Custom IB Psychology SL Exam Review

Cole and Scribner (1974)

A: To investigate influences of education in the development of memory processes and strategies and free recall in children in two different cultures: USA & Kpelle (Liberia) Field Experiment P: Free recall test and presented words to participants, asked to memorize all 20, 2nd part: researcher presented objects in a story format and P's asked to recall these F: Liberian school children performed similarly to US children of same age- used similar memory techniques Kids not in school did worse, scores stopped improving after 9/10 In 2nd part non-schooled children performed best by using a technique of grouping the objects according to roles they played in the story C: People learn to remember things in ways that are relevant to their everyday lives: dependent on schooling. E: Only 2 nationalities used (Limited sample), Low internal validity: no clear cause/ effect relationship Study supports that culture affects memory (influences schema) Pilot study made sure kids knew words

Snyder and Swann (1978)

AIM METHOD Survey PROCEDURE Told female college students that they would meet a person who was either introverted (reserved, cool) or extroverted (outgoing, warm). They were asked to prepare a set of questions for the person they were going to meet. RESULTS Generally, the participants came up with questions that supported their beliefs about introverts and extroverts. Those who were told they were going to meet an introvert asked 'what do you dislike about parties?' or 'are there times you wish you could be more outgoing?'. Those who were told they were going to meet an extrovert asked 'what do you do to liven up a party?' EVALUATION This is an example of confirmation bias: people tend to overlook information that contradicts what they already believe. Ecological validity limited since used only female college student, not cross section of population so cant generalise results. Evidence for illusory correlation - seeing a relationship where non exists. People's belief are biased, because they pay attention to behaviors that confirm what they believe in already, and ignore behaviors contrary to their beliefs. Leads to confirmation bias.

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

AIM To test their hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to show that leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony accounts METHOD PROCEDURE ==Experiment 1== 45 student participants - 5 groups of nine each - were shown short video clips. All of the participants were asked: 'About how fast the cars were going when they [[blank]] each other.' Each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank: smashed, collided, bumped, hit and contacted. ==Experiment 2== 150 student participants - 3 groups of fifty each - were shown multi-vehicle accident clips. All of the participants were asked: 'How fast where the cars going when they [[blank]] each other?' One group was "hit" as the verb; one was given "smashed", and the third group wasn't asked the question. One week later, all were asked if "Did you see any broken glass?" (there was no broken glass in the film). RESULTS ==Experiment 1== When the verb "smashed" was used, participants guessed higher speeds (40.8). When the verb "contacted" was used, participants guessed lowest speeds (31.8). ==Experiment 2== When the verb "smashed" was used, more people claimed there was glass (compared to "hit"). When the verb "hit" was used, more people claimed there was glass (compared to control group). Conversely, when the verb "smashed" was used, fewer people claimed there was no glass (compared to "hit"). When the verb "hit" was used, fewer people claimed there was no glass (compared to control group). CONCLUSION Form of a question can markedly and systematically affect a witness' answer to the Q. Causes a change in the subject's memory representation of the accident Memories can be distorted or falsely created. EVALUATION Large sample size, BUT students used (non-representative), Lab, non-traumatic, non-generalisable, easy to replicate Ecological validity suspect. In real life impact of the event (say armed robbery) may create more solid memories.

Batson et al. (1981)

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis - told that they would be observing with Elaine on a TV while she did memory tasks - Elaine would be "given" moderately uncomfortable electric shocks at random - participant filled out their own questionnaire, then given either responses by Elaine that were similar or different from their own (high or low empathy) -there were 2 escape conditions: difficult (told they had to stay for all 10 trials) and easy (told they could leave after 2 trials) -participants were also given the option to switch places with Elaine (help) -90% of high empathy, easy escape helped -82% of high empathy, difficult escape helped -65% of low empathy, difficult escape helped -<20% of low empathy, easy escape helped

Odden & Rochat (2004)

Enculturation- Samoan kids learning their culture

Festinger (1950)

Examined friendship patterns in married student housing at MIT. Couples were randomly assigned to buildings and apartments. Results showed that proximity or opportunities to bump into each other on a daily basis increased chances for friendships. Conclusions: The researchers suggest that physical proximity increases opportunities for interaction, which in turn increases familiarity.) The mere exposure effect is enough to increase liking.

Femlee (1995)

Fatal attraction Hypothesis- what initially attracts an individual to another person may be the very reason for the end of the relationship 3 patterns: 1. Fun to foolish- fun outgoing, party-loving to immature, irresponsible, and foolish 2. Strong to domineering- strength, definite opinions, reassuring presence to dictatorial, bossy, forceful, overbearing 3. Spontaneous to unpredictable- living in the moment, unconventional, living life to the fullest to lacking focus, being unreliable, inconsistent, and "flaky"

Levine et al. (2001)

Field experiment, Pro-social behavior in different collectivist or individualist countries- 23 major cities Pro-social behavior is behavior that helps others/ society as a whole (Pro-society) Confederate drops pen or wears leg brace and drops magazines or something similar- trying to see who is the most helpful Collectivist were most helpful: 1. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2. San Jose, Costa Rica 3. Lilongwe, Mali 4. Calcutta, India There was a correlation between pace and helping (slower pace= more helping) High External Validity because people didn't know they were being watched, so no Hawthorne effect, Low internal validity because of many confounding variables Large, Diverse sample so generalizability Ethical considerations because the people did not give informed consent

Lyons-Padilla et al (2015)

Muslims and discrimination/acculturation- more discrimination= more radicalism

Flook et al (2015)

Promoting pro-social behavior 68 diverse preschoolers (avg age of 5) in a midwestern city Conditions: 1. mindfulness-based kindness program - attention on present moment - training and practice - regulating emotions - sharing, empathy, gratitude emphasized - 20-30 min, twice a week for 12 weeks 2. control - nothing Teachers rated sharing, delay of gratification, and decision making Results: - program helped them improve - children with low ratings before had the highest improvement - the control was more selfish and shared less

Moreland & Beach (1992)

- Four equally attractive women (determined by a pretest) - women silently attended a class for 0, 5, 10, or 15 class sessions - at end of course, students shown slides of women - Results: the women they had seen the most often were rated most attractive and likable -mere exposure effect

Newcomb (1961)

- Male students in housing, people sought people who were like themselves, shared beliefs meant that they were more likely to be friends. -people like those similar to them

Buss et al (1989)

10,000 People from 33 different countries Survey People were given some information about potential matches and then asked to rank them Males preferred youthful looks (Symbols of fertility) and women preferred characteristics of wealth Possible evolutionary desire for men to find someone to reproduce with and for women to find someone to protect the baby Low internal validity Huge sample size, was limited to under 28 years old Inconsistent sampling methods

Brewer and Treyens (1981)

AIM To investigate whether people's memory for objects in a room (an office) is influenced by existing schemas about what to expect in an office. Hypothesis that the participants would be more likely to remember objects usually found in an office than those that are not. METHOD PROCEDURE 86 uni psych students, didn't realize study had begun. Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. They were asked to write down description of as many objects as they could recall (location, shape, size, colour), verbal recognition (given booklet containing list of objects, rate 1-6 how sure on item. RESULTS Participants recalled things of a "typical office" according to their schema. They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office. CONCLUSION Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it. They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their "typical office" schema. Schema theory: brain fills in blanks of what would be expected to be in an office EVALUATION - Confirms schema theory (and reconstructive memory) - Laboratory experiment - Deception - Sample Bias - Not generalized - Lacks ecological validity, Lab study, doesn't reflect daily activity

Brown and Kulik (1977)

AIM To investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events. METHOD PROCEDURE Questionnaires asked 80 participants - half african-american, half caucasians - to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events (JFK, MLK assassination, 911, etc.) Asked to fill out a questionnaire with 10 different events (9 resulted to assassinations of American figures, and 1 was a self selected personal like the death of a loved one). Asked questions regarding significance of event (1-5), how was it regraded, where were you, who were you with, etc. RESULTS The participants had vivid memories of where they were, what they did, and what they felt when they first heard about a shocking public event such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy. The participants also said they had Flashbulb Memories (FM) of shocking personal events such as the sudden death of a relative. The results indicated that FM is more likely for unexpected and personally relevant events. The researchers suggested 'the photographic model of flashbulb memory'. Emotionally shocking events were remembered well, researchers thought this was because of increased physiological arousal (amygdala). EVALUATION The reliance on retrospective data questions the reliability of this study. FM maybe emotionally vivid, but not necessarily accurate in regard to details. The photographic model of FM has been challenged. Demand Characteristics: The socially acceptable answer is yes, I do remember situation. Sample size was large and diverse Memories are not very accurate

Fessler (2006)

AIM Evaluate if disgust (the emotion motivating avoidance of contact and refusal to eat something) has evolved to protect from risk of disease. The more vulnerable (lower immunity) the individual is to infection, the greater the importance of disease avoidance, and hence higher disgust. METHOD PROCEDURE Web-based survey of 496 pregnant women, with an average age of 28 years old were asked to rank 32 potentially disgusting scenarios. Compared the disgust sensitivity of participants in their first trimester with those in later stages of pregnancy. 155 participants were in the first trimester, 183 in the second trimester and 158 in the third trimester. Responses from women who were in the second and third trimesters at the time of participation were pooled and compared with the responses from women who were in the first trimester. RESULTS Women in their first trimester scored higher in disgust sensitivity than women in the second and third trimesters. CONCLUSION Heightened sense of disgust was advantageous to our ancestors and allowed them to survive long enough to produce offspring, who passed on the same sensitivities. It would have helped compensate for the increase susceptibility to disease during early pregnancy, which is a risky period due to the suppressed immune system, by increasing the urge to be picky about food. This would diminish the risk of food-borne disease during pregnancy, which is according to the view of disgust as a form of protection against disease. EVALUATION - Although there was a correlation between disgust and nausea, the researchers also measured each independently and found that the phase of the pregnancy and feelings of nausea contributed separately to disgust sensitivity. In other words, it was possible to feel nausea without disgust and the level of disgust felt decreased considerably throughout the pregnancy. This was a methodological strength of the study. - Self-report studies, especially a written questionnaire conducted online, are not the best ways to gain valid responses, as people often approach them thoughtlessly and in a hurry

Wedekind (1995)

AIM Evaluate if females can identify males who had a genetic make-up which, in combination with her own, would boost the immune system of potential children. The study focused on a particular complex of genes (Major HistoCompatibility MHC genes) in the immune system known for the ability to protect against pathogens. The more diverse the MHC genes, the stronger the immune system of the offspring. METHOD Lab experiment A group of 49 women and 44 men with a wide range of MHC genes. Each man wore a clean t-shirt for two night to ensure strong body odor. Used odor-free soap and aftershave. After the two days each shirt was put in a box with sniffing holes on top. The women returned at the midpoint of menstrual cycle where their sense of smell is the best. Each woman was presented with a different set of seven boxes: 3 boxes are t-shirts from men with similar MHC gene to the woman. 3 others are t-shirts from men with dissimilar MHC gene to the woman. 1 with an unworn t-shirt (controlled). Women voted from range 0-10 for sexiness and pleasantness. RESULT This study found that women prefer the smell of t-shirts worn by men with dissimilar MHC. Result was reversed for women who were taking the contraceptive pill. CONCLUSION MHC partly influences human mate choice. EVALUATION - Successfully replicated. - Not a conscious decision. - Double-blind experiment, to minimize demand characteristics. - Debriefing, high ethical standards of consent. - Low population validity. - Reductionist, over-simplifies. - Not representative (same age and culture). - Poor ecological validity - No cause or effect

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

AIM Evaluate if short term memory and long term memory are two separate stores in a free recall experiment. METHOD PROCEDURE The researchers presented 240 army enlisted participants a list of 15 words which the participants knew they had to memorize. Half of the participants were instructed to recall the list straight after presentation in the immediate free recall condition (IFR). Other half recalled them after a delay of 30 seconds (the delay free recall condition - DFR). Participants in this second condition had to count backwards in threes from a three-digit number to prevent further rehearsal of the words during the delay. RESULTS Primacy effect: People have time to rehearse the words and transfer them from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory. Recency effect: People remember last few words because being fairly recent, the words were still stored in Short Term Memory for recall Participants recalled more words at beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of the list. Delaying recall by 30 seconds prevented the recency effect (information was in short term memory, but was lost due to delay), but not the primacy effect (information was already in long term memory store). CONCLUSION These results implied that primacy words were stored somewhere different to recency words and thus we have separate memory stores. EVALUATION Lacks ecological validity as this memorization of the items does not present everyday ways of utilizing memory unless they were memorizing phone numbers, shopping lists etc. Gender validity since all participants were male.

Landry and Bartling (2011)

AIM Investigate the effects of "multi-tasking" when both tasks utilize the same working memory system - in this case, the phonological loop. The aim was to investigate if articulatory suppression* would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall. *Articulatory suppresion is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember. Phonological Loop: Part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. METHOD PROCEDURE Participants were randomly divided into two groups - the "multi-tasking" group and the "single task" group All participants were shown 10 letter strings, each consisting of 7 random letters (eg. GHKALKE). Participants had to memorize each string of letters, then write their answer down on an answer sheet. ​ The participants in the "multi-tasking" group were also told to repeatedly say the numbers "1" and "2" at a rate of two numbers per second, while they were trying to memorize the string of random letters. RESULTS The participants in the "multi-tasking" group performed significantly worse, recalling the letters with 45% accuracy compared with 76% in the "single task" group. CONCLUSION Repeating the numbers "1" and "2" made it more difficult to mentally rehearse the string of letters, resulting in diminished memory. This study suggests that multi-tasking leads to impaired working memory, especially when both tasks utilize the same working memory system (in this case, the phonological loop) EVALUATION This was a well-controlled lab experiment, demonstrating a clear causal relationship between the independent variable (single vs. multi-tasking) and the dependent variable (recall of letters) ​ Supports the predictions of the working memory model, in particular the idea that each memory system has limited capacity. ​ Since this experiment involved memorizing random strings of letters, a task not normally important for everyday life, this experiment may be low in ecological validity.

Dabbs et al. (1995)

AIM Investigate the relationship between testosterone and crime. METHOD Testosterone, crime, and prison behavior were examined among 692 adult male prison inmates. Testosterone was measured from saliva samples, and behavior was coded from prison system records. RESULTS Inmates who had committed (worse) personal crimes of sex and violence had higher testosterone levels than inmates who had committed property (lesser) crimes of burglary, theft, and drugs. Inmates with higher testosterone levels also violated more rules in prison, especially rules involving overt confrontation. The findings indicate differences between low and high testosterone individuals in the amount and pattern of their misbehavior. CONCLUSION Testosterone levels may affect the types of violent crimes criminals commit EVALUATION What about testosterone and violent crimes in females? What about effects of environment like upbringing by parents? How to account for the motivation for committing crimes: murder for fun vs murder for revenge? This study had a huge sample size which is a strength It is a correlational study and therefore cannot imply causation

Marucha et al (1997)

AIM Study the link between stress levels and the body's ability to recover METHOD 11 dental students had their palates punctured (minor pain) during summer, and 3 days before an examination period (stressful period) Two punch biopsy wounds were placed on the hard palate of 11 dental students. The first wound was timed during summer vacation (minimal stress), whereas the second was placed on the side 3 days during examination period (stressful) Healing time was measured RESULT Students took an average 40% longer/ 3 extra days (11 days vs 8 days) to heal during examination period Interleukin which aids recovery (helps skin regrowth) levels declined 68% during exams. CONCLUSION Cortisol (stress hormone) lowers interleukin levels (lower immunity) and prolongs for wound healing. EVALUATION ==Students hurt==

McGaugh & Cahill (1995)

AIM Study the relationship between emotional arousal and long-term memory. Study the role of (adrenaline and amygdala) on emotional memory formation. METHOD PROCEDURE Two groups of participants saw 12 slides that had very different stories. First group heard a boring story about a woman and her son who paid a visit to the father in a hospital where they witnessed staff in a preparation drill of a simulated accident Second group heard a story where the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed. He was brought to a hospital where his limbs were reattached. Two weeks after participants had to return and recall using memory specific detail of the story. In a follow up study, the above procedure was repeated but this time participants in group 2 were injected with a beta blocker called propanolol that interferes with adrenaline to prevent the activation of the amygdala which prevents the formation of memory. RESULTS Participants who heard more emotionally arousing story demonstrated better recall of specific details. In the follow up study group 2 who received beta blockers did no better than group 1. CONCLUSION Adrenaline and amygdala play a significant role in the creation of memories. EVALUATION Standardized procedure Cause and Effect Research been applied to treatment of accident victims to prevent PTSD. Led to further research of studies (Pitman et al 2002) This study investigated the role of emotion and the amygdala in memory. It found that participants who heard an emotionally arousing story recalled more detail. However, when participants were given a beta blocker that interfered with the release of adrenaline, it prevented activation of the amygdala and participants recalled no more detail than those who heard the "mundane" story.

Wilhelm et al (2006)

AIM Study the relationship between the serotonin transporter gene (controls happiness, a feeling of well-being), adverse events in life, and corresponding onset of depression. Study gene vs. environment interaction in a cohort (group of people) with longitudinal data for life events, experience of depression, parental bonding and neuroticism (moodiness, anxiety, etc). METHOD PROCEDURE The researchers looked at DNA samples from 127 people who are part of a longitudinal mental health study. The sample had been monitored for over 25 years. At five-year intervals, scientists recorded any major life events and signs of depression. RESULT They found that 80% of those with two short 5-HTT genes became depressed after three or more negative life events in a year, whereas those with two long genes appeared resilient - only 30% developed the illness in similar situations. They also found that childhood maltreatment predicted adult depression only among individuals carrying a short allele and not among those carrying the longer allele. CONCLUSION The 5-HTT genes is a significant predictor of onset of major depression following multiple adverse events. EVALUATION -The study is correlational, so no cause and effect relationship can be determined. -The study makes an assumption that serotonin causes depression. -Information about life-events was self-reported. It may be the salience of the negative life events which plays a role in depression - that is, those that recalled them more easily may have a tendency toward depression. Those who are more resilient, may not recall negative life events as easily. -The theory acknowledges the interaction between both biological and environmental factors in depression. This is a more holistic approach, not reductionist. -Later studies have been able to show similar results. It appears that the study has high reliability. -There were some participants who did not carry the gene mutation who became depressed; therefore, we cannot say that gene expression alone can cause expression.

Bouchard et al. (1990)

AIM The Minnesota Twin Study was to investigate how much intelligence was inherited genetically vs. acquired from environment. It compared Mono-Zygotic (twins) who were raised together (MZT) vs. twins who were raised apart (MZA) and later united. METHOD PROCEDURE Over the course of 20 years, 137 pairs of twins were studied. Participants self-selected from across the world (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, China, Sweden, W. Germany). Each twin had standardized Personality Testing which included: mannerisms, personal choices and expressive social behavior. Used the WAIS to measure intelligence. RESULT Concordance rate for MZA: 68%, for MZT: 88% (Concordance means same traits exist in both the twins) Heritability estimate is about 70% (70% of intelligence is due to genetic inheritance). This means that 30% of intelligence may be attributed to other factors. Environmental factors do play a role in the development of intelligence. IQ, to a large extent, is inherited. EVALUATION - Correlational data cannot establish cause-effect relationships. - Concordance rates were high in the study but far from 100% so it was difficult to determine the relative influence of genes. - Calculation of concordance rates is not always reliable. - There was no control for the effect of environmental variables in the study and this affects accurate estimations of a genetic contribution to intelligence. - Self-selected sample makes it difficult to generalize findings - Cannot assume equal environment between reared together. -Cross cultural validity (most cross cultural study to date) -Longitudinal study- 50 hours - gain better insight on individual participants and take that into consideration - increases reliability - Ethical concerns presented with the way the twins were reunited (emotional/psychological harm may have presented itself).

Fagot (1978)

AIM The aim of this study was to observe parental reactions to behavior that wasn't deemed appropriate for the child's gender, at least according to American culture at the time. METHOD Naturalistic Observation & interviews PROCEDURE 24 families, 12 families with boys and 12 with girls. Toddlers and their parents were observed in their homes using an observation checklist. Enculturation Study RESULT Parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender-appropriate behavior (girls acting older, Boys playing with bricks) and were more likely to give negative responses to "gender inappropriate" behaviors. Reactions were not intentional: In the follow up interviews with the parents, it was found that the parents perceptions of their interactions with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not a conscious behavior. EVALUATION Strengths: Real life behaviors Uses method triangulation, interviews & observations. Increases the credibility of the findings. Limitations: - Limited to a single culture. Difficult to generalize. Ecological Validity, Control for researcher bias with checklists, operationally defining behaviors Weaknesses: Hawthorne Effect, Loss of nuance when defining everything as +/- low temporal validity as this study was 40 years ago

Bechara et al (2000)

AIM To compare the decision-making of a participants with damage to their ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFCs), which has been shown to play a role in regulating behavior, to a healthy control group. Patients with bilateral lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VM) opt for choices that yield high immediate gains in spite of higher future losses. METHOD Lab (quasi-experiment since you can't give people brain lesions) PROCEDURE 17 healthy controls and 8 patients with lesions in their vmPFCs (found via MRI) Four deck of cards: (Iowa Card Game) Start with $2,000. 100 trials from the decks to win. Two decks - A & C - are such that they result in small short term gains and small long term losses (low risk, low reward) Two decks: B & D - are such that they result in large short term gains and large long term losses (high risk, high reward) RESULTS After 30-40 trials, non-damaged people realize that A&C - low risk, low reward - is a better choice for winning and are able to resist the B&D decks (high risk, high reward scenarios). Participants with vmPFC lesions could not move away from the high-risk deck to the overall more advantageous deck like the healthy control participants eventually did. CONCLUSION Researchers used this to say that they couldn't move from system 1 (impulsive and automatic) to system 2 thinking (deliberate and slower). EVALUATION Because it is fake money, the participants may not take the game very seriously Small sample size Generalizability: Is it really possible for behavior observed in the Iowa Gambling Task to be applied to explain violent behavior? Internal Validity: Is this study really measuring system one and two processing? It is plausible to apply these results to this concept, but this was not the researchers' initial intention.

Tajfel (1970)

AIM To demonstrate that merely putting people into groups (categorisation) is sufficient for people to discriminate in favour of their own group and against members of the other group. Social identity theory (SIT) suggests that a person's sense of who they are is based on their group membership. PROCEDURE Sample: 50 British boys (14-15) Boys randomly assigned into groups ==Experiment 1== Boys were provided with a visual judgement task where they had to estimate the number of dots presented on a screen. Based on responses placed in either the 'overestimator' or 'underestimator' group. ==Experiment 2== In the second experiment, groupings were seemingly based on artistic preferences: the 'Klee group' and the 'Kandinsky group' Once grouped, the boys were tasked with giving rewards and penalties to others in the form of real money. At the end of the experiment, each boy received the amount he had been awarded - although this was quite insignificant (50p). RESULT Boys allocated more money to their own group even though the groups were meaningless. Also, boys preferred to maximize the difference between the groups, even at the expense of gaining a higher score and thus, obtaining more money. CONCLUSION Tajfel uses Social Identity Theory (SIT) as an explanation for intergroup discrimination. Social identity theory argues that the boys favored their own group because it increases their self-esteem. Even though the boys were never giving points to themselves they knew that if they gave less to the other group and more to their own group that they would be in the group which gained most points therefore improving their self esteem because they belonged to the 'best' group. EVALUATION High internal validity because controlled variables/ Random assignment Study was replicated and gave same results Lower ecological validity, Limited sample (only British boys)

Abrams et al (1990)

AIM To determine if in-group identity would affect one's willingness to conform METHOD PROCEDURE 23 males and 27 females enrolled in an introductory psychology course. They were introduced as either as first-year students from psychology (ingroup) or as students of ancient history (outgroup) from the same university. They were not supposed to talk to each other. Independent variables - whether confederates were from an in-group (psychology students) or out-group (ancient history students) - whether the participant's responses were public or private Participants sat in a row, facing the monitor - participant always at the end of the row. Confederates introduced, participants told not to talk to each other Like Asch - shown stimulus line, then three other lines (which is same length). 18 total trials (in 9 correct response, in 9 unanimous confederate incorrect response) Participant answered last In public condition - all four members of the group gave their judgements out loud Participant asked to answer in private condition as well Participant asked to note down the others' responses Confederates gave answers out loud Real participant recorded own response privately 4 Response Groups: Public ingroup, Private ingroup, Public outgroup, Private outgroup Ingroup confederates were psych students, outgroup confederates were history students Ingroups cause more conformity than outgroups 50 psychology college students (Basically 50 50 male female) Job was to match lines 18 Trials: In 9, confederates gave correct response, in 9 they gave the same wrong response Public: Each student gave their response outloud Private: Real student wrote down responses RESULT 77% of all participants conformed to the erroneous confederate judgments on at least one trial. No gender differences observed Decreasing conformity: Public ingroup conformity > Private ingroup > private outgroup > public outgroup EVALUATION Weakness: Low ecological validity because lab setting, Ethical considerations because of deception Results difficult to generalize Culturally biased Strengths: High internal validity because high control

Caspi et al (2003)

AIM To determine the possible role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful events. METHOD Longitudnal study PROCEDURE Researchers compared participants with normal 5-HTT gene with long alleles and a mutation of the 5-HTT gene with shorter alleles. Both types are quite frequent in humans but the longer allele is slightly more frequent (57%). RESULT The researchers found that participants who carried a mutation of the 5-HTT gene and who had experienced many stressful events were more likely to become depressed after stressful events than those participants who carried the normal 5-HTT gene. CONCLUSION Those with a mutated 5-HTT gene (short allele) are more genetically predisposed to traumatic events. However it is not necessary that they will become depressed. Conversely, those with long alleles can also be depressed. EVALUATION -Provides insight role of genetics on behaviour -This info can help people make decisions accordingly if they know they are more predisposed to side effects of stressful events (they can talk to their doctor or psychiatrist) -no participants were harmed -longitudinal studies enabled researchers to observe participants over long periods of time Since a large proportion of the population carries the mutation of the 5-HTT gene that makes them susceptible to depression after traumatic events, it can be difficult to conclude that the gene is a major contribution to depression. People who did not carry the mutation also became depressed. The study showed a correlation between the presence of a 5-HTT short allele and depression but it is not possible to establish a cause-effect relationship. Genes contribute to some extent to behavioral traits and disorders but it is not clear how environmental factors influence genes. Environmental factors were included in the study (stressful events) but there is no evidence against the idea that it could be the stressful events (environmental factors) that made people depressed. Much more research is needed before a clear relationship between a gene and a behavioral trait can be established.

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

AIM To determine the role of acetylcholine (ACh) on memory METHOD - Laboratory experiment - Controlled variables (i.e. 3 conditions of the rats, drug amount, maze complexity) PROCEDURE Rats were trained to go through a maze. Three groups of rats: Group 1 consisted of rats who had been injected with scopolamine drug which blocks acetylcholine receptor proteins on the post-synaptic neurones to prevent memory from being formed. Group 2 was injected with physostigmine which blocks cholinesterase (an enzyme which cleans up extra ACh), thus causing an increase in ACh. Group 3 is the control group - no injections Then given injections and time to complete the maze was measured again RESULT - Group 1 took the longest to complete the maze (no memory formed since Scopolamine blocked ACh) - Group 2 took the shortest time (physostigmine prevented ACh cleanup - means more ACh, means better memory) - Group 3 (rats with no treatment) times were the Group 1 and Group 2 rats EVALUATION ==Advantage== - Clear to see the cause-effect chain between ACh and memory formation. - Accurate conclusions - Multiple trials doable and replicable - Possibility that humans can be treated with acetylcholine or physostigmine for memory-loss - No people harmed in this experiment - No deception used in this experiment ==Disadvantage== - Rats were harmed - Ethical concerns - rats suffered - Results cannot be completely applied to humans

Bandura et al. (1961)

AIM To investigate if social behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. METHOD Matched pair experiment PROCEDURE 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old. Grouped by their aggression levels. One group was exposed to adult models who showed aggression by bashing an inflatable dummy ("Bobo doll"). Second group observed non aggressive adults who assembled toys for 10 minutes. Third, control group did not observe any models. After watching the models, all children were placed into a room with toys, and then told that they were not allowed to have them. Then they were moved to a room with an inflatable dummy. RESULT The children who had observed the aggressive models were far more aggressive verbally and physically. Also, girls were more likely to mimic verbal aggression if the model was male, and physical aggression if the model was female. Boys were more likely imitate same-sex model than girls. Boys imitated more physical aggression than girls. CONCLUSION Children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person. EVALUATION Strength: Causation, Internal Validity, Balanced groups (Matching) Weakness: Low Ecological Validity, Less than natural, Encounter with model is very brief, Children were intentionally frustrated, Adult model was not standard (no video), Matching wasn't perfect, random selection would be better, Hawthorne Effect?

Alter et al (2007)

AIM To investigate the effect of cognitive disfluency on the use of rational thinking over intuitive thinking. Cognitive disfluency means making material harder to learn. Surprisingly, this can improve long-term learning and retention since when one puts in more work to process any material, it may sinks in more deeply. METHOD Lab method PROCEDURE To test that principle, the researchers compared the learning results of two groups of subjects in a lab at Princeton University. Participants completed a cognitive reflection test (CRT) with a total of 3 questions to measure whether people use fast thinking, system 1, to answer the question (and get it wrong) or use slow thinking, system 2 (and get it right). One group read material in a common black font (Arial), and one read it in more unusual and difficult gray-scale fonts (Comic Sans MS and Bodoni MT). RESULTS In the easy to read font 10% of participants answered correctly In the hard to read font 65% of participants answered correctly. CONCLUSION Participants in the easy to read font used quick, unconscious system 1 thinking to come up with obvious but incorrect answer. Participants in hard to read font cause then to slow down and use system 2 thinking resulting in correct answers. EVALUATION -Low generalizability due to sample. -Low ecological validly due to "trick" questions on cognitive reflection test (don't show up in everyday life) -Supports dual processing theory of system 1 and system 2 thinking.

Ariely et al. (2003)

AIM To investigate whether anchors influenced system-1-type thinking even when they are irrelevant to the decision being made METHOD PROCEDURE The products were introduced to the participants, who were a class of 55 MBA students. Asked whether they would buy each item for the same number of dollars as the last two digits of their social security number. Each gave the accept or reject response. They were then asked to state the maximum amount they would pay for items. RESULTS Showed significant correlation between the social security number and the max amount prepared to pay for each product. Those with above-median social security numbers gave prepared-to-pay values from 57% to 107% more than those with below-median social security number. The values they provided were "anchored" to their social security number which is essentially a random figure. CONCLUSION People anchor around first piece of information received; and often anchor around irrational/random items. While economists believe people are rational, this shows that irrational behavior is quite common. EVALUATION Mnemonic Device: Ariely --> Ariel's (the little mermaid) anchor social security numbers (last two digits) and willingness to buy something for that price (anchoring heuristic)

Bartlett (1932)

AIM To investigate whether people's memory for a story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent to which memory is reconstructive. METHOD PROCEDURE Asked British participants to hear a story and reproduce it after a short time and then repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unfamiliar Native American legend called "The War of the Ghosts". RESULTS The participants remembered the gist of the story but they changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed. It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction. CONCLUSION Remembering is an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas to create meaning in the information. Memories are not "copies" of experience but rather "reconstructions". EVALUATION Confirms schema theory (and reconstructive memory), but it was performed in a laboratory and can be criticized for lack of ecological validity. Participants did not receive standardized instructions and some of the memory distortions may be due to participants' guessing (demand characteristics). In spite of these methodological limitations, the study is one of the most important in the study of memory.

Hutchings and Mednick (1975)

AIM To investigate whether there is a genetic link in criminal behavior. To investigate the likelihood of adopted children committing criminal acts in accordance to their biological fathers and adopted fathers. METHOD Adoption study using retrospective data PROCEDURE Used a sample of 1145 male adoptees from Copenhagen, Denmark. A control group was set up based on: sex, age, residence and occupation of fathers Both groups were then checked for criminal records as well as having their fathers criminal records checked. For the experimental group both adoptive and biological records were checked. RESULTS If both biological and adoptive fathers had criminal records, then 36.2% of adoptees had criminal records. If only biological father had criminal records, then 21.4% of adoptees had criminal records. If only adoptive father had criminal records, then 11.5% of adoptees had criminal records. If neither biological nor adoptive fathers had criminal records, then 10.5% of adoptees had criminal records. CONCLUSION Genetics play a bigger role in determining whether or not one will have criminal convictions EVALUATION -Very large sample so good external validity -Adoption study so accounts for how genetics are related to environment. -However the environment could be a factor here with adopted children having a more difficult time adjusting to their environment, learnt behavior from biological parents previously or even the stigma that is attached with being adopted affecting how they are treated by friends, family and even how they view themselves. - Beta gender bias - criminal behavior is a subjective term

Zhou et al (2014)

AIM To see if androstadienone and estratetraenol influenced human sex behavior. METHOD The experiment involved 4 groups: 24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual women, 24 homosexual men, and 24 homosexual women. ​ Participants viewed ​a walking human shape known as a ("point light marker"). with undefined gender. Participants had to say whether they thought the human shape was male or female. ​​ At the same time, unbeknownst to the participants, the scent of either a male pheromone (androstadienone - AND) or female pheromone (estratetraenol - EST) or a control (cloves) was released in the air. RESULT Heterosexual males assigned female gender to the shape when exposed to female pheromone; but had no effect to male pheromone. Heterosexual females assigned male gender to the shape when exposed to male pheromone; but had no effect to female pheromone. Homosexual males had opposite reaction (same as *heterosexual* females) Homosexual females had opposite reaction (same as *heterosexual* males) CONCLUSION Sex-specific pheromones can influence the perception of masculine and feminine traits Interpretation of the pheromones depends upon the sexual orientation of the recipient. EVALUATION High population validity Small sample size (only 8 participants from each sample in each condition) Reductionist Participants were exposed to an unnaturally high amount of pheromones, so it is not known whether the same response would be observed in a more natural setting. (ecological validity questionable) Study says study sexual behavior, which is very different that gender assignment (construct validity questionable) Contradictory research indicates AND and EST are not indicative of gender and hence aren't sex pheromones.

Huesmann and Eron (1986)

AIM To see if there is a link between violent television and aggressive behavior METHOD PROCEDURE Longitudinal study, monitoring children's behavior over a 15-year period. RESULT A positive correlation between the number of hours of violence watched on television by elementary school children and the level of aggression demonstrated when they were teenagers. Those who watched a lot of television violence when they were 8 years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults. EVALUATION This study supports social learning theory by demonstrating how behavior is learned through observational learning. High external validity, low internal validity Didn't show a cause-and-effect relationship between aggression and television along with having an gender and cultural bias. Undue stress from watching aggressive television, psychological harm can also be inflicted after viewing aggressive television.

Fisher et al

AIM When people in love saw images of their loved ones, the dopamine in their brains would increase in areas of the brain associated with motivation. SAMPLE 10 females and 7 males who reported being 'in love' for an average length of 7 months. Researchers interviewed and asked participants to complete a survey. Self-selecting sample from New York State University PROCEDURE Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner and shown a photograph of their loved one for 30 seconds followed by a distraction task for 40 seconds and then a photograph of an acquaintance with whom they had a non-emotional relationship for 30 seconds and then a countdown task for 20 seconds. RESULT Different parts of brain were activated when the participants viewed photos of their beloveds versus acquaintances. When viewing photos of their beloveds, the right ventral tegmental area (VTA) of brain was activated. This is a dopamine rich area of the brain and is part of the brain's "reward and motivation system". CONCLUSION Romantic love is primarily a motivation system i.e. biological process rather than cognitive 'addicted to love' EVALUATION strengths: - cause and effect relationship - increased control and accuracy - objectivity - standardization - internal validity limitations: - total control = impossible - artificial - biased results - ethics (protection from harm) - does love affects dopamine, or dopamine affects love?

Draganski et al (2004)

AIM: To see whether learning a new skill would have an effect on the brain PROCEDURE * 24 participants, 21 girls and 3 boys were non-jugglers before the study and their brain was scanned in MRI. * People were allocated two conditions- jugglers and non-jugglers. Jugglers were asked to practice a three-ball cascade juggling routine and were asked to notify the researcher when they had mastered the skill. * Their brains were scanned again in MRI * They were asked to stop juggling now and then a third and final scan was done. * The non-juggling group served as a control for the duration of the study. * To analyse the MRI voxel-based morphometry was used RESULT * no significant difference in the neural density (grey matter) between the two conditions. * significantly larger density in the mid temporal area of both hemispheres which has a role in visual memory. * Three months after the participants could not juggle anymore, the grey matter in brain decreased. * no significant difference over the period in the non-jugglers. CONCLUSION Juggling relies on visual memory, i.e. on spatial and perceptual processing than on procedural or motor memory. EVALUATION ==Strength== * Insights into brain being altered physically with the gaining of a new skill. ==Limitation== * We don't know if participants gained another skill during this period since providing control over the activities done and skills learnt cannot be established during experiment period. This would be impossible as well as unethical. - study of juggling look at brain before and after learning to juggle three balls increased grey matter in visual and temporal areas involved with the task increased cell size or more connections

Dickerson et al. (1992)

Aim: Dickerson's team wanted to see if they could get university students to conserve water in the dormitory showers through employment of the foot-in-the-door technique- they either interviewed them about water usage, made them sign the poster, or both (or nothing for control) Findings: Students who had signed a poster promoting water conservation and were interviewed had the lowest shower times, followed by just signing the poster, then just being interviewed, and then the control group Conclusion: Getting people to make a commitment to something small often leads them to being more easily persuaded into agreeing to something larger.

Maguire et al (2000)

Aim: To investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory Research Method: Quasi Experiment Procedure: London taxi drivers with a range of age and experience were the participants because their work requires the extensive use of spatial navigational skills, matched pairs design: participants were age and gender matched with a control group, and two different types of MRI scanning (VBM and Pixel Counting) were used to assess how the brains of the taxi drivers differed from the control group. It was a quasi-experiment Results: showed significantly more grey matter in both left and right posterior hippocampi of the taxi drivers compared to the control group Evaluation: •No researcher bias because MRI gives quantitative data •No ethical implications •Only observed males •Only observed 16 matched pairs •Nature vs. Nurture debate: did the driving influence the change in the hippocampus, or did their larger than average hippocampus lead them to become taxi drivers?

Berry (1967)

Aim: to see if conformity rates among the Temne (collectivists) and the Inuits (individualists) could be linked to social norms and socialization practices. Method: used a variation of Asch's conformity experiment on the Temne in Sierra Leone in Africa and the Inuits of Baffin Island in Canada and Scots as control. Results: the Temne had high conformity levels, while the Inuits tended to conform less Scots= middle Conclusion: this could be because the Temne had an agricultural economy (their culture emphasised obedience because they're dependent on cooperation in farming) and because the Inuits are hunters and often have to hunt alone (need to make decisions for themselves. Emphasis is on self-reliance because it's needed in this culture). Shows that conformity levels can depend on culture.

Latane and Darley (1968)

Aim: to test the diffusion of responsibility theory in real-life emergency situations 72 college students - 59 female, 13 male - told they were going to be interviewed about living in a high pressure urban environment - interviewed over intercom. 3 conditions - participant told that it was only 1) them and the victim, 2) them and one other participant and the victim, or 3) them and four others and the victim. At a certain point, interviewer said they were having a seizure 1) 85% helped 2) 65% 3) 31% --the more people perceived as present lowers the probability of receiving help 2nd study: the smoke coming from under the door- when confederates were in the room, less reported than when they were alone

Mitnick et al (2009)

Changes in satisfaction levels (with the relationship) before and after becoming parents Meta-analysis with rating scale Significant decline in relationship satisfaction after having kids, particularly the first couple years after having their first child There is some variability

Kulkofsky et al (2011)

Collectivist and individualistic in predicting flashbulb memories collectivist- less personal importance and emotion

Argyle and Henderson (1985)

Investigated rules governing relationships in 4 different countries UK, Italy, Hong Kong, Japan Japan was the most different Hong Kong and Japan had some different rules because they're collectivist General set of rules for all relationships with some cultural variation Japanese were the most collectivist- rule violation would probably be tolerated less

Tannen (1990)

Men use conversation to establish status and independence Women use conversation to establish intimacy and connectedness between people Women use sorry more- as a way to empathize Men see sorry as a sign of weakness Men sometimes don't like empathy ("intruding upon feelings"), which confuses women because they offer empathy to make people feel less alone in their feelings Women don't like men coming up with practical solutions to their distress- want someone to listen to them and empathize with them before finding a solution Men are more oriented to find a way to do something to help their partner right away Men interrupt more and expect to be interrupted Women take turns speaking Women use more language tags (support/encourage main speaker in what they are saying) Women tend to be more inclusive- asking other person's opinion

Pettigrew & Tropp (2006)

Meta-analysis

Shergill et al (2003)

Origins of conflict- force escalation -12 participants (6 pairs) -left index finger placed under an instrument that measured force - Each trial started by one of the instruments producing a 0.25 N force on one participant's finger -took turns pressing the lever above partner's finger- both participants were told to apply the same force they had received -force increased rapidly -second experiment- by themselves -lever applied a force to their finger, the participants used the other index finger tp press the lever with equal force -overestimated the force -suggests that self-generated forces are perceived as weaker than externally generated forces of the same magnitude -third experiment -reproduce force from lever using the other index finger to move a joystick that controlled the force of the lever (self-generated) -force given matched the force received much more accurately -In conflict: see actions as responses to provocation- hit back harder, while perceiving own actions as just matching the force given to them

Scarr and Weinberg (1976)

Parent vs. adopted child vs. biological child IQs

Ahman & Reid (2008)

South Asians in Canada The more traditional the marriage (less equality), the less satisfaction Lower levels of active listening linked to traditional attitude Less someone listens to their partner in order to understand them, the lower the marital satisfaction

Sherif's Robbers Cave Study (1954)

Study of social norms, our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior -a study conducted by Muzafer Sherif where he created two groups of boys at a Summer Camp that had to compete to get a reward. He found that these groups started insulting one another, and it became violent- beating each other up, theft, and vandalism. When the groups were forced to work together, they liked each other more

Doucet et al (2009)

areola gland secretions and 3-day-old infants suckling behavior and breathing rates

Cameron (2007)

challenges view that men and women speak differently meta-analysis very small- negligible differences in conversing Conclusion- gender differences in language have been exaggerated

Lam & Seaton (2016)

green tie/yellow tie group competitions

Torres et al (2012)

questionnaires that asked about demographic information, experiences of perceived discrimination, acculturation, acculturative stress, and psychological distress

Hodson and Busseri (2012)

tested whether general intelligence in childhood predicted prejudice in adulthood. the lower the intelligence showers the higher the prejudice scores. children that scored lower in intelligence test will be more conservative as those who score high, conservative adults will be more prejudice.