Developmental Psychology1,3,5 exam 9/14
right hemisphere
Creative Visual spacial
Cross sectional and longitudinal research designs
Cross-sectional studies make comparisons at a single point in time, whereas longitudinal studies make comparisons over time. The research question will determine which approach is best. Study design depends greatly on the nature of the research question. In other words, knowing what kind of information the study should collect is a first step in determining how the study will be carried out (also known as the methodology). Let's say we want to investigate the relationship between daily walking and cholesterol levels in the body. One of the first things we'd have to determine is the type of study that will tell us the most about that relationship. Do we want to compare cholesterol levels among different populations of walkers and non-walkers at the same point in time? Or, do we want to measure cholesterol levels in a single population of daily walkers over an extended period of time? The first approach is typical of a cross-sectional study. The second requires a longitudinal study. To make our choice, we need to know more about the benefits and purpose of each study type. Cross-sectional study Both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal studies are observational studies. This means that researchers record information about their subjects without manipulating the study environment. In our study, we would simply measure the cholesterol levels of daily walkers and non-walkers along with any other characteristics that might be of interest to us. We would not influence non-walkers to take up that activity, or advise daily walkers to modify their behaviour. In short, we'd try not to interfere. The defining feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare different population groups at a single point in time. Think of it in terms of taking a snapshot. Findings are drawn from whatever fits into the frame. To return to our example, we might choose to measure cholesterol levels in daily walkers across two age groups, over 40 and under 40, and compare these to cholesterol levels among non-walkers in the same age groups. We might even create subgroups for gender. However, we would not consider past or future cholesterol levels, for these would fall outside the frame. We would look only at cholesterol levels at one point in time. The benefit of a cross-sectional study design is that it allows researchers to compare many different variables at the same time. We could, for example, look at age, gender, income and educational level in relation to walking and cholesterol levels, with little or no additional cost. However, cross-sectional studies may not provide definite information about cause-and-effect relationships. This is because such studies offer a snapshot of a single moment in time; they do not consider what happens before or after the snapshot is taken. Therefore, we can't know for sure if our daily walkers had low cholesterol levels before taking up their exercise regimes, or if the behaviour of daily walking helped to reduce cholesterol levels that previously were high. Longitudinal study A longitudinal study, like a cross-sectional one, is observational. So, once again, researchers do not interfere with their subjects. However, in a longitudinal study, researchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years. The benefit of a longitudinal study is that researchers are able to detect developments or changes in the characteristics of the target population at both the group and the individual level. The key here is that longitudinal studies extend beyond a single moment in time. As a result, they can establish sequences of events.
Sarcopenia
Term used to describe the loss of muscle mass and strength over time. Sarcopenia is the degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass (0.5-1% loss per year after the age of 50), quality, and strength associated with aging.[1] Sarcopenia is a component of the frailty syndrome. It is often a component of cachexia. It can also exist independently of cachexia; whereas cachexia includes malaise and is secondary to an underlying pathosis (such as cancer), sarcopenia may occur in healthy people and does not necessarily include malaise. The term is from Greek σάρξ sarx, "flesh" and πενία penia, "poverty".
Left hemisphere
Logic Language Analytical thinking
What are some factors that can affect the onset of puberty
The age at which puberty begins can vary widely between individuals and between populations. Age of puberty is affected by both genetic factors and by environmental factors such as nutritional state or social circumstances. Timing may also be affected by environmental factors (exogenous hormones and environmental substances with hormone-like effects) and there is even evidence that life experiences may play a role as well. Ethnic/racial differences have been recognized for centuries. For example, the average age of menarche in various populations surveyed in the last several decades has ranged from 12.0 to 18.5 years. The earliest mean is reported for African-American girls and the oldest for high altitude subsistence populations in Asia. However, it is clear that much of the higher age averages reflect nutritional limitations more than genetic differences and can change within a few generations with a substantial change in diet. The median age of menarche for a population may be an index of the proportion of undernourished girls in the population, and the width of the spread may reflect unevenness of wealth and food distribution in a population. Genetic influence: Various studies have found direct genetic effects to account for at least 46% of the variation of timing of puberty in well-nourished populations. The genetic association of timing is strongest between mothers and daughters. The specific genes affecting timing are not defined yet. Among the candidates is an androgen receptor gene. Environmental factors: If genetic factors account for half of the variation of pubertal timing, environment factors are clearly important as well. One of the earliest observed environmental effects is that puberty occurs later in children raised at higher altitudes. The most important of the environmental influences is clearly nutrition, but a number of others have been identified, all which affect timing of female puberty and menarche more clearly than male puberty. Nutritional influence: Nutritional factors are the strongest and most obvious environmental factors affecting timing of puberty. Girls are especially sensitive to nutritional regulation because they must contribute all of the nutritional support to a growing fetus. Surplus calories (beyond growth and activity requirements) are reflected in the amount of body fat, which signals to the brain the availability of resources for initiation of puberty and fertility. Although available dietary energy (simple calories) is the most important dietary influence on timing of puberty, quality of the diet plays a role as well. Lower protein intakes and higher plant fiber intakes, as occur with typical vegetarian diets, are associated with later onset and slower progression of female puberty. Studies have shown that calcium deficiency is a cause of late puberty, irregular and painful, cramping during menstruation with excessive blood loss, and lowered immune response to infections in young girls. This could be from a deficient diet or lack of vitamin D from too little sun exposure. This lack of calcium could predispose them to osteoporosis later in life. Obesity influence: Scientific researchers have linked early obesity with a drop of puberty onset in girls. They have cited obesity as a cause of breast development before nine years and menarche before twelve years. Early puberty in girls can be a harbinger of later health problems. Physical activity and exercise: The average level of daily physical activity has also been shown to affect timing of puberty, especially female. A high level of exercise, whether for athletic or body image purposes, or for daily subsistence, reduces energy calories available for reproduction and slows puberty. The exercise effect is often amplified by a lower body fat mass. Physical illness: Many chronic diseases can delay puberty in both boys and girls. Those that involve chronic inflammation or interfere with nutrition have the strongest effect. In the western world, inflammatory bowel disease and tuberculosis have been notorious for such an effect in the last century, while in areas of the underdeveloped world, chronic parasite infections are widespread. Environmental chemicals and hormones: There is theoretical concern, and animal evidence, that environmental hormones and chemicals may affect aspects of prenatal or postnatal sexual development in humans. Large amounts of incompletely metabolized estrogens and progestagens from pharmaceutical products are excreted into the sewage systems of large cities, and are sometimes detectable in the environment. Sex steroids are sometimes used in cattle farming but have been banned in chicken meat production for 40 years. Although agricultural laws regulate use to minimize accidental human consumption, the rules are largely self-enforced in the United States. Significant exposure of a child to hormones or other substances that activate estrogen or androgen receptors could produce some or all of the changes of puberty. Harder to detect as an influence on puberty are the more diffusely distributed environmental chemicals like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl), which can bind and trigger estrogen receptors. More obvious degrees of partial puberty from direct exposure of young children to small but significant amounts of pharmaceutical sex steroids from exposure at home may be detected during medical evaluation for precocious puberty, but mild effects and the other potential exposures outlined above would not. Stress and social factors: Some of the least understood environmental influences on timing of puberty are social and psychological. In comparison with the effects of genetics, nutrition, and general health, social influences are small, shifting timing by a few months rather than years. Mechanisms of these social effects are unknown, though a variety of physiological processes, including pheromones, have been suggested based on animal research. The most important part of a child's psychosocial environment is the family, and most of the social influence research has investigated features of family structure and function in relation to earlier or later female puberty. Most of the studies have reported that menarche may occur a few months earlier in girls in high-stress households, whose fathers are absent during their early childhood, who have a stepfather in the home, who are subjected to prolonged sexual abuse in childhood, or who are adopted from a developing country at a young age. Conversely, menarche may be slightly later when a girl grows up in a large family with a biological father present. More extreme degrees of environmental stress, such as wartime refugee status with threat to physical survival, have been found to be associated with delay of maturation, an effect that may be compounded by dietary inadequacy. Most of these reported social effects are small and our understanding is incomplete. Most of these "effects" are statistical associations revealed by epidemiologic surveys. Statistical associations are not necessarily causal, and a variety of covariables and alternative explanations can be imagined. Effects of such small size can never be confirmed or refuted for any individual child. Furthermore, interpretations of the data are politically controversial because of the ease with which this type of research can be used for political advocacy. Accusations of bias based on political agenda sometimes accompany scientific criticism. Another limitation of the social research is that nearly all of it has concerned girls, partly because female puberty requires greater physiologic resources and partly because it involves a unique event (menarche) that makes survey research into female puberty much simpler than male.
Frontal lobe
Almost always active
Sensation
What occurs when a stimulus activates by coming in contact with a receptor (nerves) and transduction happens
Transductions
When a stimuli turns into a neural impulse, activates a neuron. The stimulus is transduced into a neural impulse.
Plasticity
When the brain chsnges based on input, about the devekopment of nuerons and those changes. It can always change and adapt. Maybe be able to gain back whats lost in older age
Habituation
When we become so familiar with a novel stimuli that it is no longer novel (they become habit and common but never morning coffee)
Lateralization, of Cortical Functions (cortex)
Left hemisphere talks ro right side Right hemisphere talks to the left side
When is peak physical performance?
20s?
Growth of the Amygdala during adolescence and it's role in risk taking behavior
A Larger Amygdala Can Equate to Higher Anxiety in Childhood The amygdala is an evolutionarily primitive part of the brain located deep in the temporal lobe. It comprises several subregions associated with different aspects of perceiving, learning, and regulating emotions. Studies of laboratory animals placed in an environment causing chronic stress have determined that the animals' amygdalae grew additional synapses and that this synaptic connectivity resulted in chronic anxiety. The Stanford researchers acknowledge that some anxiety is an important emotional and biological reaction to both 'eustress' (good stress) and 'distress' (bad stress) at all stages of life. However, sustained anxiety can lead to disabling conditions such as phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and generalized anxiety disorder. Studies of adults suffering from anxiety disorders have shown that they also possess enlarged, highly connected amygdalae. Source: The basolateral amygdala is the specific region that was larger in children with higher anxiety. This is an evolutionarily older and 'primal' subregion which processes emotion-related sensory information and communicates it to the more cerebral neocortex which is an evolutionarily newer part of the brain according to Shaozheng Qin, PhD, the lead author of the study.
Hormones and how they are produced
A hormone (from the Greek participle "ὁρμῶν") is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling). Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.[1][2] Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic[disambiguation needed] responses[disambiguation needed] where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid-based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs of the stomach and exocrine pancreas (the amounts of gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonadal (HPG), and -thyroid (HPT) axes. Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue.
Nueroconstructivist
Biological processes and environmental experiencr contribute to brain development
sensory adaptation
Brain has to adapt to sounds in the frintal lobe Neural adaptation or sensory adaptation is a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus. It is usually experienced as a change in the stimulus. For example, if one rests one's hand on a table, one immediately feels the table's surface on one's skin. We get used to things. This goes for lots of things in life including smells, sounds, sights, games, people, situations...seems like after a while we get used to everything.One reason we get used to everything is because of sensory adaptation, which is reduced sensitivity to stimulation that results from repeated presentations of that stimulation. For example, my car was in for service recently and the dealer gave me a rental to use while the car was being serviced. As soon as I got into the car I was overwhelmed by the smell of smoke (even though I asked for a non-smoking car). It stunk! But after driving the car for 30 minutes or so, I didn't really notice the smell. I got used to it because I was immersed in it. I experienced sensory adaptation
What is the purpose of descriptive research?
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of Minnesota state population or situation being studied?) [1] The characteristics used to describe the situation or population are usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. For example, the periodic table categorizes the elements. Scientists use knowledge about the nature of electrons, protons and neutrons to devise this categorical scheme. We now take for granted the periodic table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it. Descriptive research generally precedes explanatory research. For example, over time the periodic table's description of the elements allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were combined. Hence, descriptive research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
There is no such thing as solely one side of the brain. It's coordinated between the two
Engage on both sides
Testosterone and Estrodial (what are they and what is their function)
Estradiol (E2), also spelled oestradiol, is a steroid, an estrogen, and the primary female sex hormone. It is named for and is important in the regulation of the estrous and menstrual female reproductive cycles. Estradiol is essential for the development and maintenance of female reproductive tissues such as the breasts, uterus, and vagina during puberty, adulthood, and pregnancy,[7] but it also has important effects in many other tissues, including bone, fat, skin, liver, and the brain. While estrogen levels in men are lower compared to those in women, estrogens have essential functions in men, as well. It is found in most vertebrates and crustaceans, insects, fish, and other animal species.[8][9] Estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates[2] as well as some insects.[3] Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that estrogenic sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history. The three major naturally occurring forms of estrogen in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Another type of estrogen called estetrol (E4) is produced only during pregnancy. Quantitatively, estrogens circulate at lower levels than androgens in both men and women.[4] While estrogen levels are significantly lower in males compared to females, estrogens nevertheless also have important physiological roles in males.[5] Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, they bind to and activate estrogen receptors (ERs) which in turn modulate the expression of many genes.[6] Additionally, estrogens bind to and activate rapid-signaling membrane estrogen receptors (mERs),[7][8] such as GPER (GPR30).[9] Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In men, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.[2] In addition, testosterone is involved in health and well-being,[3] and the prevention of osteoporosis.[4] Insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss
Lobes
Frontal lobe- primarily involved in thinking Temporal lobe- auditory processing (hearing) Parietal- sensation & movement Occipital- visual processing
What is habituation
Habituation is a form of learning in which an organism decreases or ceases its responses to a stimulus after repeated presentations.[1] Essentially, the organism learns to stop responding to a stimulus which is no longer biologically relevant. For example, organisms may habituate to repeated sudden loud noises when they learn these have no consequences.[2] Habituation usually refers to a reduction in innate behaviours, rather than behaviours developed during conditioning (in which case the process is termed "extinction"). A progressive decline of a behavior in a habituation procedure may also reflect nonspecific effects such as fatigue, which must be ruled out when the interest is in habituation as a learning process.[3] The habituation process is a form of adaptive behavior (or neuroplasticity) that is classified as non-associative learning. Non-associative learning is a change in a response to a stimulus that does not involve associating the presented stimulus with another stimulus or event such as a reward or punishment.[4] (Examples of associative learning include classical conditioning and operant conditioning). Habituation is the decrease of a response to a repeated eliciting stimulus that is not due to sensory adaptation or motor fatigue. Sensory adaptation (or neural adaptation) occurs when an organism can no longer detect the stimulus as efficiently as when first presented and motor fatigue occurs when an organism is able to detect the stimulus but can no longer respond efficiently. In contrast, habituation is a learned adaptation to the repeated presentation of a stimulus, not a reduction in sensory or motor ability.
menarche [meh-NAR-key]
Menarche is the culmination of a series of physiological and anatomic processes of puberty: Attainment of a sufficient body mass (typically 17% body fat).[8] Disinhibition of the GnRH pulse generator in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. Secretion of estrogen by the ovaries in response to pituitary hormones. Over an interval of about 2 to 3 years, estrogen stimulates growth of the uterus (as well as height growth, breast growth, widening of the pelvis, and increased regional adipose tissue). Estrogen stimulates growth and vascularity of the endometrium, the lining of the uterus. Fluctuations of hormone levels can result in changes of adequacy of blood supply to parts of the endometrium. Death of some of the endometrial tissue from these hormone or blood supply fluctuations leads to deciduation, a sloughing of part of the lining with some blood flow from the vagina. No specific hormonal signal for menarche is known; menarche as a discrete event is thought to be the relatively chance result of the gradual thickening of the endometrium induced by rising but fluctuating pubertal estrogen. The menstruum, or flow, consists of a combination of fresh and clotted blood with endometrial tissue. The initial flow of menarche is usually brighter than mature menstrual flow. It is often scanty in amount and may be very brief, even a single instance of "spotting." Like other menses, menarche may be accompanied by abdominal cramping. Relation to fertility Edit In most girls, menarche does not mean that ovulation has occurred. In postmenarchal girls, about 80% of the cycles were anovulatory in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third and 10% in the sixth year.[9] Regular ovulation is usually indicated by predictable and consistent intervals between menses, predictable and consistent durations of menses, and predictable and consistent patterns of flow (e.g., heaviness or cramping). Continuing ovulation typically requires a body fat content of at least 22%. An anthropological term for this state of potential fertility is nubility.
Gross and fine motor development
Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. Typically, they are categorized into two groups: gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts and movements. They participate in actions such as running, crawling, swimming, etc. Fine motor skills are involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, and the feet and toes. They participate in smaller actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger, writing carefully, and even blinking. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination.
Affordances
Opportunities for interaction offered by objects that are necessary for performing functional activities
What are affordances?
Providing them an opportunity to have an experience and to adjust your interaction in the world by how we perceive it and goof so that we can improve Assimilations snd accommodations are the same thing
Naturalistic observation, case study and survey research (what is it and what are the benefits and drawbacks)
Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior. How Does Naturalistic Observation Work? In many instances, people might not behave the same way in a lab setting that they might in a more natural environment. For this reason, behaviors sometimes need to be observed as they happen "in the wild" so to speak. By watching how people respond to certain situations and stimuli in real-life, psychologists can get a better idea of how and why people react. Naturalistic observation differs from structured observation in that it involves looking at a behavior as it occurs in its natural setting with no attempts at intervention on the part of the researcher. For example, researchers interested in looking at certain aspects of classroom behavior, such as interactions between students or even the dynamics between the teacher and students, might opt to use naturalistic observation as part of their research. Performing such research in a lab would be difficult since it would involve recreating a classroom environment, and would likely influence the behavior of the participants, making it difficult to generalize the observations. Case study over a long period of time Survey interview, statistics
What are neurotransmitters (don't need to know specific ones)
Neurotransmitters, also known as chemical messengers, are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.[1] Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into the synaptic cleft, where they are received by receptors on the target cells. Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as amino acids, which are readily available from the diet and only require a small number of biosynthetic steps for conversion. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions. Their exact numbers are unknown, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been uniquely identified.[2]
Difference between sensation and perception
Now let us pay attention to Perception. Perception is the manner in which we interpret the world around us. As a result of sensation, we receive various stimuli through sensory organs. However, if these are not interpreted, we cannot make sense of the world. This is the function of Perception. In the day today conversations we use the term perception as well. Here it conveys a more general meaning of perceiving or being aware. Let us observe the following sentences: 1. You are deceived by the perception of a serpent on a rope. 2. Your perception is wrong. In both the sentences, you can find that the word 'perception' is used in the sense of 'sight' and hence, the first sentence can be rewritten as 'you are deceived by the sight of a serpent on a rope', and the second sentence can be rewritten as 'your sight is wrong'. It is interesting to note that perception is one of the proofs of valid knowledge according to some schools of thought or philosophy. Anything that can be perceived or seen is the proof of valid knowledge. Also, it is interesting to note that the word 'sensation' is derived from the secondary noun 'sense' that means 'sense organ'. These are the differences between sensation and perception.
Perception
Our brain's interpretation of the stimuli
Cortex responsible for:
Perception Problem solving Thinking Language Some emotion maybe
Cortex, 2 hemispheres
Right and left
Cephalocaudal and proximinal distal growth
The cephalocaudal trend, or cephalocaudal gradient of growth, refers to the pattern of changing spatial proportions over time during growth. One example of this is the gradual change in head size relative to body size during human growth. During prenatal growth, from conception to 5 months, the head grows more than the body. In humans, the head comprises almost 50% of total body length at approximately the third month of intrauterine development. By the time of birth the head has decreased to approximately 30% of total body length as a result of the limbs and trunk growing faster than the head. This trend continues postnatally along an axis of increased growth from the head to the feet. Finally, in adults, the head represents approximately 6% of the body length. The cephalocaudal trend is also the trend of infants learning to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The proximodistal trend, on the other hand, is the prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outwards.
What is the cerebral cortex and it's function
The cerebral cortex, also known as the cerebrum, is the largest portion of the brain, located right under the forehead and it is divided into two parts, a right and a left hemisphere. They in turn have a total of four lobes - the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes. The cerebral cortex controls movement, speech, memory and intelligence.
Cortex
The folds of the brain (outer layer) responsible for about 80% of the brain's volume
Association areas in each of our lobes
The limbic association area is in the temporal lobe, and this part of the brain is essential for learning and memory function. The limbic association area deals with emotional inputs and most sensory information, notes UTH. The posterior association area is found at the intersection of the occipital, temporal and parietal lobes. This area is important to perception and language. The anterior association area is in the prefrontal cortex. This part of the brain links data from other association areas and helps the brain process memories, higher-order concepts and planning. For example, the limbic association area takes into account an emotional response with regards to a survival mechanism. This part of the brain remembers the relief someone feels when a person finds food after being very hungry. The emotions felt during the situation help the person remember where and how to find that particular food in the future. An emotional escape from danger helps a human learn what predators to avoid and where those predators live. The limbic association area is necessary for all animals to survive, according to UTH.
Temporal and occipital lobe
The most sensitive to outside stimuli in the environment
occipital lobes
The occipital lobe is divided into several functional visual areas. Each visual area contains a full map of the visual world. Although there are no anatomical markers distinguishing these areas (except for the prominent striations in the striate cortex), physiologists have used electrode recordings to divide the cortex into different functional regions. The first functional area is the primary visual cortex. It contains a low-level description of the local orientation, spatial-frequency and color properties within small receptive fields. Primary visual cortex projects to the occipital areas of the ventral stream (visual area V2 and visual area V4), and the occipital areas of the dorsal stream—visual area V3, visual area MT (V5), and the dorsomedial area (DM). The ventral stream is known for the processing the "what" in vision, while the dorsal stream handles the "where/how." This is because the ventral stream provides important information for the identification of stimuli that are stored in memory. With this information in memory, the dorsal stream is able to focus on motor actions in response to the outside stimuli. Although numerous studies have shown that the two systems are independent and structured separately from another, there is also evidence that both are essential for successful perception, especially as the stimuli takes on more complex forms. For example, a case study using fMRI was done on shape and location. The first procedure consisted of location tasks. The second procedure was in a lit-room where participants were shown stimuli on a screen for 600 ms. They found that the two pathways play a role in shape perception even though location processing continues to lie within the dorsal stream.[3] The dorsomedial (DM) is not as thoroughly studied. However, there is some evidence that suggests that this stream interacts with other visual areas. A case study on monkeys revealed that information from V1 and V2 areas make up half the inputs in the DM. The remaining inputs are from multiple sources that have to do with any sort of visual processing [4] A significant functional aspect of the occipital lobe is that it contains the primary visual cortex. Retinal sensors convey stimuli through the optic tracts to the lateral geniculate bodies, where optic radiations continue to the visual cortex. Each visual cortex receives raw sensory information from the outside half of the retina on the same side of the head and from the inside half of the retina on the other side of the head. The cuneus (Brodmann's area 17) receives visual information from the contralateral superior retina representing the inferior visual field. The lingula receives information from the contralateral inferior retina representing the superior visual field. The retinal inputs pass through a "way station" in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus before projecting to the cortex. Cells on the posterior aspect of the occipital lobes' gray matter are arranged as a spatial map of the retinal field. Functional neuroimaging reveals similar patterns of response in cortical tissue of the lobes when the retinal fields are exposed to a strong pattern. Smallest in cortex paired
temporal lobe
The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memory, language comprehension, and emotion association.[4]:21 Visual memories Edit The temporal lobe communicates with the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of explicit long-term memory modulated by the amygdala.[4]:349 Processing sensory input Edit Auditory Adjacent areas in the superior, posterior, and lateral parts of the temporal lobes are involved in high-level auditory processing. The temporal lobe is involved in primary auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds the primary auditory cortex.[6] The primary auditory cortex receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process the information into meaningful units such as speech and words.[6] The superior temporal gyrus includes an area (within the lateral fissure) where auditory signals from the cochlea first reach the cerebral cortex and are processed by the primary auditory cortex in the left temporal lobe.[citation needed] Visual The areas associated with vision in the temporal lobe interpret the meaning of visual stimuli and establish object recognition.[citation needed] The ventral part of the temporal cortices appear to be involved in high-level visual processing of complex stimuli such as faces (fusiform gyrus) and scenes (parahippocampal gyrus).[citation needed] Anterior parts of this ventral stream for visual processing are involved in object perception and recognition.[6] Animation showing the position of the human left temporal lobe Language recognition Edit The temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for the processing of semantics in both speech and vision in humans. Wernicke's area, which spans the region between temporal and parietal lobes, plays a key role (in tandem with Broca's area in the frontal lobe) in speech comprehension.[7] The functions of the left temporal lobe are not limited to low-level perception but extend to comprehension, naming, and verbal memory.[citation needed] New memories Edit See also: Emotion and memory The medial temporal lobes (near the sagittal plane) are thought to be involved in encoding declarative long term memory.[4]:194-199 The medial temporal lobes include the hippocampi, which are essential for memory storage, therefore damage to this area can result in impairment in new memory formation leading to permanent or temporary anterograde amnesia.[4]:194-199
Why do we have perception?
To make sense of our environment
Sensation examples:
Touch, visual sense, tactile, auditory, olfactory, gustatory-taste
Independent variabke
X axis, controlled by experimenter, experimental variable
Dependent variable
Y axis, effected by independent variable
Control group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Experimental group
subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable, given the treatment and watched for any change or effect measured against the control group
Frontal Lobe
the largest of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the mammalian brain. The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobe. It is separated from the parietal lobe by a groove between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deeper groove called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure). The most anterior rounded part of the frontal lobe (though not well-defined) is known as the frontal pole, one of the three poles of the cerebrum.[1] The precentral gyrus, forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts. The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine-sensitive neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopamine system is associated with reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, and motivation. Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain. The frontal lobe plays a large role in voluntary movement. It houses the primary motor cortex which regulates activities like walking. The function of the frontal lobe involves the ability to project future consequences resulting from current actions, the choice between good and bad actions (or better and best) (also known as conscience), the override and suppression of socially unacceptable responses, and the determination of similarities and differences between things or events. The frontal lobe also plays an important part in integrating longer non-task based memories stored across the brain. These are often memories associated with emotions derived from input from the brain's limbic system. The frontal lobe modifies those emotions to generally fit socially acceptable norms. Psychological tests that measure frontal lobe function include finger tapping (as the frontal lobe controls voluntary movement), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and measures of language and numeracy skills.[5]
