Developmental Psychology exam #2
What three forces affect moral development during middle childhood?
(1) Child culture; (2) empathy; and (3) education.
What are the four main styles of parenting?
(1) authoritarian; (2) permissive; (3) authoritative; and (4) neglectful/uninvolved
How might children develop empathy and antipathy as they play with one another?
Research shows that when someone is hurt, crying, or in need of help, which often happens during play, young humans and primates will spontaneously assist them. This is evidence of empathy, which leads to prosocial behavior. Antipathy can result when play becomes too rough or exclusive, which may lead to antisocial behavior.
Who benefits most from Head Start?
Research suggests that children in low-income families benefit most from Head Start; it improves language learning, social skills, and prospects for the future.
How do researchers measure whether or not a child is developing a theory of mind?
Researchers measure and take note of improvements in memory, new experiences, and maturation of the prefrontal cortex, which all help to advance theory of mind.
What evidence is there that children overimitate?
Sometimes children copy something that adults would rather the child not do. Or, they may imitate meaningless habits or customs.
What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Stages of morality stem from three levels of moral reasoning with two stages at each level; •Preconventional moral reasoning •Conventional moral reasoning •Postconventional moral reasoning
How do temperamental traits affect later personality?
The expression of emotions and personality over the life span is modified by experience—the result of child-rearing methods, culture, and learning. Research shows that traces of childhood temperament last into adulthood, but it also confirms that innate tendencies are only part of the story. Sometimes change is possible—especially if babies were fearful, for instance. Adults who are reassuring can help children overcome fearfulness. Context always shapes behavior.
Using the family-stress model, explain how family income affects family function.
The family-stress model says that the crucial question for any risk factor is whether it increases stress. If poverty increases stress, and the adults' reactions are negative (tense, hostile), then family function may suffer.
How does information-processing theory differ from traditional theories of cognitive development?
The grand theories of child cognition are now considered limited, especially regarding specifics of school curriculum; each domain of achievement may follow a particular path. Meanwhile, information-processing theory emphasizes that, like computers, people can access large amounts of information. This perspective benefits from technology, allowing for much more detailed data and analysis than was possible for the grand theorists.
Why would a child's linguistic code be criticized by teachers but admired by peers?
The informal code used with friends often includes curse words, slang, gestures, and intentionally incorrect grammar. Peers approve of such violations, whereas adults wish to teach children the formal code of standard speech based on grammatical rules.
Why do experts want to limit children's screen time?
The more that children are glued to screens, especially when the screen is their own hand-held device, the less they spend in active, social play. Further, much of the most attractive media teaches aggression, reinforcing gender and ethnic stereotypes.
How does the culture of children differ from the culture of adults?
The particular habits, styles, and values of a specific cohort affect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adults.
What aspects of infant care are agreed on by everyone?
The presence of consistent caregivers seems to be the most important factor, whether the caregiver is a family member or a professional. Equally important is the personal responsiveness of the caregiver.
What are the advantages for children in a two-parent family structure?
: Two-parent families tend to function best, at least in part, because the people who marry tend to be better educated and to stay together. Having married parents benefits children by increasing the likelihood of parental involvement and decreasing the likelihood of neglect and abuse. Household income for two-parent families is also higher than for single-parent families
Why is asthma more common than it was in 1980?
A combination of genetic sensitivity to allergens, early respiratory infections, and compromised lung function (nature) increases wheezing and shortness of breath, making asthma more likely. Some experts suggest a hygiene hypothesis (nurture) may be responsible—that is, children may be overprotected from viruses and bacteria. In their concern about hygiene, parents prevent exposure to minor infections, diseases, and pets that potentially could strengthen their child's immunity.
How does infant behavior differ in each of the four types of attachment?
As demonstrated in the Strange Situation, type-B secure infants can separate from their caregiver but prefer their caregiver to strangers, whereas type-A insecure infants avoid the caregiver upon their reunion. Meanwhile, type-C insecure infants appear upset and worried when separated from their caregivers; they may hit or cling. And finally, type-D disorganized infants appear angry, confused, erratic, or fearful.
What is the relationship between language and cognition?
By age 6, children have mastered the basic vocabulary and grammar of their language, but over the next few years, children's vocabulary builds because they are more logical. They also develop an understanding of puns, jokes, and metaphors, as well as master pragmatics.
What did Piaget mean when he called cognition in middle childhood concrete operational thought?
Children this age can apply logic to concrete (tangible) things. They cannot yet deal with abstractions or hypothetical situations.
What is the difference between ADHD and typical child behavior?
Children with ADHD are so active and impulsive that they cannot sit still, are constantly fidgeting, talk when they should be listening, interrupt people all the time, and can't stay on task. While some of this may be considered "typical" child behavior, children with ADHD symptoms are severely impacted; their symptoms interfere with their ability to learn and function.
What are three ways in which adults can foster language development?
Code-focused teaching, book-reading, parent education, language enhancement via caregivers and early-childhood educators, and preschool attendance all foster language development.
What are the differences between the cognitive and evolutionary perspectives on sex-role development?
Cognitive theorists state that it is young children's simplistic thinking that leads to gender schemas and stereotypes, whereas evolutionary theorists maintain that biological differences are crucial for the survival of the species. In other words, boys' genes dictate that they are more active because their predecessors once had to defend against predators, and girls' genes make them more inclined to "play house" because their predecessors were expected to birth children and take care of the home.
How might control processes help a student learn?
Control processes help a student learn because they require the brain to organize, prioritize, and direct mental operations
How is the corpus callosum crucial for learning?
Growth of the corpus callosum makes communication between hemispheres more efficient, allowing children to coordinate both sides of the brain and body.-Lateralization The corpus callosum myelinates rapidly during early childhood, which enables children to coordinate both sides of their bodies. It also is crucial in the activation of both sides of the brain when children are developing a skill or expressing an emotion
What experiences trigger happiness, anger, and fear?
Happiness, which is first expressed by the social smile at about 6 weeks, is evoked by sight of the human face—most commonly that of a caregiver. Anger is usually triggered by frustration (4-8 months). Typical 1-year-old children fear both strangers and separation from their caregivers. Many also fear anything unexpected, from the flush of the toilet to the pop of a jack-in-the-box.
How might Erikson's crisis of "trust versus mistrust" affect later life?
If positive social interactions in infancy inspire trust, later in life the child or adult will likely explore the social world with confidence. The inverse would be true for infants who develop mistrust at this stage; they would lack confidence in their engagement with the world and assume that their basic needs cannot be met.
How has father care changed in recent decades?
Increasingly, paid leave is allowed for fathers, or family leave can be taken by either parent. Fathers are providing more care for their infants, but mothers are still the primary caregivers.
How can overregularization signify a cognitive advance?
Overregularization is evidence of increasing knowledge: Many children first say words correctly (feet, teeth, mice), repeating what they have heard. Later, when they grasp the systematic rules of grammar and try to apply them, they overregularize, saying "foots," "tooths," or "mouses."
Why does synchrony affect early emotional development?
Parental responsiveness during synchrony aids psychosocial and biological development by providing powerful learning experiences. With every parental interaction, infants learn to read another's facial expression, body language, and emotions, thereby laying the foundation for the development of social skills.
According to Vygotsky, what should parents and other caregivers do to encourage children's learning?
Parents and other caregivers should (1) present challenges; (2) offer assistance without taking over; (3) add crucial information; and (4) encourage motivation.
Why does playing with peers increase physical development and emotional regulation?
Peers provide an audience, role models, and sometimes competition. For instance, running skills develop best when children chase or race each other, not when a child runs alone.
How do Vygotsky and Piaget differ in their explanation of cognitive advances in middle childhood?
Piaget contended that cognitive advances occur naturally, as a result of maturation and self-exploration. Vygotsky believed that cognitive advances rely on scaffolding by peers and mentors and guided participation in the zone of proximal development.
What has been learned from the research on Romanian orphans?
Research confirms that early emotional deprivation, not genes or nutrition, was their greatest problem. It also indicates that those who were adopted before 6 months of age fared best, but for those adopted later, their emotions and intellect suffered, especially if social deprivation had lasted a year or longer.
How are family structure and family function affected by culture?
Two-parent families seem to function best worldwide, but adoptive, same-sex, and other non-married parents offer as much stability as married couples. Single parenthood is common among African Americans, and the community routinely supports single parents. Likewise, in many European countries, single parents have many public resources available to them, whereas in other nations they may be shamed and unsupported. Furthermore, in contrast to U.S. data, researchers in India have found higher rates of psychological disorders among school-age children in nuclear families.
How might each of the four types of attachment be expressed in adulthood?
Type-B secure adults tend to have good relationships and good self-esteem. Type-A insecure adults tend to be aloof in personal relationships. Type-C insecure adults may be angry, stormy, and unpredictable in their relationships. And finally, type-D disorganized adults may demonstrate sudden emotions and are at risk for psychological disorders.
How does growth during middle childhood compare with growth earlier or later?
Unlike infants and adolescents, school-age children grow slowly and steadily, requiring fewer calories in general. Gain about 2 inches and 5 pounds per year.
How might protective optimism lead to new skills and competencies?
Young children's self-concepts are unrealistic. They believe that they are strong, smart, and good-looking—and thus that any goal is achievable. This protective optimism encourages children to try unfamiliar activities, make friends, begin school, and so on.
What are several reasons why some children are less active than they should be?
Answers will vary, but indoor activities such as homework or screen time, fear of injury or "stranger danger" are common reasons.
Why might poverty contribute to child maltreatment?
Answers will vary, but one plausible reason is that low-SES families experience more financial stress and more often consist of single parents who may vent their frustration on their children.
What is an example (not in the text) of extrinsic motivation?
Answers will vary, but a possible example of an extrinsic motivation may be getting paid by a neighbor to keep his lawn mowed for him.
Why might impulse control, as with marshmallows, predict adult success?
Answers will vary, but impulse control enables emerging adults to forgo various temptations and distractions to focus on their education or job training instead, leading to better grades and a better chance at gainful employment
What does the term working model mean within cognitive theory?
According to cognitive theory, the crucial idea is that an infant's early experiences are not necessarily pivotal, but the interpretation of those experiences is. Children may misinterpret their experiences, or parents may offer inaccurate explanations, and these situations may form ideas that affect later thinking and behavior. For example, a 1-year-old girl might develop a model, based on her parents' inconsistent responses to her, that people are unpredictable. She will continue to apply that model to everyone: Her childhood friendships will be insecure, and her adult relationships will be guarded.
How much of moral development is innate, and how much is learned?
According to evolutionary theory, the survival of our species depended on protection, cooperation, and even sacrifice, so our hormones naturally push us toward morality. These innate moral impulses are then strengthened through the cognitive advances of early childhood and increased interactions with peers.
What are the differences between the psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories of gender development?
According to psychoanalytic theory, at the phallic stage children cope with guilt and fear through identification; that is, they try to become like the same-sex parent. Consequently, young boys copy their father's mannerisms, opinions, actions, etc., and girls copy their mother's. Both boys and girls exaggerate the male or female role. Behaviorists believe that all roles are learned through ongoing reinforcement, punishment, and social learning. They suggest that authority figures reward gender-appropriate behavior and that children model themselves after the adults who care for them.
What are the arguments for and against corporal punishment?
Although some adults believe that physical punishment will teach a lesson of obedience, the lesson that children may learn is that "might makes right." When they become bigger and stronger, they may use corporal punishment on others
What is an example (not in the text) of intrinsic motivation?
Answers will vary, but a possible answer is mowing one's lawn. An intrinsic motivation for mowing a lawn may be finding enjoyment in the fresh air and physical activity.
What are the consequences of each style of parenting?
Authoritative parents produce the happiest, most successful children. These parents set limits but are still flexible. They encourage maturity, but they usually listen and give consequences if the child falls short. They consider themselves guides, not authorities and not friends. Authoritarian parents, meanwhile, set high standards and deliver strict punishment when expectations are not met. Their children are conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy. Such children may feel guilty or depressed, and as adolescents, they may rebel and leave home. Permissive parents raise children who lack self-control, especially in their relationships with peers. Finally, neglectful/uninvolved parents raise children who are immature, sad, lonely, and at risk of injury and abuse.
How does evolution explain the parent-child bond?
Because infants are incredibly dependent on their caregivers for constant care and attention, they must attract adult devotion. They do this successfully through their appearance, as well as by smiling, laughing, and snuggling with their caregivers.
How do behaviorists explain the development of emotions and personality?
Behaviorists believe a child's emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish a child. In addition, behaviorists believe that infants absorb information from the people around them through social learning.
Which infants are most likely to benefit from center care?
Center care benefits children of low-income families, especially when they are securely attached to their mothers.
What are the main pros of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Child's use of intellectual abilities to justify moral actions was correct.
What are the short-term and long-term effects of childhood obesity?
Childhood overweight and obesity correlate with asthma, high blood pressure, and elevated cholesterol, all of which increase death rates in adulthood. In the short term, school achievement decreases, self-esteem falls, and loneliness rises.
What aspects of language seem difficult for young children?
Children assume that all grammar constructions follow the rules (overregularization) and have difficulty knowing when and with whom to use which words, tones, and grammatical forms (pragmatics).
How does fast-mapping aid the language explosion?
Children develop an interconnected set of categories for words, a kind of grid or mental map, which makes speedy vocabulary acquisition, or fast-mapping, possible. Rather than figuring out the exact definition after hearing a word, children hear a word once and quickly stick it into a category in their mental language grid.
How does theory of mind help a child interact with other people?
Children develop theory of mind in talking with adults and in playing with other children; they begin to realize that not everyone thinks as they do.
When should children learn grammar?
Children learn grammar long before formal instruction—almost as soon as they start talking. They will apply the rules of grammar as soon as they figure them out.
What do children learn from sociodramatic play?
Children learn to explore and rehearse social roles; to explain their ideas and persuade playmates; to practice emotional regulation by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave, and so on; and to develop self-concept in a nonthreatening context.
Why is discipline part of being a parent?
Children misbehave and do not always do what adults want them to do. Since misbehavior is part of growing up, and since children need guidance to keep them safe and strong, parents must intervene with discipline.
What aspects of children's thought does theory-theory explain?
Children naturally desire (and therefore construct) theories to explain whatever they see and hear. They seek reasons, causes, and principles to make sense of their experience, sometimes sticking to old theories despite conflicting evidence.
When is time-out effective, and when is it not?
During time-out, an adult requires a misbehaving child to sit quietly, without toys or playmates, for a short time. To be effective, a time-out must be brief; one minute for each year of the child's age is a common suggestion. It is ineffective when the child's misbehavior is the result of wanting to escape from the situation.
How do emotions differ between the first and second year of life?
Emotions take on new strength during toddlerhood. For example, anger and fear become less frequent but more focused, targeted toward especially infuriating or terrifying experiences. Similarly, laughing and crying are louder and more discriminating. Social awareness develops, ushering in the new emotions of pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt.
What treatments are suggested for childhood allergies?
Epinephrine injections (via EpiPens) can stop allergic reactions, which can be avoided if children with allergies are not exposed to the offended food or substance. New research suggests that feeding children who are allergic to peanuts a tiny bit of peanut powder under medical supervision can safely decrease that allergic reaction.
What did Erikson think was crucial for young children?
Erikson thought protective optimism was crucial for young children. A child's optimistic self-concept protects them from guilt and shame, helps them try new things, and advances learning.
Why is allocare necessary for survival of the human species?
Evolutionary social scientists note that if mothers were the exclusive caregivers of each child until children were adults, a given woman could only rear one or two offspring—not enough for the species to survive. Allocare is necessary so that mothers can have more children than they can care for on their own.
How does myelination advance skill development?
Myelination happens when the axons of the brain increase in myelin, which is a fatty coating that speeds signals between neurons. Myelination regulates the timing of information through individual circuits, which aids in thinking. The motor and sensory areas of the brain show the greatest signs of early myelination, which aid in skill development.
What is the difference between family structure and family function?
Family structure refers to the legal and genetic connections among people living in the same household, for example, single-parent families, step-families, or three-generational families. Family function refers to how a family cares for its members; some families function well, whereas others are dysfunctional.
What are the similarities and differences in mothers and fathers?
Fathers tend to elicit more smiles and laughter from their infants than mothers do. They tend to play more exciting games, swinging and chasing, while mothers do more caregiving and comforting. Although women do more child care than men in every nation, and men are more likely to play with their children, ideally both parents coordinate their efforts, with specifics attuned to their particular strengths
What is the relationship between executive control and learning in school?
Formal education traditionally begins at about age 6, which also happens to be when the prefrontal cortex is mature enough to allow sustained attention. However, experiences before then advance brain development and thus prepare children for school.
How are growth rates, body proportions, and motor skills related during early childhood?
From ages 2 to 6, weight and height increase, but children slim down as the lower body lengthens and fat gives way to muscle. A lower center of gravity enables children to do cartwheels and somersaults, rhythmic dancing, etc., while brain maturation enables more motor skills.
What do impulse control and perseveration have in common?
Impulsiveness and perseveration are opposite manifestations of the same underlying cause—immaturity of the prefrontal cortex. Due to development in the prefrontal cortex (which continues into adulthood), young children show advances in impulse control and perseveration, allowing them to better regulate their emotions and attend to one toy or activity for much longer than before. However, the fact that the prefrontal cortex is immature in early childhood means that children may still struggle either to stay quietly on a task or they may attend to the task for hours.
What lessons can be learned from the experiences of infant care in Norway?
In Norway, where mothers are paid a full salary to stay at home with their infants until age 1, high-quality, free center care is provided from age 1 on. Almost all Norwegian toddlers are in center care by age 3. Longitudinal results find no detrimental results for these toddlers, indicating that high-quality center care after age 1 actually may benefit parents and children alike.
What is the significance of how toddlers react to seeing themselves in a mirror?
In a classic experiment, 9-24 month olds looked at a mirror after a dot of rouge had been surreptitiously put on their noses. If children touched the red dot on their noses, it proved that they knew the mirror reflected their own faces, thus proving that they had self-awareness.
What are children thought to gain from play?
In addition to exercise and better overall physical health, active social play correlates with peer acceptance and a healthy self-concept. Play may also help regulate emotions and foster self-control.
How does physical activity affect a child's education?
In addition to improving physical health, mood, and energy, exercise improves academic achievement. Body movement improves intellectual functioning through the direct benefits of better cerebral blood flow and increased neurotransmitters.
Why is early childhood the best time to learn a second (or third) language?
In many African, Asian, and European nations, most schoolchildren are bilingual, and some are trilingual, and their fluency advances their intellectual achievement. Most published research finds that being bilingual benefits the brain lifelong, further evidence for plasticity. Indeed, the bilingual brain may provide some resistance to Alzheimer's disease in old age.
. Why is social comparison particularly powerful during middle childhood?
In preadolescence, the peer group becomes especially powerful because children compare themselves to others in order to form a realistic self-concept incorporating comparison to peers and judgments from the overall society
What is the difference between proximal and distal parenting?
In proximal parenting, the caregiver is always physically close to the baby, often holding and touching. In distal parenting, caregivers keep more distance between themselves and the baby—providing toys, encouraging self-feeding, talking face-to-face instead of through touch.
What are the similarities and differences in the four kinds of aggression?
Instrumental aggression is aimed at gaining something that someone else has. Reactive aggression is retaliation that can be verbal or physical for a hurt, intentional or accidental. Relational aggression is nonphysical but is aimed at harming the social connections between the victim and others. Bullying aggression is unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who likely won't defend themselves
What are the main criticisms of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Kohlberg has been criticized for ignoring cultural and gender differences—not considering, for example, how females and some whole societies value social harmony over abstract justice.
What is changing in rates of early-childhood obesity, and why?
Many family habits—less exercise, more screen time, fewer vegetables, and more fast food—are more common now than they were 50 years ago. Also, many children whose parents and grandparents have come from other nations with healthier diets are adopting Western diets, which make them more at risk for overweight and obesity.
What do children learn from rough-and-tumble play?
Many scientists think that rough-and-tumble play helps the prefrontal cortex develop, as children learn to regulate emotions, practice social skills, and strengthen their bodies. It may be that play in childhood, especially rough-and-tumble play between father and son, prevents antisocial behavior later on.
Why is a harmonious, stable home particularly important during middle childhood?
Middle childhood is a time when children really need continuity, not change; peace, not conflict. Routine is important to children's sense of security, so disruptions in home life are especially challenging for this age group.
What is the difference between multifinality and equifinality?
Multifinality holds that one cause can have multiple manifestations, whereas with equifinality, one symptom can have multiple causes.
What barriers to logic exist at the preoperational stage?
Piaget noted four limitations that make logic difficult during this stage: centration, appearance, static reasoning, and irreversibility. At this stage, children cannot yet apply their linguistic ability to comprehend reality.
How does preoperational thought differ from sensorimotor intelligence and from concrete operational thought?
Preoperational children can think in symbols, not solely via senses and motor skills. However, they are not yet capable of logical, operational thinking.
How do Erikson's stages of cognition for preschool- and school-age children differ?
School-age children become consumed by a conflict between industry and inferiority, whereas preschool children are consumed by a conflict between initiative and guilt. School-age students enjoy practicing skills and collecting and organizing things. These children are intrinsically motivated to achieve, especially in school, and they compare themselves to their peers. This leads to a reduction in self-esteem; they no longer have the "protective optimism" of the preschool years. School-age children are more sensitive to criticism than preschool children are, and it can lead to a feeling of inferiority.
According to Siegler, what is the pattern of learning math concepts?
Siegler compared the acquisition of knowledge to waves on a beach when the tide is rising. There is substantial ebb and flow, although eventually a new level is reached.
Why is middle childhood considered a healthy time?
The death rate for 5- to 9-year-olds is by far the lowest of any age group; genetic diseases are most threatening in early infancy or old age; infectious diseases are averted through immunization, and fatal accidents are lower than at every other period.
How might siblings raised together not share the same family environment?
The age of each child at the time of significant events, such as parental divorce, can cause different effects on each child. Each child has a different relationship with each parent, so that even though the children are raised in the same household with the same parents, the children's experiences may vary.
Why do cultures differ in how they value pride or modesty?
The answer to this question has to do with how the culture views the individual. For example, students in the Unites States are taught to value independence, cultivate pride, and be their own personal "best." Children in collectivist cultures, like Japan, are taught to value the good of the group over the independence of the individual and to cultivate modesty.
According to Freud, what might happen if a baby's oral needs are not met?
The baby may develop an oral fixation, which may result in the adult eating or drinking to excess, chewing tobacco, biting nails, or talking excessively.
What are the different kinds of popular and unpopular children?
There are two types of popular children: (1) those who are friendly and cooperative and (2) those who are aggressive. There are three types of unpopular children: (1) neglected (ignored but not shunned), (2) aggressive-rejected (disliked because they are timid and anxious), and (3) withdrawn-rejected (disliked because they are timid and anxious).
Why might the single-parent structure function less well than two-parent structures?
They typically have (1) lower income; (2) less stability; and (3) less parental availability to meet children's needs.
How might the concept of neurodiversity affect treatment for special children?
Those who subscribe to the concept of neurodiversity may be less likely to seek or prescribe medication for children with certain psychopathologies.
How and why does the knowledge base increase in middle childhood?
Three factors affect the knowledge base: past experience, current opportunity, and personal motivation. These factors are greater in middle childhood than ever before, allowing knowledge base to increase during this time.
How are proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining attachment expressed by infants and caregivers?
To maintain proximity, some caregivers may sing and talk to their infant when they are out of sight; they may also take their infants wherever they go. Examples of contact-maintaining behaviors include caregivers absentmindedly smoothing their child's hair or caressing their child's hands. Infants may cry if the caregiver closes the door when going to the bathroom, or fuss if a back-facing car seat prevents the baby from seeing the parent.
How is social referencing important in toddlerhood?
Toddlers use social referencing (looking to other people's facial expressions and body language) to detect what is safe, frightening, or fun.
Why and when might minor stresses be more harmful than major stresses?
When "daily hassles" accumulate, they can become more devastating than an isolated major stress. Almost every child can withstand a single, major event, but repeated stresses make resilience difficult.
How might a child's interpretation affect the ability to cope with repeated stress?
When a child doesn't take things personally or doesn't view negative situations as permanent, it is much more likely that the child will be resilient.
How does scaffolding relate to a child's zone of proximal development?
When a mentor provides scaffolding for a child who is close to acquiring certain skills, knowledge, or concepts, the child is more likely to be actively engaged in the learning process, making mastery much more likely. This increases the child's motivation to master other skills and knowledge.
What role do adults play in the development of morality in children?
When parents and teachers raise moral issues and let children discuss them, a process of individual reflection is stimulated that eventually advances morality.
What is the evidence that early childhood is a sensitive time for learning language?
Young children are called "language sponges" because they soak up every drop of language they encounter. The average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more than 10,000 at age 6. Brain maturation, myelination, scaffolding, and social interaction make early childhood an ideal time for learning language.
