewish tradition is to fast on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. The Hindu calendar is rich with days of forsaking food. They are similar in that they don't eat food, but different in that they eventually stop fasting. They do not fast until they die.
What is happening to the Samburu's lands? *We Belong to the Land*
Former Kenyan President Daniel Moi obtained title to a large portion of this area during his presidency. In 2009, Moi sold the land to the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). AWF maintains that they believed the land was free of human residents and clear of ownership dispute. Upon learning this was not the case, AWF gifted the land to the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), a Kenyan governmental entity that manages the country's national parks. Since 2009, commu- nity members have reported violent evictions, the torching of their homes, assaults and theft of cattle by government police, and in November of 2011, the murder of a community elder.
Who is Nick Bellantoni? What was his role in this article? *Vampire Panic*
He is a Connecticut state archaeologist. Bellantoni lifted the first of the large, flat rocks that formed the roof, he uncovered the remains of a red-painted coffin and a pair of skeletal feet. They lay, he remembers, "in perfect anatomical position." But when he raised the next stone, Bellantoni saw that the rest of the individual "had been completely ... rearranged." The skeleton had been beheaded; skull and thighbones rested atop the ribs and vertebrae. "It looked like a skull-and-cross-bones motif, a Jolly Roger. I'd never seen anything like it," Bellantoni recalls. (He was the one first interested in J.B.)
Who is Michael Bell? What is his research focus? *Vampire Panic*
He is a Rhode Island Folklorist who had devoted much of the previous decade to studying New England vampire exhumations
Some states in the U.S. as well as other nations allow for compassionate death (a.k.a. death with dignity) for the terminally ill; compare this to santhara/sellekhana. What are your feelings about each and why? *Fasting to the Death*
I think both should be legal. If the person wants to die, then that should be their right. It would likely be much more dignifying to control their death than slowly dying in pain and having to have others take care of you or feel responsible for you.
Who were the Jewett City vampires? What became of them specifically? *Vampire Panic*
In 1854, in neighboring Jewett City, Connecticut, townspeople had exhumed several corpses suspected to be vampires that were rising from their graves to kill the living.
What was Nakuro's story? Why is it important? *We Belong to the Land*
Nakuro has six children. The youngest is 13 years old, suggesting that Nakauro's own family has occupied the land longer than the requisite 12 years to claim adverse possession. Nakuro reports that other Samburu have been living on the land even longer.
The central tenet of Jainism is nonviolence, how does santhara/sellekhana fit into this worldview? In other words, how does their worldview support this rite? *Fasting to the Death*
Not eating is a nonviolent way to detach from this life and prepare for the next while purifying the soul.
caste
Social stratification where membership is hereditary, strata are endogamous, and contact/relationships between strata are prohibited or otherwise limited. Social mobility between them is not allowed. Ex. Caste system in India. -Must marry within caste. Not based on wealth/income, it is based on social standing (pure vs polluted) -If you find 1 million dollars, this does' change your caste, because your social status didn't change
If someone was suspected to be a vampire, what was done to stop them? (Hint, the answer to this is explicit on page 3/9 of the article.) *Vampire Panic*
Some communities in Maine and Plymouth, Massachusetts, opted to simply flip the exhumed vampire facedown in the grave and leave it at that. In Connecticut, Rhode Island and Vermont, though, they frequently burned the dead person's heart, sometimes inhaling the smoke as a cure. (In Europe, too, exhumation protocol varied with region: Some beheaded suspected vampire corpses, while others bound their feet with thorns.)
Who was most likely to be accused of being a vampire? By whom? *Vampire Panic*
The public hysteria almost invariably occurred in the midst of savage tuberculosis outbreaks. Indeed, the medical museum's tests ultimately revealed that J.B. had suffered from tuberculosis, or a lung disease very like it. Typically, a rural family contracted the wasting illness, and -- even though they often received the standard medical diagnosis -- the survivors blamed early victims as "vampires," responsible for preying upon family members who subsequently fell sick. Often an exhumation was called for, to stop the vampire's predations. The accusers were usually direct kin (parents, spouses, their children)
What is a key detail that links vampire panics? In other words, which ailment(s) might explain their occurrence? *Vampire Panic*
Tuberculosis was a major problem at the time, so that probably explains it.
What is Kenya's land tenure law? In other words, how long do the lands need to be occupied and under what conditions? *We Belong to the Land*
Under Kenyan law, if one occupies land openly, peacefully, and continually, for 12 years, one may claim title to the occupied land.
local marketplaces
Vendors themselves, and their families, often produce the food and wares they sell. They are: -less dependent on external market forces. - Limited in the product categories they sell. -Labor is often is part-time, and in some cultures women will dominate these spaces. -They are much easier to regulate based on purchasing decisions of individuals. -Personal relationships will enable people to make purchasing decisions regarding what is deemed inappropriate (If a vendor overworks employees with no breaks, you will not purchase from them..this is a form of regulating) -in larger markets you don't have an intimate relationship with these people, so you have no idea of how your goods are produced (could be cruel working conditions)
Evaluate the statement "With a clap of his hands the Holy Man declares that ban or no ban, "One hundred percent I will perform santhara," and adds, "I will not be committing suicide." What do you think that Dharamchand Shastri means? And how may he differentiate santhara and suicide? *Fasting to the Death*
When he says that he will "not be committing suicide", he means that while he may be fasting to the death. It is not a form of violence, but suicide is. He sees suicide as a form of violence against oneself (hanging, shooting oneself) etc. However fasting does not include any form of violence.
cultural economics
an anthropological approach that focuses on the symbols and morals that shape an individual culture's economy. -These anthropologists emphasize the close relationship between the words "value" and "values_." This means that your cultural morality not only varies but that the variation in moral/cultural values impacts how you value resources (to include material and non-material resources).
money
an object or substance that serves as payment for a good or service
currency
an object used as the medium of exchange.
marxism
capitalism, which is a type of economic system, is a system in which private ownership of the means of production and a division of labor produce wealth for a few, and inequality for the masses
Our government has been dominated by the industries its supposed to be regulating
close ties to president, one supreme court justice was a lawyer for monsanto
CAFO *Food Inc*
concentrated animal food operations
30% of our land base is being planted to _____________ in the U.S. today *Food Inc*
corn
What is the main component of feeding ingredients? *Food Inc*
corn
Although agriculture can support larger and more complex socio political arrangements that these ways of life are not desired by some populations, and may not suit the ______________________________________.
cultural values of those groups
Slash and Burn (Swidden)
cut down trees and burn them, releases nutrients back into soil -sometimes they rotate and do the section by areas so its not all at once -prob: takes 10-20 years to replenish
Krysha
demand payments in exchange for providing protection to businesses and individuals from exploitation by criminals or corrupt politicians
Acephalous "headless societies" *examples of centralized political systems*
encourage egalitarian principles: meaning that there are little to no distinctions in access or acquisition of status. -Leadership roles are temporary and based on situational needs and appropriate skill-sets. -Gender, age, skills, may influence access to roles & positions. -The primary ideas are: you're not born into vastly different power/prestige/wealth positions, and that there are not external governing bodies. -leaderless, but not lacking in organization -access to power/resources is more equal -little to no difference between family groups and opportunities -not born into strict place in society -doesn't always mean everyone is equal Ex: mennonites see women as lesser (individuals not equal, families are)
balanced reciprocity
exchanges that are roughly equal in value and are exchanged at specific intervals or for specialized purposes. -Gift exchange is a familiar form of reciprocity. -We tend to participate in this in the U.S. when we give gifts at weddings and birthdays, exchange invitations, or buy rounds of drinks. -If your friend never buys the round of drinks, they are not meeting the expecatation of reciprocity -Your friend buys you a birthday gift worth $20, what do you do? You give them a gift worth $20, but there also must be an interval between. Or else it seems like you are trying to rid yourself of that friendship and obligation too quickly. -Facilitates longer relationships
tribute
is the rendering of goods, including foods, to an authority, such as a chief, to be reallocated.
Agriculture
mode of cultivation in which animals or machinery are used to produce crops (more focused on surplus) -horticulture = much smaller scale -soils are used more intensively, meaning that more crops are produced per land parcel (increased production). Involves irrigation and fertilization techniques to replenish nutrients and maintain stable water sources. Ranges from "traditional" farms to industrial forms of food production
general purpose money
money that is used to buy nearly any good or service -even general purpose money such a the use of dollars and cents has cultural and moral dimensions beyond its function as a medium of exchange -Ex: you can't just walk into your university's office, pay a large sum of money, an receive a diploma
taxes
monies are collected and used (redistributed) for the whole community or country.
limited purpose money
objects that can be exchanged only for certain things
consumers
people who rely on goods and services not produced by their own labor
Gifts should be...
personal and embody the relationship between the giver and the receiver
How were the police acting illegally? *We Belong to the Land*
police stormed the Samburu community three days later, allegedly confiscating thousands of cows and goats, and harassing and beating residents. Fifty-six year-old tribal elder Mzee Lelekina was found dead soon afterward, his body riddled with bullet wounds. Samburu and Western observers believe the killing was retaliatory; to date, no legal action has been taken concerning Lelekina's murder.
transactional orders
realms of transactions a community uses, each with its own set of symbolic meanings and moral assumptions
Overlapping forms of exchange
redistribution may occur during scheduled feasting rituals, such as the moka ceremonies in Papua New Guinea, and potlatch ceremonies in the Pacific Northwest.
Now 80% of ____________ have a gene that makes them impervious to round up In 1996, only 2% had that gene
soybeans
ascribed status
status that one is born into and cannot easily (or ever) change. Ex. caste, biological sex, hereditary features, etc.
Centralized political systems
system where some individuals or institutions hold power and control over resources. Commonly found in chiefdom and states.
What may happen to the Samburu way of life since lands are now being purchased rapidly by private owners and annexed by the government? *We Belong to the Land*
the Samburu way—cyclical movement with the cattle—may no longer be viable
Communitas
the feeling of belonging
politics
those relationships and processes of cooperation, conflict, and power that are fundamental aspects of human life
domestication
the process by which people control the distribution, abundance, and biological features of certain plants and animals in order to increase their usefulness to humans Ex: milking cows, wool to keep us warm, etc. -This enables the development of resource surpluses (meaning, more resources are available than can be used by the producers) Adaptations include: pastoralism, horticulture, and agricultural practices -Corn used to be teeny tiny until it changed to fit our needs into the big ass corn we see today
appropriation
the process of taking possession of an object, idea, or relationship ex: buying a smartphone, the initial act of appropriation takes place as you shop for it
value
the relative worth of an object or service that makes it desirable
economic system
the structured patterns and relationships through which people exchange goods and services
economic anthropology
the sub discipline concerned with how people make, share, and buy things and services
violence
the use of force to harm someone or something -highly visible and concrete assertion of power
Some cows and chickens had legs that could;t walk so they collapsed because
their bodies were too heavy