Culture and Human Development Final

4 main sources of change in culture

1. As the result of innovation 2. In response to changed condition in society Ex. economic change, population change (immigration), social transformation 3. Through cultural diffusion - transmission of cultural elements from one society or cultural group to another = cultural diffusion is more influential than ever due to our instant communication technologies, subcultures influences enter the dominant culture 4. Because of cultural and social impositions - conquest and wars, laws

Social redefinition varies across cultures

1. Clarity in social redefinition: Explicitness - less explicit in contemporary U.S. society than in traditional cultures 2. Continuity: Starting point and length

Designs to study the effects of cultural change on development

1. Comparing generations at the same stage of life but at different historical periods 2. Comparing different generations at the same time. Note: Intergenerational difference is the variable of interest, Intergenerational conflict can be used to index intergenerational change, the more intergenerational conflict the greater the intergenerational difference

3 components of Initiation ceremony

1. Real or symbolic separation from parents 2. Separation of males and females - accentuation of physical and social differences between males and females 3. Passing on of cultural, historical, and practical information - From the adult generation to the newly inducted cohort of young people

5 Characteristics of emerging adulthood

1. The age of identity explorations 2. The age of instability: on the move (residence, schools, majors, romance) 3. The self-focused age: Learning what it means to make independent decisions and to be self-sufficient 4. The age of feeling in-between 5. The age of possibilities: because different futures remain possible, they have great expectations and optimism

Changes contributing to emerging adulthood stage

1. The rise in the average age for marriage and parenthood 2. The ready availability of reliable birth control, along with less stringent moral standards 3. The pursuit of tertiary education and training 4. More employment opportunities for women

Cultural variation of adulthood include:

1.Being able to financially support their parents. 2. Israeli's completing military service 3. Korean support parents financially Traditional cultures focus on marriage - Demonstration and commitment to being interdependent

2 developmental niches

2 different cultural domains- child's own ethnic group and majority society The cultural context is not homogenous for minority and immigrant children, child develops a context-specific scripts

Theories on adolescence

2 main theories: Adolescent marginality, Intergenerational conflict

A growing generational gap?

2 possibilities: No, social connections between are still strong Yes, pace of technological change has increased in the last 30 years

Attaining adulthood

3 common criteria: 1. accepting responsibility for one's self 2. making independent decisions 3. becoming financially independent All of these criteria are markers of individualism

The transition into adulthood in contemporary society

3 very different trajectory possibilities: one for the "haves", one for the "have nots", one for those who are somewhere in between 2 societal trends are reshaping the nature of the transition - The increasing length of the transitional period - Incresing demand for more formal education

Greenfield's theory

4 levels Top level - Demographic characteristics of communities 3 lower levels - Adaptations to top level Direct and indirect causal influences

Menarche

A girl's first menstrual period.

Counterculture

A sociological concept stating that adolescents develop a different cultural viewpoint that may be hostile to the values or beliefs of adult society.

Quinceañera

A"coming-out" celebration for girls who reach their 15th birthday and that is part of traditional Latino culture.

Child marriages

AKA early and forced marriage - a formal marriage or informal union entered into by individual before reaching the age of 18 *both boys and girls *Mostly poor SES girls

acceptance

Accept cultural differences as important. Own culture is just one possibility in a world of many cultures.

ethnorelativism

According to Bennett's model of intercultural sensitivity: The embracing and integration of self into different cultures.

Punishment

According to behaviorism, the process through which a behavior is made less likely to occur again.

Reinforcement

According to behaviorism, the process through which a behavior is made more likely to occur again

Child soldiers in war

Active combat, messengers, porters, cooks, spies

Prevention science

An area of research that examines the biological and social processes that lead to maladjustment as well as those that are associated with healthy development.

how are child soldiers recruited?

Armed forces will also destroy other outside options for children: schools, villages, farms, ect *Armed forces abuse children's feelings of desperation and traumas resulting from previous situations of extreme violence *Also abuse certain motivations of children: Children may join armed forces because of the desire to take control of events

List and explain the criteria for adulthood that appears to be important in traditional cultures

Arrnett's theory Supporting your parents, demonstrating commitment - getting married, Interdependence ( commitment to community)

Defense

Believe own culture is the most 'evolved'. Experience cultural difference as an attack on values ('they are taking our jobs')

Puberty

Biological changes that lead to physical and sexual maturity *Puberty occurs universally, but not adolescence

Timing varying between genders

Boys: at puberty, at a designated chronological age, or when community decides individual is ready fro status change Girls: Timing usually linked to menache - physical appearance is often changed (clothing)

Ethnic minority children challenges and coping mechanisms

Challenges: learning language and new customs, discrimination, segregation, racism Coping mechanisms: strong ethnic identity, close bonds with extended family

Risk factors Personal

Characteristics or environmental circumstances that increase the probability of negative out-comes for children. Risk is a statistic that applies to groups, not individuals.

Why child soldiers

Children are relatively easy to abduct, subjugate, and manipulate * They are more impressionable and vulnerable to indoctrination * Their moral development is incomplete and malleable * Seen as more loyal and less threatening to adult leadership *Tactical advantage * despite their disadvantages in term of fighting skills, may have a particular functional value

What are characteristics of culture

Conservative, but not monolithic *based on traditions *evolve and change

Why child soldiers

Cost-benefit: children require less food and no payment. punishment of children is also less costly * can present a moral dilemma to enemies: should they kill children? *Rebel groups may recruit children in order to signal seriousness, commitment and ruthlessness, and thereby instill fear in the enemy

Davis' paradigm

Culture conflict is experienced by parents and their offspring Each generation learns culture early, older members have difficulty changing their views, young learn culture from peers and other young adults with more current views

Reentry shock

Culture shock in reverse, upon returning home after living in another culture

Postfigurative cultures

Cultures in which what children and adolescents need to learn to function as adults changes little from one generation to the next, and therefore children and adolescents can learn all they need to know from their elders.

Cofigurative cultures

Cultures in which young people learn what they need to know not only from adults but also from other young people.

Prefigurative cultures

Cultures in which young people teach knowledge to adults.

Descriptive vs. prescriptive norms (value judgments)

David Hume: an "ought" (prescriptive) cannot be derived from an "is" (descriptive) Rogoff position: " The aim is to understand the patterns of different cultural communities, separating understanding of the patterns from judgments of their value"

6 stages of Bennett's model

Denial, defense, minimization, acceptance, adaption, integration

Migration trends

Due to growing inequalities Within and across borders From rural to urban From developing to industrialized countries

Minimization

E l e m e n t s o f o n e ' s culture experienced as universal/ similar to all cultures. May correct culturally different behavior to match expectations.

Anthropological perspective

Emphasize diversity of adolescent experiences across different cultures

Adolescent marginality

Emphasizes the differences in power between adults and adolescents

Protective factors

Environmental and personal factors that are the source of children's resilience in the face of hardship.

Why is the Flynn effect happening?

Environmental improvements: better prenatal care, smaller families, educational television Decline of infectious desease Schooling and technology

Ethical imperialism

Ethics of one's culture considered most appropriate what is different may be considered unethical

teleology

Explanation of phenomena in terms of final causes or goals Design and purpose analogous to that found in human actions are inherent also in the rest of nature Many developmental theories are explained teleologically ex. Piaget: children develop first concrete operations so that they can develop later formal operations

Initiation ceremony

Formal induction of a young person into adulthood : mark social redefinition of youth with a dramatic and elaborate rite of passage

Consequences of child marriage

Girls likely to experience: * violence, abuse and forced sexual relations - women who marry younger are more likely to be beaten and to believe that the husbands can justify it * Poor sexual and reproductive heath - child brides are more likely to contract HIV than their unmarried counterparts because of greater sexual exposure with an older husband *Illiteracy and lack of education - girls tend to drop out of school shortly before or when they get married

Theory of recapitulation

Hall's theory of adolescence: Development of the individual paralleled the development of the human species, in which adolescence matches the transition period to civilization.

Developmental transitions

Important juncture in people's lives Childhood to adolescence: biological changes - puberty, brain development, growth spurt Cognitive changes: Abstract, idealistic,logical thinking Socioemotional changes: independence and peers, conflict with parents

Identity crisis

In Erikson's theory, the specific crisis of the period of adolescence that is shaped both by the changes of puberty and by the specific demands that society places on young people to make decisions about the future.

Id

In Freud's theory, that part of the psyche believed to be dominated by instinctual urges.

Ego

In Freud's theory, that part of the psyche believed to regulate thought, emotion, and behavior, and whose development is emphasized in Erikson's theory.

Learning environments

In Greenfield's theory refers to both the physical environment where enculturation and socialization takes place (e.g., school, family house, etc.) and the psychological environment (e.g., ethnotheories, cultural scripts, etc.) that determines the type of interactions between the child and the caregivers or other socializing agents.

Honor killings

In certain cultures, the killing of a relative, especially a girl or woman, who is perceived to have brought dishonor on the family

Mixed status families

Include U.S. citizen children and unauthorized immigrants are known

Migrant

Individual who leaves a place and goes to another without reference to direction, purpose, or duration

Immigrant

Individual who leaves one society behind to live and/ or work in another

integration

Integrate cultural differences into identity. Move in and out of different cultural world views.

3 scenarios about the interpersonal domain

Job scenario (school): challenges family values, but not family practices T-shirt scenario (home): Challenges both family values and family practices Brother scenario: Direct conflict between family and school responsibilities

What is the relationship between the rate of child labor and the GDP of a given country? How can you explain this relationship

Low GDP= high child labor exact opposite regions

Developmental theories

Make value judgments in relation to developmental ends:

Second-citizen view

Many adolescents are prohibited from occupying meaningful roles, thus experiencing frustration and restlessness Adolescent problems are created, in part, by our structure of their experience and by isolating them from adults

Secular trend

Marked changes in physical development that have occurred over generations.

Contemporary differences for migration

More options to remain connect to family - Ease of traveling, internet and media: E-mail, video conference Intense interactions due to remittances Increasing number of women immigrating

Cultures vary in their definition of adolescence

Most cultures have some kind of adolescence Cultural variations: 1. Length: U.S.: ages 10 - 18 2. Content 3. Daily experiences

Ethical relativism

No cross-culturally acceptable standards of right and wrong No ethical principle is objective

naturalistic fallacy

No ethical judgments can be derived from scientific findings Fact/value dichotomy

Can we avoid value judgments

No, we can't avoid value judgements (2 reasons): *Statements of fact/statements of value is a false dichotomy: only a distinction, not a sharp dichotomy * Our "descriptive" vocabulary is value-ladden (it expresses values, is perscriptive)

Denial

Own culture is the only real and 'true' culture. Avoids noticing cultural difference.

how are child soldiers recruited?

Patterns of recruitment of children vary according to the context - usually a mix of punishment, promises of rewards and indoctrination * Recruitment is facilitated when they are forced to participate in an assassination (perhaps of one of their relative, parents or friends) - the objective is to break their will and their bonds with the community

Harmful cultural practices

Practices rooted in culture that put children's physical and psychological health at risk, and that have relatively lasting negative effects on children's development: child labor, infanticide, female genitalia and cutting, child marriage, honor killings

Downward secular trend of menarche

Puberty begins earlier in cultures where good nutrition and medical care are widely available in the U.s. he average age is 12.5 Illness and thinness tend to inhibit the development of body fat resulting in delayed puberty Advances in food production have enhanced nutrition and therefore puberty has come sooner

Emerging adulthood

Recent period of the life course in industrialized countries characterized by experimentation and exploration leading to enduring (adult) commitments A contemporary extension of adolescence

Enculturation

Reinforcing the basic values and norms of a culture of origin

Policy making and international community

Responsible adults try to reduce children's suffering due to harmful cultural practices or difficult contexts of development * goal of presentation science *what fundamental needs must be met to assure that children will develop into healthy, well-adjusted adults? * United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the child - Not ratified by Somalia and U.S.

Modification: Differences within adolescent population

SES structures adolescent experience Impossible to generalized to all adolescents

Susan Beal

SIDS

Motor development is an example of a .....

Secular trend

Sexting

Sending sexually suggestive photos via cell phones.

Enculturation vs. Acculturation

Similarities: Both E and A are processes for acquiring culture Differences: E is learning to become a competent member of an original cultural group, E helps individual to survive and better fit into their original culture A is a 2-way change process when 2 culture meet A changes are felt in both cultures

Cultural comfort

Subconscious expectation for how life is patterned.

Youth culture

Subculture in a given society that is largely created and spread by young people themselves.

adaption

Take into account cultural differences by including relevant constructs from other cultural world views. Not the same as assimilation.

Effects of globalization

Technology effects the way families are being formed: internet dating, international adoption, more options for emerging adults

Equipotentiality

The ability to have similar or equal effects.

Resilience

The ability to recover quickly from the adverse effects of early experience or persevere in the face of stress with no apparent special negative psychological consequences.

Cultural integration

The close relationship among various elements of a cultural system.

Culture shock

The feeling of disorientation when one encounters a new or rapidly changed cultural situation

Cultural change

The fundamental alterations in the patterns of culture and social behavior over time Each generation can add changes to their culture in the process of cultural transmission

Global culture (global village)

The idea that globalization produces a lifestyle that has spread throughout the world and results in the standardization of tastes and values.

Globalization

The increasing worldwide technological and economic integration, which is making different parts of the world increasingly connected and increasingly similar culturally. Greater interdependence, mutual awareness among cultural groups, inevitable force

Social redefinition

The process through which an individual's position or status is redefined by society. he belief common in Asian cultures that children should respect, obey, and revere their parents throughout life.

First- generation families

The status of persons who were born in one country and then immigrated to another.

Second- generation families

The status of persons who were born in the country they currently reside in but whose parents were born in a different country.

Cultural lag

The tendency of symbolic culture to change more slowly than material culture. change in one part of culture accompanies other transformation, all parts of culture don't change at the same pace

Adolescence

The time after puberty begins and before adult roles are taken on *Begins with biology (puberty) and ends with culture (socially constructed)

Cultural diffusion

The transmission of cultural elements from one society or cultural group to another.

Glocalization

The ways in which global phenomena are responded to differently in local cultures.

Cultural hybridization

The ways in which parts of one culture (language, practices, symbols) get recombined with the cultures of another.

Flynn effect

The worldwide increase in IQ performance, particularly on nonverbal tests, over at least the last century.

Sociodemographics

Top, causal level in Greenfield's theory that describes characteristics of a culture or community as a whole in terms of its ecology, economy, and social relations

Introduction of TV

Tv is seen as superior than elders, migration to cities leaving elders to care for children left behind

Greenfield's theory

Unique features - Deals simultaneously with 2 scales of development: Ontogentic= Change within a lifetime. Phylogenetic= change across succeeding generations Other theories: Developmental trajectories as constant across historical time *Greenfield's theory = Change in developmental trajectories as constant, as sociodemographic conditions change, cultural values and developmental patterns are transformed across generation

Amae

Very close, physical, indulgent relationship between the mother and her young child.

Effects on children

When set free or escape: many cant go back home to their families and communities because theyve been ostrracized from them * many girls have babie from their time in th erebel groups and their communities/ families dont accpt them home *most have missed out on school: -Without an education they have very liitle future prospects -sometimes return to rebel for food

Acculturation

When the values and norms of an outside culture are acquired

Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity

a continuum ranging from ethnocentrism, or rejection or avoidance of different cultures, to ethnorelativism, the embracing and integration of self into different cultures.

Conclusion of scenario study

acculturation to host society values speedier in domain of personal achievement than in domain of interpersonal relations ancestral values maintained longer if a particular value conflict challenges family practices and values. Parents have more influence on children's values in home contexts than in school settings.

Adolescence as a historical phenomenon

adolescence as a period varies across historical eras No generalizations are possible about how stressful it is, its developmental task, and nature of intergenerational conflict No "identity" when adolescent followed parental occupation

Adolescence as an invention

adolescence is entirely a social invention Division between childhood and adolescence reflects our socioeconominc circumstances adolescents treated as a special group because of compulsory education Social conditions, not biological givens, define the nature of adolescence

Intergenerational conflict (generational gap)

adolescents and adults grow up under different circumstances, developing different attitudes, values, and beliefs, and thus, leading to inevitable conflict

Transnational families

adopt separate living arrangements in 2 or more countries but retain close links with their homeland Reasons for separation Political, economic factors, pursuing education

cultural variations in age of reaching young adulthood

all cultures do not have the transitional period of emerging adulthood

Most serious developmental problems:

associated with a combination of biological, social, and environmental risk factors interacting over time

social learning theory

behaviors are learned through modeling and observational learning

Compare and contrast the fact/value dichotomy vs. the naturalistic fallacy; then elaborate on 2 arguments against the view that value judgments can be avoided in developmental science

cant seperate fact and value

Child labor

children are the cheapest form of labor children in middle childhood are employed in developing countries Provide basic needs for family: food, shelter, clothing

filial piety

children should respect and rever their parents throughout life

Family Relations: conflict

conflicts with parents increase, peaking during mid-teens (mother-daughter more intense)

Adolescents develop a counterculture

different cultural viewpoint that may be hostile to the views of the adult generation We will always have intergenerational conflict because society changes so rapidly Marginality is an inherent characteristic of contemporary adolescence

Why does child marriage happen?

gender inequality- lower status of girl/women *poverty - low income families girls seen as an economic burden and marriage is a potential income * Negative cultural practices - importance of preserving "Family honor" through the girls virginity - marriage safeguard against immoral behavior * Failure to enforce laws - sometimes families are not aware they are breaking the law

MAOA

genetic variant in the code for an enzyme" monoamine oxidase A *affects several neurotransmitter *@ normal gene verisons: short and long, producing people with lower or higher levels of MAOA Beaten+low levels = overly aggressive High MAOA = model citizen Not beaten+high MAOA= troubled adults

public policy

government-based social policy * purpose of social policy about child development: Provide information, provide funding to achieve goals: child protection and family support, provide services to prevent or reduce problems: Head Start, sex education for teenagers, provide infrastructure to support efforts on behalf of children

Number of risk factors

increases the likelihood of problems

Social redefinition consequences

increasing privileges, increasing responsibility

discontinuous societies

industrialized societies characterized by rapid social change: transition to adulthood is abrupt

Teleogical explanation

involves value judgments *A judgment of the rightness or wrongness of something, based on a comparison relative o adopted values

Continuos society

non-industrialized societies with little social change: transition to adult hood is gradual and peaceful

1.5 generation

people who immigrate to anew country before or during their early teens

cosmopolitan identity

perceiving oneself as a citizen of the world

Risk factors

personal characteristics or environmental circumstances that increase the probability of negative outcomes for children *risk is statistic that applies to groups, not individuals *most risk factors are not the direct cause of the developmental problems

Mead

postfigurative, prefigurative, cofigurative

Technological change and youth culture

rate of technological change in a culture influences degree to which adolescents receive instructions from adults or from each other

Behaviorism

reinforcement and punishment as main influences

Acculturation and schooling

schooling is a force for the acculturation of immigrants into the mainstream culture of individualism Under the influence of the school, children of adult immigrants acculturate faster than their parents Learning of culture takes place context by context

social policy

set of planned actions to solve a social problem or attain a social goal

Cause of Family Relation conflicts

sexual maturation, ability to reason and argue effectively, desire for greater independence and autonomy, parental concern over potentially risky behavior *Tradition cultures (autonomy not valued): Few parent-teen conflicts because of feelings of duty and respect

global ethics

show respect for core human values demonstrate sensitivity to local traditions Recognize that context matters when distinguishing between right and wrong

differential sensitivity

some people are more vulnerable than others to particular experiences *genes or circumstances that work both ways: they predispose people to being either unusually successful or severely pathological Ex. violent delinquent often boys beaten in childhood, troubled in school is living in a drug-filled life, crowded neighborhood.

Acculturation development

the process towards gaining competence within 2 distinct cultural domains in order to have a sense of belonging and be able to participate successfully with in both