Developmental Final set
what are the primary emotions?
Joy, Interest, Fear, Anger, Sadness, Disgust, Surprise
which type of temperament child was significantly more likely to have disruptive behavior disorders (20% versus 6%, respectively) and had higher scores on the attention problems scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (mean=52.1 versus 50.8).
Uninhibited children
the idea that babies instantaneously bond with a caregiver, people believed it was rooted in biology as opposed to a developmental progression
bonding
-play in groups and tend not to have a single best friend -activities revolve around rule-governed games -do not engage in long or intimate conversations with friends
boys
secondary emotions like embarrassment, newfound cooperation and sense of self in social world •more self-aware toddlers are, more "mine" responses --- these are all...
implications of self-recognition
(peer relations) males exhibit ______ aggression and victimization
overt
primary emotions that arise during birth
birth = general positive and negative states
Inhibited temperament (in new situations)
high reactive and highly fearful - low threshold to fear
Exposure to ____________ progesterone has a feminizing effect
nonandrogenic
Know the results of Thomas and Chess' longitudinal study of temperament
133 infants and their mothers interview w/ mothers & observations of mothers and infants various dimensions of temperament (33% of infants were average on these dimensions) 3 main infant categories: easy (40%) positive mood, regular & rhythmic, mild to moderate reaction to stimulus intensity, approaches new stimuli, adapts rapidly difficult (10%) negative mood, irritable, hard to sooth, irregular & arrhythmic, high intensity reaction to stimuli, withdrawals from new stimuli, slow to adapt slow to warm up (15%) shy, moody, irregular & arrhythmic, mild to moderate reaction to stimuli intensity, withdraws from new stimuli, slow to adapt, low in activity level adaptability is critical (goodness of fit) minimal stability over first 2 years stability of difficult status predicts problematic outcomes (like attachment quality)
formation of reciprocal relationship (2 way)
24 months and older
display rules study found that children as young as _____ show an understanding of display rules for emotions. In their earliest attempts to follow these rules children typically mirror others' behavior by simply __________ or ____________. Research also reveals that children acquire knowledge about display rules ___________ they are proficient regulators of their own emotional displays.
2; exaggerating or minimizing their emotional displays; Before
gender segregation in peers is evident by what age?
3
what are the self-Conscious Evaluative Emotions and when do they occur?
36+ Months: Guilt, Shame, Humiliation, Pride
Stable individual differences/distinct pattern in cortisol response emerges at _________ - Prior to 6 months undifferentiated (infant pattern) in cortisol response (released from acute stress) (i.e., indicates stress reactivity)
6 months
Infant-Mother Attachment Among the Dogon of Mali - Non-Western, non-industrialized population ¨ 42 mother-infant pairs from the Dogon ethnic group living in Mali, West Africa ¨ village sample of 15 mother-infant pairs ¨ town sample of 27 mother-infant pairs Strange Situation Procedure (slight modification in procedure and coding) ¨ Infant weigh-in ¨ Maternal sensitivity (videotaped for two 15 minute intervals) what did they find?
65% were secure - based in how they carry baby on back- literally secured to mother.
Behavioral Characteristics Associated with the Popular Status and the Rejected Status and How Psychologists have Looked at the Behavior/Status Relationship
Adopted by peer relations researchers Index of likeability Cooperation Sociability Kindness Leadership Adopted by sociologists (and children themselves!) Visibility, prestige, influence Prosocial characteristics Dominance Aggression Aggression sets them apart
(sets many rules and closely monitors but offers little support) Style: restrictive, controlling, demanding Punishment: frequent spanking, shows anger Communication: little verbal exchange/sayings such as "you'll do it my way or else" Unreasonable in their demands and utilize harsh punishments for wrong doings that could be corrected through examples of positive reinforcement Enforces rules but doesn't explain them NO inductive reasoning Result: children are often anxious, unhappy, fearful. They do not initiate activities with others and have weak communication skills, not leader-type
Authoritarian
Highly supportive, closely monitors and sets rules Style: encouraging, warm, nurturing, constructive Punishment: explains consequences and reasoning behind, uses induction** Communication: give and take, positive feedback, praise, open-ended Results: authoritative parents use equality to explain their demands and the reasons behind them, Get "on their level" to speak to their children about following rules, They use positive reinforcement and praise often Children are more willing to go to them for help and comforting, they feel a better sense of trust and belonging, they are cooperative and understanding why we need rules and consequences.
Authoritative
Disciplinary strategies Warmth and nurturance Communication styles Expectations of maturity and control Limitations: contextual/cultural variations Traditional parenting Domain specificity Moral Conventional Personal Prudential Friendship Multifaceted Interactional nature of parent-child relationship
Be able to describe the social systems perspective on family functioning - Diana Baumrind identified 4 dimensions of parenting: Typological Approach
Causes Aggressive Disruptive Hyperactive Socially intrusive Bossy Anxious and withdrawn Lacking sense of humor Not prosocial Not fun Short Term Outcomes School adjustment problems Ladd - early rejection in kindergarten predicted Less favorable attitudes toward school Increased avoidance of school Lower levels of performance Loneliness Steven Asher and his colleagues Long-term consequences May cause continuing problems in later years Associated with academic difficulties, higher rates of delinquency, arrest, violence, and substance abuse Withdrawn children are at greater risk for depression, loneliness, negative self-worth
Causes and Consequences (short- and long-term) of Peer Rejection
Know the role of cognitive factors in gender role development
Children select playmates that are consistent with their own gender label. They prefer playmates who they perceive as similar to themselves. Lacks Evidence: children's cognitive understanding of gender does not seem to be related to their preferences for either gender-typed toys or same-gender playmates. Children begin to select gender-typed toys well before they are able to label gender consistently. Females begin to show preferences for dolls, soft animals, and dishes, and boys begin to show preferences for transportation toys, tools, and robots, as early as 12 months of age Children's knowledge about gender is also not a critical factor in their selection of same-gender playmates.
when "I" move, the person in the mirror also moves and "acts like me"
Contingency Cues (9-12 months)
Know how babies rely on both contingency cues and featural cues
Contingency Cues (9-12 months) image "acts like me" Featural Cues (middle of second year) image "looks like me"
-Reaching a certain cognitive-developmental level -Secure attachment with a caregiver -Parental descriptions
Contributes to self-recognition
Socialization of Social Skills Self-validation and Ego Support Emotional Security Intimacy and Affection Esp. important among older children Guidance and Assistance Reliable Alliance Loyal allies Companionship and Recreation
Core Provisions that Friendships Provide to Children
Know the research on parental monitoring
Crouter et al., (1999) → examined the correlates of mothers' and fathers' knowledge about the daily experiences of their firstborn and second born. How is parental monitoring defined? what outcomes are associated with low parental monitoring in the middle school-aged years? one way in which parents acquire this information is to monitor their child's daily experiences most research on the process of parental monitoring has conceptualized it as a dimension of parenting behaviour akin to supervision and control but with the added connotation of tracking the children's behaviour from a distance low levels of parental monitoring have been linked to low school achievement, diminished feelings of scholastic competence, high levels of conduct problems, and initiation of drug use, particularly in boys. What are the goals of the study? how parents' involvement in paid work outside their home relate to their knowledge vis a vis their school aged sons and daughters. are children's' sex and birth order linked to between and within family differences in mother's and father's knowledge? how is parental knowledge related to childrens' and parents' personal qualities In what ways do the researchers attempt to improve upon earlier research? designed a study that encompassed some of the complexity of family life that is often overlooked in developmental studies of families. traditionally, developmental research on socialization in the family has focused on a single target child in a family and relied heavily on information provided by mothers This time, paid equal attention to 2 school-age children in each family. compared mothers' and fathers' knowledge of their childrens' daily experiences What do the researchers mean by "within family" and "between family"? within family → conditions which parents are differentially knowledgeable about their 2 offspring between family→ conditions under which parents are knowledgeable about the ongoing events that characterize their children's' lives, different families. What were some of the complex interactions that were found in the study ? Parental work hours When wives work fewer hours, they may be equally knowledgeable about sociable and less sociable children because they are available exert extra effort to draw out less forthcoming children. Mothers who work longer hours, in contrast, may know more about sociable children than less sociable children because sociable children may volunteer more information Interactions between contextual and personal characteristics in terms of their implications for parental knowledge. the researchers speculate that parenting is more "scripted" for mothers than fathers the role of mothers is more clearly delineated knowing about the children's daily lives is clearly the job of mothers the data showed that fathers' knowledge about children is more influenced by their child's characteristics than mothers this is consistent with the idea that parenting is more "scripted" for mothers than for fathers. given the optional nature of father's parental involvement, fathers appear to "tune in" to their children's daily activities and experiences when their children's personal qualities predispose them to do so. How did the researcher's assess parental knowledge? weekday parental knowledge items/questionnaire Which factors were the most important in predicting parental knowledge? mother's work involvement mother's work involvement did not affect mothers' knowledge about their children but fathers knew more about their children's activities, whereabouts and companions when their wives worked longer hours sibship composition (ie sex and birth order) parents knew more about their younger than older offspring both parents knew more about their offspring of the same sex than the opposite sex, leading to greater within family differences in families with mixed-sex siblings children's' personal qualities (eg temperament) parents' personal qualities (eg gender role attitudes, education) Results 1st borns' ages were not related to knowledge for mothers and fathers parents' knowledge of 2nd borns daily activities, whereabouts and companions, declined with age of mothers and fathers the data suggest that the birth order findings probably reflect developmental level the lack of age-related findings for 1st borns probably due to restricted range of large. What do they mean by "shared" and "non shared" environment? refers to the difference in experience of children growing up in the same family.
is characterized in Ainsworth's "strange situation" task as a child who exhibits behavioral disorganization or disorientation in the form of wandering, confused expressions, freezing, undirected movements, or contradictory (i.e. "unorganized") patterns of interaction with a caregiver ...
Disorganized/Disoriented
what are the self-conscious emotions and when do they occur?
Embarrassment, Empathy, Envy- 18- 24 Months:
The Process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states and related physiological processes, cognitions, and behaviors
Emotional self-regulation
describes a psychological condition in children in which they experience marked incongruence between their experienced gender and the gender associated with their biological sex. They often express the belief that they are the opposite sex. •The prevalence rates of GD among children has been estimated to be less than 1%. •Sex differences in rate of referrals to specialty clinics vary by age. -In pre-pubertal children, the ratio of boys to girls ranges from 2:1 to 4.5:1. -In adolescents, the sex ratio is close to parity -n adults, the ratio of males to females range from 1:1 to 6.1:1.2
Gender dysphoria
what are the self-conscious evaluative emotions?
In the third year of life, the child begins to incorporate the SRGs of his/her family and peers. This new capacity gives rise to a new set of emotions, one which I have called self-conscious evaluative emotions.7 They include a new form of embarrassment as well as guilt, shame, pride and hubris. Embarrassment now occurs as a less intense form of shame. The child experiences embarrassment when in the company of others it violates the SRG of the culture. At this point, the child's embarrassment can occur both as a function of being the object of another's attention in and of himself/herself, and also because of being the object of other's attention because of a failure of some SRG.
1. more dependent 2. more aggressive with peers 3. more withdrawn
Insecure children
study done by Lewis, Brooks-Gunn and Jaskir Participants 37 infants seen at 12, 18, & 24 months healthy middle class backgrounds Procedure Strange Situation Procedure at 12 months (classified as Secure and Insecure) Mirror recognition Procedure at 18 and 24 months Coded: Mark-directed behavior (touch nose) Image-directed behavior (mirror-directed behavior) Results General Developmental Trends Mark-directed behavior increases Mirror-directed behavior decreases Individual Differences what was the main takeaway from this study?
Insecurely attached infants exhibit earlier self-recognition than securely-attached infants Exhibit mark-directed behavior earlier Explanation of results 1. Insecure Attachment Predicts Development of Self OR Temperament Predicts Both Attachment Relationship and Development of Self
Uninhibited temperament (in new situations)
Low reactive and Not highly fearful - High threshold to fear
within the acquiring of emotional display rules -> two things happen first: first ____________ then __________ is developed. One emotion and displaying another (more sophisticated) girls are better at masking than boys reference to gift giving video
Masking/minimizing inhibition
direct physical force or overt threats
Overt aggression (boys)
Makes few rules and trusts rather than monitors, highly supportive, responsive but undemanding Style: highly involved with children but places few demands or control on them Punishment: allow children to do as they please Communication: parents believe their approach with foster a creative, confident child. Overindulge verbally and materialistically Results: these children will rarely learn respect for others and have difficulty controlling their behaviour. Might be domineering, egocentric and non-compliant. Create children who are demanding and selfish rather than loving and supportive. Children typically possess good self-esteem and excellent social skills but can be less motivated in school because they are not held accountable for their own behavior Children are often impulsive, aggressive and lack independence
Permissive-indulgent
(MIA parents) Sets few rules, does not monitor, and offers little active support Style: uninvolved à parents are focused on themselves and their careers. Punishment: few cases of punishment due to uninvolvement Communication: little communication which leads to the child's sense that other aspects of parent's life are much more important Results: children of neglectful parents are often socially incompetent, lack self-control, have low self-esteem, they are immature and not independent Defining features: Always puts their needs and wants as first priority, usual experience financial, emotional, social stress, unable to encourage, teach or enable their children Children of neglectful parents are more likely than other children to experience loneliness, fear and anxiety
Permissive-neglectful
-Attachment to caregiver is evident -Begin to fuss when left with another person
Phase of clear-cut attachment (7-24 months)
Be able to describe the "terrain" of how boys and girls interact with each other
Play style: girls are more collaborative in their games (hand games, house, teacher, etc) while boys are more competitive and they tend to group together based on play style which happens to correlate to gender
Know the stages of attachment
Pre-attachment Phase (0-2 months) Attachment in the Making Phase (2-7 months) Phase of Clear-Cut Attachment (7-24 months) Formation of Reciprocal Relationship (24 months and on)
Know the trajectory of emotional development according to Michael Lewis
Primary emotions: agreement that certain emotions are present at birth Birth: general positive (interest) and negative (disgust, upset) 3 months: joy, fear 6 months: surprise, sadness, anger Self conscious emotions: embarrassment, empathy, envy (18-24 months) Triggered by sense of self Self-conscious evaluative emotions: guilt, shame, humiliation, pride (3 years+)
why is temperament studied?
Provides insight into how infants relate to other people and situations Helps parents deal with their infants in a more adaptive way. (-"Biology is not destiny" (Jerome Kagan)
Know the attachment classifications
Secure (65%) Insecure (35%) Resistant-Ambivalent [10-15%] Avoidant [20%] Disorganized/Disoriented [5%] Interactional Synchrony
Temperamental differences Male infants more _____ and _______, whereas female infants are ________ and _________. Parental stereotypes and expectations make Females more vocal and interested in communication
active and irritable; quieter and sustain awake and alert state earlier
male infants have a greater...
activity level
one of the most consistently documented psychological gender differences
aggression
studies have shown that girls display more __________ ___________than boys
anxiety and fear
According to attachment research, pioneered by Mary Ainsworth, children's attachment rela- tionships with caregivers can be classified as secure, insecure/avoidant, insecure/resistant, and disorganized/disoriented. Children in these categories display similarities across cultures, although the percentage of children in different attachment groups sometimes varies across cultures or subcultures. germany- babies who appear to be avoidant it's because they're socialized to be independent
attachment classifications means something different in other cultures (Universal Applicability of Theory - Universalist theory -Biologically determined • Cross-cultural evidence)
the second phase in development of attachment, characterized by preference for familiar figures
attachment in the making phase 2-7 months
temperament predicts...
attachment quality
The strong and affectional ties that bind a person to his or her most intimate companions.. Refers to infant-caregiver relationship.
attachment:
Most of the research to date in the field of developmental psychology has adopted a view of gender as binary -Gender Binarism... this is the
caveat to the binary approach of gender development (((•"It is also important to recognize that not everyone is clearly biologically male or female. Approximately 17 of every 1,000 people are intersex and possess chromosomal and anatomical features of both males and females. And even those whose gender identities correspond to their birth-assigned gender vary in how compatible and contented they are with their gender group, how central their gender identity is relative to their other identities, and how they express their gender identification" (Burun, 2014 from Understanding the Changing Landscape of Gender Identity).)) •Gender Dysphoric (as early as 2-years-of-age)
¢Well-liked, friendly, cooperative ¢Social, sensitive to others ¢Assertive, but not aggressive Able to join a group in a non-disruptive way
characteristics of popular children
Occurs around 24 Months use representational and language categories - develop a categorical self classify themselves and others according to salient ways in which people differ age ("baby") sex ("girl") physical characteristics ("strong") goodness & badness ("I bad girl")
children start to verbally self-label the self
what is grounded in emotional development? As one's ____________ ____________develop their emotional capabilities develop. this enables and constrains how we make sense and attribute meaning to events
cognitive development. cognitive abilities
parenting requires a
complex model
children who are frequently nominated both as a best friend and as being disliked
controversial children
Baumrind found four important dimensions of parenting
disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, expectations of maturity and control
article about parents knowing their children and birth order / gender for mothers who worked, parents overall had a better understanding of their children because the dad had to step in one interesting finding is that mothers who worked(or didn't) tended to know more about the older son if she had two sons, and usually parents know more about their younger child --- either way whether the mom worked or not, they made same amount of time for the child
effects of maternal employment and day care on attachment security
Self-conscious emotions first appear at about
eighteen to twenty-four months of age (1 1/2 - 2 yo) (when a child becomes aware that he or she is a separate individual. Toddlers indicate feelings of shame and embarrassment by lowering their eyes, hanging their heads, and hiding their faces with their hands.Mar 15, 2017)
INDUCTION: explain the reasoning behind the rules, the decision making process is a collaborative effort between parent and child that involves negotiation and understanding even though the final decision may still be made by the parent Ex. curfew: the reason why you have a curfew is because i want you to be safe
how induction is used as a means of discipline
Take home-message: Biological factors do play a role Social or environmental factors are probably more important overall sex differences in prenatal hormone levels produce sex differences in the organization of neural substrates of the brain high level of prenatal androgens masculinizes the brain so that it takes a weaker stimuli to evoke male sex-typed behaviors such as play with cars and trucks and a stronger stimulus to evoke female-typed behaviors such as play with dolls. A low level of androgens has the opposite effect. Exposure to non androgenic progesterone has a feminizing effect. prenatal sex hormones may play some part in the development of sex differences in specific cognitive abilities. Although there is a lot of overlap between the sexes, males tend to perform better than females on visuospatial tasks, whereas females to better than males on tasks of verbal fluency Males also show greater language lateralization -- greater reliance on the dominant hemisphere of the brain for processing verbal material. Differential treatment of boys and girls Begins early Engage in more face-to-face and vocal interactions with daughters than sons (Ross Parke) Encourage sex-typed play and activities Boys discouraged from feminine activities Girls discouraged from masculine activities Fathers and mothers respond differently Potential reasons for differential treatment Temperamental differences Male infants more active and irritable Female infants quieter and sustain awake and alert state earlier Parental stereotypes and expectations Females more vocal and interested in communication
evaluation of biological (i.e., hormonal) and environmental influences (i.e., parental expectations, treatment by peers and teachers, observational learning) on gender role development
Attachment is an _________ adaptive trait - Infants are ________ to seek proximity to caregivers and caregivers to respond (oxytocin) Babies elicit care by: ________ (suck, grasp, root), preference for human face, smile and vocalize, fret and cry
evolutionarily, built, reflexes
differences in treatment between girls and boys starts early - parents engage in more
face-to-face and vocal interactions with daughters than sons
the person in the mirror "looks like me"
featural cues (middle of second year)
boys feel a lot of emotion - based on polygraph test- they just didn't externally show it/express it, held it in because they
feel uncomfortable sharing emotions - will be called a sissy
rapid growth in representation and language permits toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parents coming and going and to predict her return
formation of a reciprocal relationship (24 months and on)
observed orphaned infants after World War II early attachment between infant and mother was critical to infant's healthy development Internal Working Model (Image of Self, Image of Others)
foundation's for Bowlby's attachment theory
infants do not show....
gender differences
cognitive influences - Kolberg's cognitive developmental theory - they include three components
gender identity at 2yo, gender stability at 3-4 yo, gender constancy at 5yo
•Children select playmates that are consistent with their own ____ ______ •They prefer playmates who they perceive as similar to themselves.
gender label.
spend more time conversing with each other, sharing secrets, and talking about mutual interests than boys -more likely to have a single best friend
girls
a model that describes how favorable adjustment depends on an effective match, or good fit, between a child's temperament and the child-rearing environment
goodness of fit model
Organism specificity (Kachanzska-idk how to spell) Adaptability is critical One should adapt one's parenting to the temperament of the child you have Then by the time they go to school, the children would be able to have better temperament and outgrow their bad behaviors Identifying different types of children
goodness-of-fit model
that two key measures provide insight into the quality of the infant's attachment to the caregiver: (1) the extent to which an infant is able to use his or her primary caregiver as a secure base, and (2) how the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with, the caregiver Ainsworth designed a laboratory test for assessing the security of an infant's attachment to his or her parent. called the Strange Situation because it is conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and likely to heighten the child's need for his or her parent. In this test, the infant, accompanied by the parent, is placed in a laboratory playroom equipped with interesting toys. After the experimenter introduces the parent and child to the room, the child is exposed to seven episodes: Episode 1: Brought to room Episode 2: Baby explores with mother Episode 3: Stranger enters Episode 4: First Separation Episode Episode 5: First Reunion Episode Episode 6: Second Separation Episode Episode 7: Stranger and baby Episode 8: Second Reunion Episode Discerned three distinct patterns in infants' behavior that seemed to indicate the quality or security of their attachment bond. Secure Insecure resistant insecure Avoidant The first attachment category—the one into which the majority of infants fall—is secure attachment. Babies in this category use their mother as a secure base during the initial part of the session, leaving her side to explore the many toys available in the room. As they play with the toys, these infants occasionally look back to check on their mother or bring a toy over to show her. They are usually, but by no means always, distressed to some degree when their mother leaves the room, especially when they are left totally alone. However, when their mother returns, they make it clear that they are glad to see her, either by simply greeting her with a happy smile or, if they have been upset during her absence, by going to her to be picked up and comforted. If they have been upset, their mother's presence comforts and calms them, often enabling them to explore the room again. About 62% of typical middle-class children in the United States whose mother is not clinically disturbed fall into this category; for infants from lower socioeconomic groups, the rate is significantly lower—slightly less than 50% for children under 24 months of age. One type of insecurely attached infant is classified as insecure/resistant, or ambivalent. Infants in this category are often clingy from the beginning of the Strange Situation, staying close to the mother instead of exploring the toys. When their mother leaves the room, they tend to get very upset, often crying intensely. In the reunion, the insecure/resistant infant typically re-establishes contact with the mother, only to then rebuff her efforts at offering comfort. The other type of insecurely attached infant is classified as insecure/avoidant. Children in this category tend to avoid their mother in the Strange Situation.
infant attachment has been assessed using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test
•Associated with negative outcomes -Emotional detachment -Lack of trust -Relationship difficulties
insecure attachment
•Mixed Pattern Responsive -Interested in infant -Provide close physical contact Inconsistent -Frequently misinterpret infant's signals -Fail to establish synchronized routine with infant •Infant cannot count on caregiver
insecure-ambivalent caregiver
•Impatient •Unresponsive
insecure-avoidant caregiver
¢May cause continuing problems in later years ¢Associated with academic difficulties, higher rates of delinquency, arrest, violence, and substance abuse ¢Withdrawn children are at greater risk for depression, loneliness, negative self-worth
long-term consequences of peer rejection
even though boys outperform girls in______ _____________ females ______ earlier than males _____ and continue to ________ males in high school
math and spatial tasks, read, outperform
what did the video on gender research show us --- differences in interactions
mom and child have different kinds of conversations based on the gender of the child - moms will prompt them about their feelings/emotions w daughters and with sons, they prompt not about how they feel but how they act when they're angry
children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers
neglected children
One way in which parents acquire this information is to "monitor" their children's daily experiences. -Most research on the process of this has conceptualized it as a dimension of parenting behavior akin to supervision and control but with the added connotation of tracking the child's behavior from a distance. -low levels of this have been linked to low school achievement, diminished feelings of scholastic competence, high levels of conduct problems, and initiation of drug use, particularly in boys
parental monitoring
Know social class and ethnic variations in child-rearing
parenting styles may have different meanings and different effects in different cultures some features of parenting that are considered appropriate for traditional Chinese culture may be seen as more authoritarian rather than authoritative. authoritarian parenting may have different meanings in different cultures parental warmth, acceptance and harsh control have different meanings in acculturated and less acculturated families the relation of parenting to children's development must be considered in terms of the cultural context is occurs
video on spanking shows families giving different types of spanking threats and one family was bordering abuse because it was for willy nilly reasons - they thought they were doing it to show they were in control since speaking/telling them wasn't enough - wetting her training pants - "she knows better"
parents think discipline requires hitting - becomes abusive overtime - positive and negative reinforcement are emphasized nowadays
¢Adopted by sociologists (and children themselves!) ¢Visibility, prestige, influence lProsocial characteristics lDominance lAggression
perceived popularity
a measure of your social dominance and status
perceived popularity (Who is the most popular? Who is the least popular?)
There is good evidence that boys and girls have different styles of _____, and may choose same-gender playmates because these playmates are compatible with their own style. Moreover, because the play styles are compatible, children may be able to engage in more complex and advanced play and interaction in same-sex groups.
play
the 4 sociometric classifications
popular, rejected, controversial, neglected
rejected can become
popular, they are most stable while the neglected are least stable
the first phase of John Bowlby's developmental attachment sequence, during the first three months of life, when infants show no visible signs of attachment 0-2 months
pre-attachment phase
high level of __________ ___________ (a male sex hormone, such as testosterone) masculinizes the brain so that it takes a weaker stimuli to evoke male sex-typed behaviors such as play with cars and trucks and a stronger stimulus to evoke female-typed behaviors such as play with dolls. -A low level of ___________ has the opposite effect.
prenatal androgens, androgens
biological influences on gender: sex differences in ________ __________ ___________ produce sex differences in the organization of neural substrates of the brain AND Prenatal intrauterine hormonal exposure in the second half of pregnancy interacts with multiple genes to influence brain development in ways that impact __________ _________ (Bao & Swaab, 2011).
prenatal hormone levels, gender identification
____________ __________ _________ may play some part in the development of sex differences in specific cognitive abilities.
prenatal sex hormones
•Uninvolved •Induce fear in infant -Mistreat infant -Enter dissociate state •Depressed •Alcohol abusing
primary qualities of caregivers whose children are disorganized
•Sensitive •Responsive •Emotionally expressive •Encourage infant to explore •Enjoy close contact with infant
primary qualities of caregivers whose children are securely attached
The research strategy that focuses on identifying types of individuals. Each type is characterized by a particular pattern of traits.
typological approach
what are the infant characteristics that promote attachment
reflexes (suck, grasp, root) preferences for human face smile and vocalize, fret and cry
children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers
rejected children
there are 2 categories of peer rejected children half are..... and the other half are.....
rejected-aggressive and rejected-withdrawn
(peer relations) females exhibit __________ aggression and victimization
relational
is described as any behavior that is intended to harm someone by damaging or manipulating relationships with others
relational aggression
will typically explore little (in the Strange Situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the caregiver is present. When the caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed. The child is generally ambivalent when they return
resistant-ambivalent children
A child with the this attachment style will avoid or ignore the caregiver - showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. The child will not explore very much regardless of who is there. Infants classified as anxious-avoidant (A) represented a puzzle in the early 1970s. They did not exhibit distress on separation, and either ignored the caregiver on their return
resistant-avoidant
Attachment Classifications
secure, insecure, resistant-ambivalent, avoidant, disorganized/disoriented
the relationship between a child that is secured in attachment and getting older -> how it relates to each other as they grow up, the child will be... and if they are insecurely attached it's more negative outcomes ->
securely attached more sociable (more positive in relationships with friends less clinging and dependent on teachers less aggressive and disruptive more emotionally mature continues into adolescence more likely to be leaders have higher self-esteem affects their parenting) emotional detachment lack of trust relationship difficulties
children who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment --- A toddler who is securely attached to its parent (or other familiar caregiver) will explore freely while the caregiver is present, typically engages with strangers, is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and is generally happy to see the caregiver return.
securely attached children
•More sociable •More positive in relationships with friends •Less clinging and dependent on teachers •Less aggressive and disruptive •More emotionally mature •Continues into adolescence -More likely to be leaders Have higher self-esteem •Increased sociability throughout early, middle, and late adulthood •Affects their parenting behaviors •Demonstrates that the attachment relationship can become the foundation for future social relationships
securely attached children
(18-24 months) -mirror recognition procedure •Mirror-directed behavior •Self-directed behavior
self-awareness
shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, pride
self-conscious emotions
lewis and ramsay study -Participants •45 female infants Procedure Stress Response •2, 4, 6, 18 months: Infants cortisol & behavior stress responses when received routine inoculation in doctor's office following standard baby physical exam •baseline & inoculation salivary cortisol sample •coded facial & vocal expressions Self-Recognition •Mirror recognition procedure at 18 months of age Found that - Adrenocortical (produced by adrenal gland) reactivity facilitates the accelerated emergence of ______________ •After the developmental shift (6-18 months) the self-recognizers show a larger absolute cortisol response Conclusion Less ability to gate or regulate internal information stemming from stressful events may make them more vigilant overall Support for #2: Temperament Predicts Both Attachment Relationship and Development of Self
self-recognition
refers to a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself Self differentiation may be present in rudimentary forms at birth -e.g., recognition of own vs. other's cries a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself Class: Refers to a rudimentary (basic, foundational) awareness of the self. Refers to a perception of the self as a separate being.
self-recognition
mirror recognition, shopping cart study, had to unroll rug to move shopping cart carpet and cart are attached and kid is standing on carpet trying to move cart but in order for the cart to move they must step off of the carpet ... this is how...
self-recognition been assessed in babies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-rWB1jOt9s Rouge Test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2I0kwSua44
¢School adjustment problems lLadd - early rejection in kindergarten predicted •Less favorable attitudes toward school •Increased avoidance of school •Lower levels of performance ¢Loneliness lSteven Asher and his colleagues
short term outcomes of peer rejection
•Children's behavior is influenced by the ______ _____(peer configuration) -Gender-typical behavior •Schematic of her framework •Gender -> Peer Configuration -> Child's Behavior
social context
provide information about an individual's social status, which is their social standing within a group. School-based sociometric assessment focuses on a child's relationships with peers.
sociometric measures assessments
¢Adopted by peer relations researchers ¢Index of likeability lCooperation lSociability lKindness lLeadership
sociometric popularity
a measure of how many friends you have, how many people like you
sociometric popularity (Who do you like the most? Who do you like the least?)
refers to individual differences in how children express emotions and in how emotionally aroused they are. does not inevitably determine what the individual's future personality will be like. •may predispose the individual to react a certain way, but environmental factors definitely play a role. is not a single trait, but a collection of traits refers to "behavioral tendencies" rather than specific behaviors is biologically determined refers to individual differences rather than group differences
temperament
environment plays a critical role in temperament - Crockenberg (1981) proposed: How does temperament and social support predict the quality of the attachment relationship? Measures: •Measured Infant Irritability •Interviewed Mother -Social Support -Stress at birth to 3 months •Identified two groups of mothers (High Support Group, Low Support Group) •Used Strange Situation Procedure to assess the quality of the infant-mother attachment they found that: ____________ alone did not determine the attachment classification. ______________ ___________ moderated the relation between temperament and attachment.
temperament •The mothers' level of social support played a role.
refers to individual differences in how children express emotions and in how emotionally aroused they are. Minimal stability over first 2 years
temperament and stable infant temperament
Self-conscious emotions: such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us Self-conscious & Self Conscious Evaluative Emotions Embarrassment Empathy Envy Guilt Humiliation Shame Pride Recognition of self has to happen first (conscious) understanding of external standards of success (evaluative) Cannot have self-evaluative emotions without self-conscious
the development of the self-conscious and self-conscious evaluative emotions
Parents of Popular Children High on engagement High on eliciting positive affect Mothers highly directive and verbal Fathers low on directiveness; high on physical playfulness Parents of Rejected Children Awkward Didn't know what to do Looked to their children for help Why are certain children popular versus rejected among their peers? Impoverished environment for modelling peer interactions
the direct and Indirect Roles Parents Play in Influencing Children's Peer Relationships
Sensitive Responsive Emotionally expressive Encourage infant to explore Enjoy close contact with infant
the factors that affect attachment security
Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure. -Reactions to the separations and reunions tell you something about the quality of the infant caregiver relationship •Two key assumptions -Primary caregiver leaving is stressful -Separation is only moderately stressful
validity of strange situation procedure
Although there is a lot of overlap between the sexes, males tend to perform better than females on ______________ _________, whereas females to better than males on tasks of verbal fluency -Males also show greater language _________________-- greater reliance on the dominant hemisphere of the brain for processing verbal material.
visuospatial tasks, lateralization
The way parents interact with their children is also affected by the temperament the child has, the parenting style depends highly and dynamically with the temperament your child has situation approach, under some situations a parent may respond differently Prudential safety issues- circumstantial parenting style depending on risk and overall situation
ways the field has moved beyond a typological approach to parenting
what core provisions do friendships provide?
¢Socialization of Social Skills ¢Self-validation and Ego Support ¢Emotional Security ¢Intimacy and Affection (Esp. important among older children) ¢Guidance and Assistance ¢Reliable Alliance (Loyal allies) ¢Companionship and Recreation
what are the 4 parenting styles?
•Authoritarian •Authoritative •Permissive-Indulgent •Permissive-Neglectful
Display Strategies
•Inhibition (Not showing a felt emotion) •Simulation (Showing an emotion when you do not feel anything) •Masking (Showing an emotion that is different from what is felt) Minimizing or Maximizing (-maximizing (exaggerating) or minimizing (downplaying) felt emotions)
assessing self-recognition - Jens Asendorf (1996) and his colleagues
•social contingency awareness -ability to recognize that are being imitated -ability to imitate the activity of a model •Some children who fail the rouge test pass the social contingency awareness task •Rouge test does in fact lead to some false negatives - you identify children as not having self-awareness when in fact they do.
