Developmental Psyc Test #3

Preoperational substage 1: Pre-conceptual

- 2 -4 years -expect and encourage repetition bc that's how they're learning like a disney movie they want to watch over and over and over - thinking is dominated by symbolic representation and imaginative play, often with deferred imitation - Language,images,symbols -Magical/animistic thinking: taking representational thought beyond reality; think that your stuffed animals come alive and talk to each other; giving things human properties that don't have that ability; something they believe -more prone to monster under the bed; not good to watch scary movies bc they think it's real -inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and can perform actions -imaginary friends -help them understand what things can really happen and what things can't without squashing their creativity

Object permanence

- Ability to form cognitive representation that objects exist even when they cannot be seen or heard (~6 mos) -before, if it's out of sight it's out of mind; now learning that just because it's not in sight does't mean it doesn't exist -peek-a-boo becomes fun -evolving cognitive ability -Visible displacement test (hide toy when child is watching) -A not B error: look for object in last place they found it not the last place they saw you put it; memory errors

Attachement categories: secure attachment

- infant/child has a high-quality, dependable relationship with his or her attachment figure - may be upset when the caregiver leaves but happy when caregiver returns, recovering quickly from distress -use caregiver as a secure base for exploration and a safe haven when feeling threatened/afraid -About 60% of American middle class children are securely attached (40% something went wrong with the parenting-not always in malicious way-give training on how to be responsive, rates go way down)

Sensorimotor substage 6

-18-24 mon -become able to form and use enduring mental representations, starting with deferred imitation (repetition of other ppl's behavior long after it occurred) -Internalization of schemas-focuses on gaining skill at using symbols, such as simple language and imaginary creatures, to understand the world and communicate needs and ideas (instead of depending on actions) - Internalizes images of social behaviors and past events (pretends to be mother or father in house play) - Plays alongside others (but without interaction of play) - Obvious signs of permanent memories are beginning to develop

Piaget stage 2: preoperational (2-7yrs)

-2 big tools: language and mobility -Preschooler has time comprehension, with clear understanding of past and future -you're not going to know when your kid will understand the "why" so you explain it from the beginning -don't have concept of right and wrong yet (can see reward vs. punishment) -great time to set up for reward ethics (how good behaviors get us rewards) -Uses language and mental imagery to explore and represent the world - true symbolic representation -Symbolic representation - one object can stand for (represent) another in the child's thoughts; seen most frequently in play -play family with other kids -use other objects like a chess piece to represent red sox player -Major limitations of this stage: 1. Magical thinking 2. Egocentrism: can't take another person's perspective; everyone experiences world in same way ex: bc it feels good for me to bite sister, it feels good for her too -test with false belief test 3. Centration 4. Lack of conservation 5. Transductive thinking - when objects share properties, it's as if they are the same thing "I haven't had my nap, so it can't be afternoon!"; commingling properties that should be in separate schema

Preoperational substage 2: Intuitive

-4-7 yrs. - thinking is dominated by what children feel or sense to be true, but they cannot explain the principles behind it (the "why" stage); trying to develop logic -trying to stretch boundaries of schemas to see how far they go to successfully explain situations (looking for the boundaries) -Theory of mind (begins to emerge between ages 4 and 5) - an organized understanding of how the mind works and influences behavior; your actions and behavior affect other ppl; other ppl's feelings and thoughts are different than mine -Gradual understanding that each person has their own mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) -that these states can be different from one's self, -are based on people's knowledge, - can differ from reality, and - that people's behavior can be predicted by their mental state

Critics of Piaget's theory

-Although Piaget's theory remains highly influential, some weaknesses are now apparent -Vague about the cognitive processes and mechanisms that give rise to children's thinking and cognitive growth -Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought -Some children who are a tone cognitive stage can be trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage. -Culture and education exert stronger influences on children's development than Piaget believed.

Autism treatment

-Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) - can help ASD children learn to talk and communicate better, develop physically, and deal with other people more effectively (more effectively to whom?). • Use positive reinforcement to train appropriate behaviors and discourage inappropriate ones. • Physical, occupational, and speech therapy • Practice emotion recognition and social skills, often through picture cards and other visual cues. -Schools are required to develop Individualized Education Programs (IEP) •Speech and occupational therapy -issue with Autism physiologically is different brain wiring so traditional therapy would be like making us learn Latin: can practice but doesn't get to the issue -medications: Anti-psychotics and anti-depressants may be given for serious behavior problems, including self-injury; to blunt their expression

Making Schemas

-Assimilation: understanding a new experience in terms of an existing schema (no change to schema) -Accommodation: adapting our understanding (existing schema) to fit a new experience; not making a new schema just altering parameters; what you did wasn't successful so have to change -end point is success with new experience -ex: all a kid knows of "going out to eat is McDonalds"-going to burger king would require assimilation but going to wedding reception would be accommodation -little kids are really good at accommodation but the older we get the more resistant we tend to become-not a linear representation

Attachment and Personality

-Attachment: emotional bond with a specific person that endures across space and time; entirely in hands of primary care-give (nurture) -person that the child spends the most time with is the interaction that will create the attachment style (could by 2 ppl or 1 person) -Forms during first 6 months and solidifies through ~year one -Persists through the lifetime -Specific events influence the development of attachment 1. Contact comfort 2. Familiarity 3. Responsive parenting (consistency) -Harlow monkey exp: Thought attachment to mom was due to food source-wire mom had the food but spent more time w/ cloth mom-not food source. But they aren't responsive parents-so just contact and familiarity. Contact comfort is a human need. -Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations (situation hadn't seen before). Healthy social and emotional development is rooted in infant's early social interactions with primary caregiver(s).

What causes autism?

-Autism runs in families AND is much more likely in boys, so there is a likely genetic component. • When 1 child has ASD, there's a 15% chance that siblings will • When a male fraternal twin has ASD, there's a 31% chance the other twin will • When a male identical twin has ASD, there's a 77% chance the other twin will • ASD commonly co-occurs (83%) with other disorders (e.g., Down's, fragile X, neurocutaneous syndromes). • Autism occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups

Piaget stage 4: formal operational

-Begins between ages 11 and 15 -Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically and systematically -Can consider multiple possible outcomes of a situation -Can imagine alternative worlds and think logically about them -Formal operations stage is not universal: not all cultures need formal operations -Horizontal décalage: concept that abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development; individual differences -range at which different kids enter different stages is pretty wide -Assimilation dominates at the beginning of formal operational thought; perceive the world subjectively and idealistically -Still rule-driven and experience is limited -Later, intellectual balance is restored and accommodation takes over -Adjust to cognitive upheaval by incorporating new information (wisdom)

Centration

-Centration-tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event (and ignore other features) -room with small car-don't notice size so try and get in it -Lack of conservation-cannot understand that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties -conservation: poor coffee from smaller cup into bigger cup, the coffee level will be lower but the volume didn't change

Guided Participation and Cultural Contexts

-Children are "apprentices" in thinking through their scaffolded participation in social and cultural activities -MKOs guide children's learning opportunities through decisions about how much and when to expose children to books, television, child care, chores, etc. • Development occurs when adults and children share activities • During play involving cultural traditions and practices: like cooking and cleaning (can use scaffolding) • Scaffolding is widely used, but varies across cultures according to cultural norms in parenting and in social roles (what content is to be learned by whom) -you have the choice on what to teach your child; it's up to you to provide the experiences -better alongside others

Cognitive Development: Schemas

-Children think and organize the world meaningfully but differently than adults (kid logic)-can't treat them like a tiny adult - Early schemas are limited but become more sophisticated with experience - Schema - our understanding of a concept that dictates how we think about that concept - a mental framework that organizes knowledge into categories or groups of associations; allow us to navigate different situations effectively -like a skeleton-need a base to hang the rest of the pieces on -valued by their effectiveness - Sometimes our schemas can be applied to new situations, but sometimes our schemas are not sufficient for a new situation

parent responsiveness

-Contributes to the security of an infant's attachment -Can be exhibited in a variety of ways -Responsive caregiving when children are distressed or upset -Helping children engage in learning situations by providing scaffolding -Intervention studies (parent responsiveness training) suggest a causal relationship between parental sensitivity and security of attachment

More on Concrete operational

-Decentering —child considers multiple aspects of a problem to solve it (overcoming centration) -Reversibility —child understands that objects can be changed, then returned to their original state (deflated ball); we can fix some things; still limited by tangible things (need to be able to see it) -Conservation —child understands that quantity, length, etc. is unrelated to the substance of an object. -Classification— ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another -Seriation- Ordering objects along a quantitative dimension (such as length-put in order from tallest to shortest) -Transitivity - Ability to reason about and logically combine relationships and hierarchies; can have multiple roles (ex: My dad is a father, is a man, is a human...not just what he is to me) -can't have transitivity without theory of mind

Formal operational cont.

-Deductive logic (top down)- using a general principle to reason about a specific event. -can hypothesize now -Decide whether dolphins are mammals by identifying the definition of mammal and testing whether it applies to dolphins -Systematic reasoning - formulate hypotheses, gather and evaluate evidence, and draw conclusions -Ability to reason about hypothetical situations allows an understanding of politics and ethics, as well as scientific reasoning. -Can solve truly abstract logical problems (if P, then Q; P, so Q)

Infant/child cognitive development

-Disequilibrium (aka cognitive dissonance) - uncomfortable state encountered when new experiences don't fit existing schemas; cognitive dissonance; uncomfy so must resolve (need to accommodate) -Equilibrium - when one's schema successfully explains past experiences AND successfully predicts new events -Requires effort to move from disequilibrium to equilibrium in order to make sense of a new experience - Pet schema, Galileo and the solar system (church assimilated in response-refused to change)

Autism: early warning signs (first year)

-Even young infants are very social, so watch how your baby interacts with their world. Infants with an ASD may: • Not turn to a mother's voice • Not respond to their own name • Not make eye contact • Have no babbling or pointing by age 1 • Not smile or respond to social cues from others (still face) *Babies who do not have autism can have these behaviors, too, so it's best to contact your pediatrician right away with any concerns.

Attachment categories: Disorganized/ disoriented attachment

-Fourth attachment category (created later) to describe a very small percentage of children who do not fit into the other categories (5%) -no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation -behavior is confused or even contradictory; often appears dazed or disoriented; may sit with back to the therapist or stare into space when approached -Research suggests abusive homes where child has not developed strategies for getting needs met by caregiver -Over half of Romanian adoptees fall here (only 1/3 are secure - 6 month rule)-post Soviet Union there were so many orphans they were stuck in warehouses and just kept alive; handcuffed to cribs at 2yrs to keep them safe (not enough staff to monitor); if during 6mon they didn't get responsive parenting they showed this style; if adopted before 6mon-1yo then they had other styles (best when before 6 months)

Social development

-How do kids develop emotions, personality, attachment, self- identity, peer relationships, morality, and gender identity? ... Social development is influenced by nature AND nurture (genes, family, peers, environment, culture, socioeconomic status, etc.) -Children's early emotional relationships with parents ... influence the quality of their social interactions for life ... influence their feelings about their own worth -your temperament (genetic) definitely influences future relationships; but the nurture influences nudge you around in that genetic potential -temperament and attachment style are 2 huge aspects of social development/personality

Constructivist vocab

-Nature and nurture interact to yield cognitive development -Adaptation: responding to the demands of the environment to meet one's goals --end goal is success-so can be adaptive or maladaptive -Organization: tendency to integrate simple bits of knowledge into coherent and complex "operations" -Operations - mental strategies --from simple activities (e.g., reflexes) to complex goal- directed activities (look-grasp-suck) -Cognitive development is based on modifying knowledge structures to adapt to one's needs

Piaget stage 3: Concrete Operations (7-11/12)

-Rule-driven (starting to go to school); tend to over do it -Children can transform, and use systematic reasoning-but generally only about objects that are present or follow set, rules (+ -, but not y=mx+b) -Reasoning is still limited to tangible situations -Manipulables: concrete, present objects (finger counting); things that you can touch and see -E.g., Susan is taller than Cyrus who is taller than Rosa -Feather task: have a feather that can break glass; if I give it to John and he touches the window what happens? they will say that it doesn't break the glass (can't imagine a world where a feather could break glass) -Difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts; can't do adult logic yet bc can't imagine things they haven't had experience with (What would the world be like if we had no thumbs?-wouldn't be able to play video games; adult would change the world)

Evidence of Attachment: vocal

-Secure Base - The caregiver provides a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the environment; kid explores in presence of caregiver; trust caregiver enough to go into scary situation -Proximity Maintenance - The child strives to stay near the caregiver, thus promoting the child's safety; child keeps looking back to caregiver -Separation protest - distress in the absence of the attachment figure; peaks in Western infants at ~15 months; caregiver leaves the room and securely attached child will be upset bc don't feel safe anymore (secure base has left) -Safe Haven - Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat; after the caregiver leaves and comes back the best predictor is the reunion behavior; if treated like safe-haven that behavior is crystal clear (tells a lot about paren't historical interaction)

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

-Social interaction and cultural norms lead to continuous changes in children's thinking -born with potentials but stronger emphasis on reaction range: how much a child's particular environment (nurture) influences how they fall in that reaction range (genetics) -can't confine cognitive development to stages (focus on individuals while Piaget focused on groups) •Children construct their knowledge using these tools •The community provides knowledge and identity •Language is central to cognitive development •the end point of cognitive development can vary depending on which skills are considered to be the most important in a particular culture. -can't really separate cognitive and social

Attachment and emotions: stranger anxiety and strange situations

-Stranger anxiety: An infant's caution around strangers; First appears as wariness at about 6 months, true fear by 9 months and continues to escalate through age 1, then starts to subside -Ainsworth's "Strange Situation": Assesses infants' attachment to their primary caregivers; attachment style is predictive of the parent's responsiveness -Child is periodically separated and reunited with the caregiver, and the child's reunion behavior is assessed; can't tell you but can show you through behavior -Identified 3 attachment categories

Temperament and Personality

-Temperament: biologically based emotional and behavioral style of reacting to internal and external events (nature); Plays a role in attachment -Differences in temperament may make it more difficult for the parents of some infants to maintain responsiveness (sensitivity) over time -"responsive": key piece to parent child relationship; you meet your child's needs when they need it; you respond when they're in distress; cultural differences -need to ID what baby is and know what to expect to remain responsive -three categories: 1. Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy; easily soothed; schedule; okay with change; 40% of American kids; make it easy to be a responsive parent 2. Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable; opposite of easy temperament; cry a lot even if you do best of be responsive; best thing is to remain patient and responsive; if you do this for 6mon-1yr then you will create secure attachment 3. Slow to warm up - low activity level, somewhat negative, low displays of mood, and needs time to adjust; harder to ID right away; really hate change and like routine; remain responsive

Piaget's Constructivist Theory

-The "gold standard." Views children as active agents -intrinsically motivated to learn (mechanisms vague) -Actively experiment and construct their knowledge - Hypothesized that children progress through 4 stages of cognitive development, each building on the previous one - Child organizes knowledge into increasingly more complex mental representations, called schemas continually modified schemas based on new experiences - When schemas aggregate enough knowledge from experience, qualitative changes in thinking occurs

Autism: early warning signs (second year)

-The signs of autism are more noticeable in year 2. • No single words by 16 months • No pretend games by 18 months • No two-word phrases by age 2 • Loss of language skills • No interest when adults point out objects, such as a plane flying overhead *Children who do not have autism can have these behaviors, too, so it's best to contact your pediatrician right away with any concerns. -Some children appear to develop normally until 18-24 months old and then seem to lose skills. -By age 3, signs of an ASD can include: • Repetitive motions (rocking or spinning)-soothing strategy • Avoiding eye contact or physical touch • Delays in learning to talk • Repeating words or phrases (echolalia) • Getting upset by minor changes • Early treatment, ideally before age 3, can greatly improve an ASD child's development.

Cognition

-The study of mental activity and how the mind works. 1. Piaget focused on common age-group errors to understand how children's thinking changes predictively with age; change consistently over time - Understates sociocultural influences; really based on middle class, european - Assumes children's thinking is more homogenous than it really is; doesn't do good job of accounting for individual differences 2. Vygotsky focused on children's "readiness" to learn new ways of thinking; - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): pay attention to what they are doing/can do and then push to do just a little more; refers to that area that they can almost do -has to come with more support (push with support) - Allows for sociocultural heterogeneity and individual potential

What doesn't causes autism?

-Vaccines Don't Cause Autism • No link has been found between vaccines and autism IN HEALTHY CHILDREN o The 1998 Wakefield study has been discredited and retracted! • Genetically compromised children may have a risk for problems from vaccinations AND other medications, allergic reactions, etc. o Kids with congenital bowel disorders, immune deficiency, etc. -if they have other issues, medications could affect/risky

Evaluating Vgotsky's theory

-Vygotsky's theory created more cultural awareness • Importance of immediate social contexts • New ways to assess cognitive potential • Importance of culture and ethnic traditions,and the role of "thinking tools" these provide

Scaffolding

-an MKO instructs in smalls steps, decreasing guidance until the child gradually advances to independence -extra work for the care-giver but that's your job -good return on investment: makes them better at doing some thing on their own, increases self-esteem and decrease learned helplessness 1. Identify what the child knows 2. Teach him something new to add to it 3. Relate it back to prior knowledge to guide conceptual understanding and independence • Pair advanced learners with less advanced ones • Model performance while thinking "out loud" • Provide examples • Gradually fade out • Locus of control shifts: sense of who is running the show (in learned helplessness it would be external); trying to shift to developing kid

More Knowing others (MKO)

-anybody who knows how to do the thing that the kids doesn't -More knowing others (MKOs) stress connections with prior knowledge and/or skills in everyday life • Child is reading a book to you, comes to unfamiliar word, asks for your help. • Instead of directly answering, show them pictures and ask questions about what they just read • They figure out the word on their own, and learn to do it themselves next time before asking for help • Child: Why do I need to learn how to add and subtract? • Teacher: So you can play monopoly, count your money, make/get change (give them a reason that is relevant)

Vygotsky and language

-argued that language and thought initially develop independently of each other and then merge later o The main means by which adults transmit info to children so, language is a cultural product that guides cognition o Shapes thought and intellect by speeding up understanding • Children use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward and reflect on their own thoughts -learn concepts before the labels/words -the better language skills the more you can reflect • Egocentric speech: "private speech"; children use it to communicate socially and to self-regulate and guide themselves step-by-step; words come from more knowing other •Inner speech (~ age 7): language ability becomes internalized as thought • Method for planning actions and strategy -as MKO continue to scaffold by affirming and providing more words

Autism

-brain "disorder" that limits a person's ability to communicate and relate to other people. -limits socialization and communication -don't develop theory of mind -not able to recognize social expression • Becomes apparent in early childhood (1-6 yrs) and ranges along a spectrum from mild to severe. • 44% of autistics have average to above average intellect -(CDC, 2016) Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) affect about 1 child in 68, striking 4.5 times as many boys as girls. o 1 in 42 for boys; 1 in 189 for girls •Incidence vs. ascertainment -kids are getting diagnosed even more; and diagnostic criteria have changed; more ppl in world (rates of disease haven't changed) -traditionally try to teach them to behave like ppl not on spectrum; problem is that brains aren't wired that way; getting better at figuring out ways to help and find way to communicate (like on computer)

Testing Theory of Mind

-false belief task: if they fail then they're still egocentric; pass then they are on their way to theory of mind -expected to pass around age 5 (starting to develop at a detectable level) -Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally has a marble in basket. When Sally is outside, Anne takes marble and puts in her own box. When Sally comes back, where should she look for her marble? (should answer basket) -The Smarties task tests preschoolers' understanding of false beliefs. -Most 3-year-olds answer in a way that suggests a lack of understanding that people's actions are based on their own beliefs, even when those beliefs deviate from what the child knows to be true. -hallmark for average autism child -Social interaction: not understanding that what you do can affect some one else's feelings or really just understand someone else's feelings; this affects social interaction

Attachment categories: Insecure/resistant (aka ambivalent) attachment

-infant/child is overly clingy and stays close to their caregiver rather than exploring the environment (~15% of American middle class children) -tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves, and not readily comforted by strangers -When caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them -Research suggests inconsistent caregiver availability-not responsive consistently; parent of convenience -Child cannot depend on caregiver's responsiveness, so learns to cling to any chance of getting needs met, but simultaneously resentful of probable rejection. -Newer research suggests helicopter/lawnmower parenting may also promote this attachment style

Attachment categories: Insecure/avoidant attachment

-infant/child seems somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver (about 20% of infants from middle-class U.S. families) -seems indifferent toward caregiver before the caregiver leaves and indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns -not comforted by parent's return -If upset when left alone, they are as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver -Research suggests unresponsive caregivers not in abusive way - authoritarian, rule- driven care. -taking care of child but not responding to needs when child needs it, but instead with rules/schedule (try to change baby's need to fit your needs) -Children are effectively "punished" for seeking comfort from caregiver, so they learn to avoid seeking help.

Autism and Assistive Technology

-newer approaches are more effective -Even nonverbal children can "talk" with new devices that are designed to convert pictures or text to spoken words; seems to work really well • Technology includes pocket-sized devices and apps for smart phones, computer tablets, iPads • Autism Speaks, an advocacy organization, maintains a list of resources for families at www.autismspeaks.org . -hope to see more integration of ppl w/ ASD into society with these techniques

Piaget Stage 1: Sensorimotor stage (0-2)

-stage of cognitive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment (really all that they have when they enter the world) -Infants know the world through their senses and through their actions -e.g., they learn what dogs look like and what petting them feels like. -Has 6 substages increasing from simple and complex reflexes to more purposeful actions

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

-what this child can almost do; challenge area -key to theory is to identify their challenge area and then key to developing is for you to support them as they try to meet this challenge -have to let them figure out how to do it on their own (if they don't then it causes low self-esteem) -lawn-mower parenting predicts learned helplessness: happens when a person's control is taken away; learned helplessness predicts clinical depression -3 levels: 1. tasks that are too difficult for child to master alone 2. tasks s/he can master with the guidance and assistance of "more-knowing others"* 3. Tasks child can do independently

Sensorimotor substages 1-3

1. Basic reflex activity (0-1 mon)- use reflexes to make more adaptive; reflexive behaviors become more skillful and infants begin to realize they can use reflexive behaviors to learn about objects (ex: grasping, sucking) -Grasping a finger lets baby learn about how grasping feels and what he can do with it 2. Primary circular reaction (2-4mon)- organize reflexes into larger schemas, centered on own bodies; reflex of baby's own body results in a pleasurable experience, so infant repeats it over and over again. -key difference is intent -Circular reactions become motor schemas, e.g., reflexive sucking comforts infant, so baby sucks thumb intentionally for comfort 3. Secondary circular reaction (4-8 mon) - aware that actions inflect world around; acting on an object in the environment is pleasurable, and babies begin to recognize the object and act on it over and over again -key difference: acting on environment - Actions repeat with little change - Bat at the mobile to make it move - Make deliberate cries to get attention (~6 mos)---giant qualitative change in every domain of development

Logical errors in stage 3: Inductive logic vs. inductive reasoning

1. Inductive logic (bottom-up)- emerges in late concrete; child reasons from a specific experience (evidence) to a general principle (conclusion); used to explain things they don't know yet -"I-nductive" is "I" centered (using what self knows) -ex: dolphins are fish because they live in water and swim like fish -First stage of "scientific thinking" 2. Inductive reasoning - parental control technique to help children understand the effect of their behavior on others (show child how to use an experience to draw a new conclusion). -"When you throw sand on your friend he feels sad and doesn't want to play with you anymore." -Works better than punishment or "love withdrawal" -punishment is the least effective way to train kid (easiest but not best)

Guided participation and cultural contexts examples

1. Kids in cultures where they are typically segregated from adults: -adults give more explicit instruction, manage motivation by using praise and other incentives -more likely to tell kid what to do and value speed -supports a hierarchical social framework -emphasis on rules; easier on the MKO 2. Cultures in which they are integrated into adult activities: -kids take greater responsibility for social interactions, attempt to join in -adults are encouraging and often provide nonverbal demonstrations -collaborative problem solving and values cooperation and autonomy -kids spend more time planning strategies and make fewer errors

Stage overview

1. Sensorimotor (0-2): infants learn about the world through their senses (object permanence) and through their actions (cause and effect). 2. Preoperational (2-7): Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They gradually learn to see the world from other people's perspectives (empathy) not just their own (egocentric). 3. Concrete Operational (7-11): Children become able to think logically, not just intuitively. They gradually learn that events are often influenced by multiple factors (conservation), not just one (centration). 4. Formal operational (12+): Adolescents learn to think systematically and reason about what might be (hypothesize), as well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Sensorimotor substages 4-5

4. Coordination of reactions (8-12) - begin using simple memories; A not B; deliberate combination of secondary circular reactions, adapting them to a new goal; marks the beginning of simple problem-solving -key difference: 2 things together to do something new - Imitates adult putting on a hat but modifies what s/he has seen -Reaches for bib at feeding time - Lack may suggest cognitive delay 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18mos)- actively and avidly explore potential uses for obj. experiments with objects, sounds, and actions to learn more about their properties, and makes stronger associations between objects and ideas -Discovers new strategies through active experimentation (puzzles) -Uses some basic symbolism (plays with doll alone) and simple language (points to a car and says "car") - Overcomes A-not-B error for visible displacement, but not for invisible displacement until near the end of this stage -Gradually begins looking in several places for a lost toy-shows long term memory is developing