Early Europe & Colonial Americas

Adam and Eve Albrecht Dürer. 1504 C.E. Engraving Dürer became increasingly drawn to the idea that the perfect human form corresponded to a system of proportion and measurements. Dürer's placid animals signify that in this moment of perfection in the garden, the human figures are still in a state of equilibrium.

Albrecht Durer: Born in 1471 in the Franconian city of Nuremberg One of the strongest artistic and commercial centers in Europe during the 15th-16th centuries His greatest artistic impact was in the medium of printmaking His father was a goldsmith and his uncle was a painter = inspiration He apprenticed with local painter Michael Wolgemut Workshop produced woodcut illustrations Revolutionized printmaking Elevated it to the level of an independent art form Expanded its dramatic range and provided imagery with a new conceptual foundation A german enthralled with classical tradition Expressed his personal and cultural concerns within his works Proud of his German identity Loved Italian and Classical tradition He visited Italy twice absorbing firsthand some of the great works from the Italian Renaissance He wrote Four Books of Human Proportion (only one was published during his lifetime) Also... introductory manual of geometric theory, including the first scientific treatment of perspective by a Northern European artist A Scientific Mind: Similar to Leonardo da Vinci Curious intellect and scientific mind in addition to being an artists Skill and inspiration made him a leading artist in the Renaissance Embraced the ideals of the Renaissance first hand while continuing to celebrate his german heritage Surpassed all others in printmaking (relief and intaglio) Relied on his prints for profit and recognition Gothic to Renaissance = Agent of Change Engravings: Specialized in woodcuts and intaglio prints Mechanically reproducible media Made in multiples = ideas and designs could be known in other regions and countries by large numbers of people German artists could learn about classical art without traveling to Italy Each image was handmade More kinds of people could afford more artworks Prints are easier to produce and less expensive Traditional, direct contract between artist and patron: Adam and Eve The woodcut tells us primarily about the Renaissance and Germany rather than the text of Genesis The poses of the two human figures show the Germans knowledge of classical proportions Vitruvius: the proportions of the face (distance from forehead to chin) Sacrifices naturalism to showcase his mastery of Vitruvian ideals Preparatory drawings show that Dürer originally conceived the figures of Adam and Eve, as two separate engravings of the "perfect male" and "perfect female Dürer experimented with incorporating the two figures in a single composition, without compromising his attention to ideal form The religious--as opposed to secular--presentation, moreover, rendered the nude figures more acceptable to his German public Body Nude Frontal bodies standing in contrapposto (where the weight of the body is shifted onto one foot) Shift in hips and shoulders creating a convincing illusion of a body capable of movement but temporarily at rest Naturalism Head are turned to gaze at one another Distinct configuration of head and body is artificial Italian Renaissance = perfect physical proportions of the body The nearly symmetrical frontal poses of Adam and Eve in The Fall of Man were carefully calculated to demonstrate idealized, canonical proportions of the nude to a Northern audience unfamiliar with classical norms of beauty Both the proportions and the graceful contrapposto attitude of the figures were inspired by such famous Greek statues as the Apollo Belvedere and the Medici Venus Humors = Human Personality The four animals in lower right are representations of the four humors: Phlegmatic Sanguine Melancholic Choleric This ancient theory, existed into Dürer's time, which was that each human possessed all four humors A person's personality was determined by his or her predominant humor Complex notion about how humankind was linked to the natural world The medieval doctrine formulated in the 12th century, the perfect equilibrium of these humors in the human body was upset after the Fall, causing one or the other to predominate and make man mortal (durer represented this through animals) Animals = symbolic meanings Melancholic: elk (black bile)-despondent, sleepless, irritable Phlegmatic: ox (phlegm)-calm, unemotional Sanguine: rabbit (blood)-sensual, courageous, hopeful Choleric: cat (yellow bile)-cruel, easily angered, feminine Background The figures are set off before a dense woodland filled with a wealth of plants and animals Forest = German influence (durer's intention) Erwin Panofsky was the first to decipher the complex and inventive symbolic program contained in Dürer's engraving Adam grasps a mountain ash, signifying the tree of life Contrasted with the tree of knowledge represented by the fig tree at the center of the composition Tree becomes distinctly odd... Eve plucks an apple from a tree with fig leaves Seductive serpent deposits the forbidden fruit in Eve's hand Opposed by the parrot = wisdom, discernment, and virgin birth of christ Six other animals: elk, ox, cat, rabbit, mouse, goat Small sign (cartellino) hangs from a branch that adam grasps Identifies the artist as a citizen of the Franconian city of Nuremberg (Noricus) but does so in Latin Symbols Colorful tropical parrots were collectors items in Germany and symbols of art Call of the parrot: "Eva-Ave" Eve and Ave Maria ("Hail Mary"-the name of a prayer in honor of the Virgin Mary) Word play underpins the Christian interpretation of the story of Fall of Humanity by characterizing the Virgin Mary as the antidote for Eve's sin in the Garden of Eden Only Adam and Eve are in perfect balance internally Durer's placid animals signify that in this moment of perfection in the garden, the figures are still in a state of equilibrium Mouse: male weakness Mountain goat: lust and damnation Serpent: evil Parrot: salvation, the antidote to the serpent Conclusion: A series of preparatory drawings for the figures and animals reveal the artist's intense investigation of form and narrative, and document the genesis of this composition more thoroughly than any of his other prints

Allegory of Law and Grace Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress The practice of imbuing narratives, images or figures with symbolic meaning to convey moral principles and philosophical idea

Allegory of Law and Grace Year: 1529 Context: Destruction of thousands of works of religious art Iconoclasts stormed through churches "How did heaven get to be so controversial?" Form Material/technique → woodcut and letterpress Lucas Cranach the Elder = artist Located in Germany Media = oil on wood Northern Renaissance 72 cm by 88.5 cm Lucas Cranach the Elder Influential artists in 16th century German art Printmaker and painter Representative of the Northern Renaissance His father, Hans Maler, was a painter and gave Cranach his first lessons He adopted the name Cranach when he was 30 years old Birth place = now Kronach As court painter of the Elector of Saxony, the patron of Luther, he is remembered as the chief artist of the Reformation Moved to Vienna in 1501 Full of expression and dynamic Moved to Wittenberg in 1505 More static style Met the reformed Martin Luther = portrayed in his works He also sold medicine, papers, ran a wine pub, printed books He was elected as mayor three times A talent for politics 1524-met Albrecht Durer Lutheran Reformation The Law and the Grace Single most influential image of the Lutheran Reformation The Reformation--initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 (attempt to reform the Catholic Church, which had been the only church in western Europe up until Luther) The Role of Art The Law and the Grace explains luther's ideas in visual form Heaven is reached through faith and god's grace Luther despised and rejected the Catholic idea that good deeds ("good works") could play any role in salvation Catholics Vs. Luther: how to get to heaven? Catholics Believer could take action to vouchsafe their salvation by good deed (financial donations and paying for art) Luther Insisted that salvation was in God's hands and all the believer had to do was to open up and have faith Anger led to rebellion and destruction of artwork that the Catholic Church was become rich on Scene: Two nude figures appear on either side of a tree that bisects the composition Law (left) = dying tree Gospel (right) = living tree Tree is dead on the side of the Law but vibrant on the side of the Gospel The altarpiece from left to right Six columns of Bible citations appear at the bottom of the panel Left (Law) Side Scene: Law and judgement symbolized by a man being forced into hell by Death (skeleton) and Satan (demon) Moses delivers the Ten Commandments Moses beholds these events; his white tablets standing out against the saturated orange rope and green tree Highlighting the association of law, death, and damnation Held by a figure that appears to be Luther himself (Cranach consistently depicted Luther in his portraits alongside biblical figures) Christ sits in judgement Adam and Eve partake in eating the forbidden fruit Motifs (left) are meant to exemplify the idea that law alone, without gospel, can never get you to heaven Right (Gospel) Side Scene: Grace and Gospel with Christ's cross crushing Death and Satan Blood of christ covers those near the cross John the baptist directs a naked man to both Christ on the cross in front of the tomb AND to the risen Christ who appears on top of the tomb Risen Christ = stands triumphant above the empty tomb, acting out the miracle of the Resurrection Nude figure is not hoping to follow the law on judgement day Stands passively, stripped down to his soul, submitting to God's mercy Lutheran saw the law as the side in which financial donations enriched the church and should not be a way to salvation; in the gospel side he believed through your own belief in god should be enough to bring his grace Law paves the way to salvation by preparing the way for grace God judges and God shows mercy The Law and the Grace is concerned with two roles that God plays: Judge (condemns human sin) Show mercy (forgiveness) Granting unearned salvation to sinful believers Luther's idea of law is multifaceted and complex relationship to his idea of gospel Law alone will never make salvation possible, law paves the way to salvation Includes events from both the New and Old Testament Concerns two aspects of the relationship between humanity and god Describes events throughout the bible which reveal the dual aspect of god's relationship to people Cranach's pictorial translation of Luther's unique understanding of salvation Interprets the roles of law, good works, faith, and grace in the human relationship to God Themes Personal faith Protestantism Allegories Christianity

Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo, attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez

Content: -simple composition (arrangement of visual elements in a picture) -Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son -mother and father surrounding two children: a young boy is carrying the couples baby *NOTE THE YOUNG BOY (NOT BABY) IS NOT THEIR CHILD -Modeled off the Holy Family: Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and Christ as a child (interpretation) -The indigenous mother: dressed in huipil (traditional woman's garment worn by indigenous women from central Mexico and Central America), lace sleeves, and expensive jewelry -turns and looks at husbands as she gesture towards child -husband (Spaniard father): -wears French-style European clothing, powdered wig -gazes down at the children, hand resting on the child's back or wife's arm -the young servant looks upwards to the father (not his father): allude to his greatness -The family appears calm, harmonious, loving Context: -mestizo: (a person of a European and indigenous parent) a Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman -This painting (the first of the series as many like this were= indigenous mother + Spaniard father)belongs to a larger series of works that document the intermix racing of the Spaniards, indigenous, Africans, and mixed population (e.i. mestizo) -Casta paintings: focus on bad living conditions for families that become more and more racially mixed, 2nd half of 18th century -As the series progresses in casta paintings (different races mixing, as families become more racially mixed) = displayed in tattered, torn, and unglamorous surroundings/ bad family dynamic after the Spaniard and indigenous family: race mixing is bad, seen as lower if you do not have European descent -also appear darker as they become more mixed, less attractive and dirty: race mixing in bad Function: -Discourage race mixing -influences that if mixed with European blood one is superior, the family will live in harmony, and "perfection" as seen in the work -casta paintings: reflect increasing social anxieties about inter-ethnic mixing -it is possible that elites (pure blood) found the dilution of pure-bloodedness alarming (they were the ones that commissioned the paintings) -My interpretation: as many European (Spaniard men) voyaged to South America, they did not bring European wives and had to mix with the women there. They still didn't agree with racial mixing and discouraged it (contradictory) therefore disliked when people keep mixing more because it "dirtied" European blood ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- More in-depth background and information! Casta Painting, 18th century, oil on canvas, 148 x 104 cm -produced in sets of 16 -The Mestizo: made in New Spain (Spanish colonial Mexico) during the second half of the eighteenth century -caste paintings (pinturas de castas): a misleading idea of what families were like due to depictions (made families with European blood seem happy, harmonious than those without, looked dirty and unhappy) -casta paintings: a mother, father, and a child (sometimes two) "Enlightenment": people can be categorized + hierarchy by racial makeup and appearance -Racially labeling people and where they are on on the "racial hierarchy": costumes, accouterments, activities, setting, and flora and fauna influenced this in composition -Indigenous peoples who lived outside of "civilized" social norms + Christian= mecos (barbarians) -Spaniards distinguished from others in the casta paintings= depicted as best dressed and most "civilized" -the more European you are, the closer to the top of the social and racial hierarchy you belong -The first painting in the series/ those on top where European (Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman, accompanied by their offspring: a mestizo) showing that they were higher -As the casta series progresses + the mixing increases: names in casta paintings to label people are more derogatory/negative and racial mixing is seen as disproved/bad

David Donatello. c. 1440-1460 C.E. Bronze Nearly everything about the statue - from the material from which it was sculpted to the subject's "clothing" - was mold-breaking in some way. Scholars and artists have studied David for centuries in an attempt to both learn more about the man behind it and to more fully discern its meaning.

Content: 5 feet tall Material: bronze intimate, beautiful and vulnerable: warm tones of the bronze and small size: feel a closer connection sensuality which contradicts that this is an old testament subject/ not a biblical representation Gruesome head vs with beauty and sensuality of young David= Donatello depicted David's innocence (instead of more masculine and frightening) in such a gruesome event the bronze: smooth the seams and the surface and to cut in details (like the hair): just like Greeks/ Romans intimacy: the nudity, the expression of the face, and the stance of the body Contrapposto: natural stance very similar to ancient Greeks/ Romans Free-standing: detached from the architecture gives it the freedom to move in the world, show expression, and communicate with you + contraposto= humanistic Argument: Pride vs Thought: Thoughtful: unexpected representation of the story of David and Goliath (how the boy and scene was characterized in the story) Why? triumphal victorious figure (he just defeated the Giant, the whole Israelite army was afraid, and he had God's might on his side!) but we see a thoughtful, quiet, contemplative face downcast eyes + the lids are half closed= not an expression of victory subtle pride: the facial muscles are relaxed, the mouth is lightly closed + smile small the face of thought not boasting: David if reflecting on killing the Giant and the might of God, he understands it was God that made him victorious, has wisdom with Gods intervention Pride: Pride/ confidence= relaxed contrapposto + the placement of his left hand nonchalantly on his hip feels right-hand holds the sword that he used to cut off Goliath's head, resting on a victory wreath: shows his power and confidence with Gods help David has swagger in his stance onto of the beheaded Goliath= gives an unnerving feel Strange that he shows pride because God helped him: didn't do this by himself Context: David: Donatello: studying ancient Roman art: displays classical knowledge of contrapposto + large-scale bronze casting of the ancient world During the Middle Ages: had not seen human-scaled bronze figures until the David= first free-standing nude figure since classical antiquity (Ancient Greece/ Rome) Donatello displays ancient Greek and Roman art of the naked human body Middle ages: a period when the focus was on God and the soul and didn't create nude art first free-standing nude figure since classical antiquity Placement: Public structure= it was put in a niche high up in one of the buttresses of the Cathedral of Florence and commissioned by the Office of Works for the Cathedral courtyard of the Medici Palace in Florence (private and intimate setting) Background of what is represented (bible story): David and Goliath, from the Old Testament Israel is threatened by Goliath (giant) Goliath threatened the Israelites and demand someone come fight him: but the entire army feared him David (young shepherd boy challenges to fight the giants: father said was scared for son and try to convince him to not David knows that he can beat Goliath because he has killed many wild animals that tried to attack his flock= he believes since the Lord saved him from the animals that attacked his flock he will save and help him with Goliath David tells Goliath: you may come to me with all your swords and a big/strong body but I will take you down because the lord is on my side (paraphrase) Kills him with a stone throw with his sling and beheads him Function: represent the story of David and Goliath tell Christian follows that with challenges, Gods might will help you You will gain wisdom and strength from God People of Florence identified ed with David: believed that they defeated their enemy (the Duke of Milan) with the help of God

Catacomb of Priscilla (Greek Chapel, Orant, Good Shepherd frescos)

Content: 10 km or more than 5 miles wide At least 40,000 tombs Multiple sarcophagi for family members Concept originated in ancient Egypt Small table Scenes from Old and New Testaments (on the walls) Depiction of figures suffering on account of their faith Book of Daniel Divine intervention - young Jewish men told to worship a Pagan golden idol, they refused, were sentenced to be burned alive but then saved Originated under the papacy of Pope Zephyrin (199-217) Location where most important pontiffs of the 3rd century Context: 5th century Underground, in the north of Rome The oldest part of the catacombs Closest to the entrance of Priscilla's villa Place where the earliest Christians were buries Some Christians would come here to practice their faith covertly Form: "Cubiculum" Passageways are stacked on top of each other (general) Roman first style* painting Building up of plaster on the wall to look like marble Wanted the tomb to look rich and valuable Function: Burial location for the actual members of Priscilla's family NOT a place of worship or prayer (to God), not really a chapel Content: Scenes from a Christian woman's life Marriage, childbirth, death (orant position) (Left) Being married by a 'seedless bishop' (Right) Seated in a chair nursing her newborn baby, reference to motherhood (Center) Pose of prayer (orant) to represent her soul in the afterlife as it rises up to heaven; she is resurrected Her eyes look upward to heaven, referring to her salvation Directly underneath a Good Shepherd fresco Context: "Cubiculum of the Veil" (Title) Woman is in a veil for each scene of her life Establishment of positions of worship Orant Particularly important in Early Christian art (c. 2nd - 6th) Woman represents hope of the family that she would be well received and happy in the afterlife Was painted in dim light of oil lanterns (viewed now through fluorescent lighting) Form: Arms outstretched as if reaching upwards towards god (orant); popular prayer position Minimalistic use of perspective and bodily proportions Long, amorphous body of clothing instead of curves of the human form Always facing the front Hierarchy of scale used to depict the scenes small to large, middle to sides in order of the importance of each event Not in very good condition; only preserved because it was underground, and not exposed to wear and tear of natural elements on the surface Shadow placed under her chin to create illusionism Hands are too large for her body, but face is represented naturalistically Function: Abstract representation of soul of the deceased Educational and instructive Showing Christians what a good Christian life was like Demonstrated important aspects of life Christians must experience, road to salvation Enclosed with a lunette at the back of the cubiculum Content: Different scenes of the Old and New Testaments Abraham in the center Isaac off to the right carrying wood Sacrifice of Isaac Abraham's wrists stayed by an angel Breaking of the Bread Long table, 7 men behind it NOT 12 apostles and Christ 7 blankets (3 on one side, 4 on the other) filled with bread Christ as the Good Shepherd Surrounded by 3 goats, one over his shoulder Represented young, has no beard (alludes to earliness of art) Doves with olive branches Context: Christ represented as the Good Shepherd Central figure of shallow domed ceiling (Later) Christian art Isaac about to be killed by Abraham (hence "Sacrifice") Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his own son foreshadowed God's willingness to sacrifice Christ References to miracles Christ performed throughout his life and liturgy Typical of Christian iconography Practice of the Eucharist Bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ Not set scenes, invention of iconography Christ will care for his followers as a shepherd tends his flock Form: Simplistic style, straightforward Nothing exists in it without educational value Multiple curved and angular lines Diminished hierarchy of scale To indicate the significance of religious figures Foreshortening of dishes on table Stance (GS) is representative of contrapposto Represented center frontal with goats and bushes with doves on either side Very symmetrical Symbols that surround the roundel (balance of earth and heaven) Peacocks - symbol of eternal life Quail - symbol of the earth Function: Martyrdom/inspirational scenes Divine revelation, worship, and devotion Embodiment and reinforcement of Christian faith Vocabulary List 1. Cubiculum - (n.) Latin word for "bedroom" 2. Pontiff - (n.) the Pope 3. Orant - (n.) Latin for "one who is praying or pleading"; posture or bodily attitude of prayer, usually standing, with the elbows close to the sides of the body and with the hands outstretched sideways, palms up 4. Catacomb - (n.) human-made subterranean passageways for religious practice; chambers of burial 5. Fresco - (n.) a painting done rapidly in watercolor on wet plaster on a wall or ceiling, so that the colors penetrate the plaster and become fixed as it dries 6. Lunette - (n.) an arched aperture or window, especially one in a domed ceiling; a fortification with two faces forming a projecting angle, and two flanks

Merovingian (Frankish) Looped Fibulae (mid-6th century)/ referred to as Visigothic

Content: General of Fibulae: -consist of a body, a pin, and a catch -Usually with elaborate designs Specific (Merovingian): -Material: silver gilt-worked in filigree with inlaid garnet and other stones -decorated with garnets, amethyst, and colored glass -a great example of barbarian metalwork and cloisonné -cloisonné: technique is inlaid semi-precious stones (popular in barbarian art) -Ends of fibulae: the shape of Eagle heads -Garnets: used to decorate the eyes of the eagles -the main body of the brooch: little fish -Gems and semi-precious stones: used to decorate the rest of the fibulae -Pendants could have been hung from the small loops on the bottom on each fibulae Context: General of Fibulae: -Fibulae: are brooches (safety pins) that were made popular by Roman military campaigns -Cultural exchanges occurred after antiquity and both groups (barbarians and Romans) copied and shared similar works -Barbarian: non-Roman, nomadic, and illiterate groups traveling throughout Europe during the middle ages -Became very popular in the early Middle Ages and commonly found in barbarian grave sites -Gives the cultural information about barbarians (little-written documents) -Found through many different ethnics groups and with trade/ expose had influences of the styles of one another -All serve the same function purpose: because of different cultures/ time periods decorated differently -Similar cultures tend to have similar artist designs while diverse cultures didn't -Shows that distinct cultures living within larger empires and kingdoms (very common during the Middle Ages) Specific (Merovingian): - a popular motif in barbarian art of the middle ages: EAGLES (found on the work) -Eagles (originally pagan symbol of the sun) used by Imperial Rome and an emblem to Saint John -the way these were made: solder wires onto a metal base and fill the areas those wires created with stone Function: -a brooch or a pin for fastening clothing (safety pin) -expensive objects to the commission: the owners wanted these objects to resonate with their identity -buried with the dead: showed their status and who they were as people FOR MORE INFORMATION AND CONTEXT: Byzantine Fibula (430) Most popular style: crossbow fibula because of its resemblance to the weapon Pierced openwork: The detailed incising on the body Christian cross amongst a circular leaf motif Simple design (Byzantine/ Roman) Lombardic Fibula (mid-6th century) -stylized variation of the crossbow fibula (remember diverse ethics groups all had their own spin to their fibulas!) -Material: gilded and inlaid with niello = a black metal alloy -Lombardic fibulae: incisions are hatched lines (popular decoration technique) -Historical Context: Although they conquered Byzantine land, they were overthrown by Charlemagne (king of the Franks) Therefore with this context over the centuries, they assimilated into Roman Culture and adopted Catholicism -Shows the adoption of crossbow fibula style (Roman) with their own twist (so even though they left off a lot their own culture behind/ legal producers still have some part of their roots)

Detail with year 2-Reed glyph (lower right), Frontispiece, Codex Mendoza, Viceroyalty, New Spain, c. 1541-1542, pigment on paper

Content: The Codex: great amount of information about the Aztec empire Frontispiece: Information about the organization, foundation, origins of the (Tenochtitlan) Aztec capital "place of the prickly pear cactus" schematic diagram of Tenochtitlan -city divided into four parts by intersecting blue/green smooth diagonals -represent: city divided into four quarters= mirror the organization of the universe, believed to be four parts aligned with the four cardinal directions (north, east, south, west). -city made of canals: depicts quadripartite division of the city and the canals running through it Aztec myth: Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird Left) =patron deity told the Aztecs' ancestors to leave Aztlan (ancestral home) and find a place with "an eagle atop a cactus growing from a rock" → when they see this they should settle and build city there: saw this sign middle of Lake Texcoco therefore capital was on an island in the lake Center: an eagle on a cactus growing from the midst of a lake The eagle and the cactus symbolize the city founding + values Catus: The cactus (eagle sits on) symbolizes place name of Tenochtitlan is a nopal (prickly pear cactus) grows from a (tetl) stone Paired together: form te-noch → Tenochtitlan (place of the prickly pear cactus) Other figures: below the cactus + stone: is a war shield= symbolizes Mexica did not settle peacefully in the Valley of Mexico above the eagle: symbolizes a temple= maybe symbolizes Templo Mayor or the Aztec's main temple To the right of the eagle: skull rack (tzompantli)= structure found near the Templo Mayor Different types of plants: including maize (corn) huge food source → dot the city's four quadrants= agricultural fertility in the city Tenoch: Ten men depicted in four quadrants → wearing white garments + top knots in their hair men who led the Aztecs to this island location name glyphs attached to them pre-Conquest manuscripts manner= a thin black line connects to a symbol that indicates their name Priest: amongst the men distinct and differs: seated to the left of the eagle (closest to it), has gray skin, different hairstyle, red mark around his ear= identify him as a priest because he let blood from his ear as offerings to deities + ash covers his skin. His name glyph identities his as "Tenoch" speech scroll coming from his mouth (listen to his words of wisdom/god) + woven mat upon where he sit= convey his high status Surrounding the entire page: year glyphs total of fifty-one year glyphs One year is marked= the year 2-Reed → twenty-six years after Tenochtitlan's establishment this reed has a cord wound around it + fire drill appears above it symbolize year 2-Reed= first year of a new 52-year cycle → new fire was drilled to begin the new cycle and signal the completion of the previous 52-year cycle What is the New Fire Ceremony?: occurred every 52 years (a complete cycle of the solar calendar) and it assured that the sun would rise again. Just prior to the beginning of a new cycle → new fire was drilled in the body of a sacrificial victim and the fire was distributed to people to light their homes Below diagram city: 2 two scenes of military conquest emphasis of military power of Aztecs= shows two soldiers physically tower over the two men they defeat: a hierarchical scale that they are superior shield: identify them as Aztec warriors (identical to the one above that is associated with Tenochtitlan) obsidian-bladed weapons (called macana) What up with the war scene?: The defeated men (place glyphs as Colhuacan and Tenayuca) from different locations around Lake Texcoco → burning temples with hills: Colhuacan and Tenayuca were defeated Context: Codex (Codex Mendoza)= information about the lords of Tenochtitlan, the tribute paid to the Aztecs, daily life year to year, inner working of the empire 1541: Antonio de Mendoza (the first viceroy of New Spain) commissioned a codex= to record information about the Aztec empire artist(s) were indigenous: images annotated by Spanish priest that could speak Nahuatl (language of the Aztecs)→ sense of the control the story? Tenochtitlan ( former Aztec capital): established in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico (1325) Tenoch (ruler of the Mexicas during the fourteenth century) died in 1363, first Aztec tlatoani (speaker/the ruler) was elected in 1375 by a council of elders This scene of conquest: early Aztec military victories, which aided them in building their power even prior to their first official tlatoani came to power. Function: Show power/ greatness of their empire, to record history, worship and respect the Gods, and important stories of the founding of city 1541: Antonio de Mendoza (the first viceroy of New Spain) commissioned a codex= to record information about the Aztec empire for him to know artist(s) were indigenous: images annotated by Spanish priest that could speak Nahuatl (language of the Aztecs)→ sense of the control the story?

Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, c.1482-6. Tempera on canvas, 5'8" x 9'1 5/8. Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy

Content: Venus (Roman goddess of love and romance) Standing atop a white shell Golden hair, pale skin, entirely nude (but covering her lower body to incite modesty) Accompanied by an attendant with a cloth to cover her (far right) Zephyr and Aura, wind sprites, blowing wind from the far left Context: The painting depicts Venus, the Roman goddess of love Images of nude women were only tolerated in two contexts: educational or mythological This was the latter Painting her naked was a "radical statement" Not in a Christian context, heading straight into the Renaissance movement Form: She stands almost casually (not contrapposto) Flexible, skeletal structure (her body) Lots of folds and lines that intersect with one another (waves, seashell, clothing) Indicative of movement --> sourced at the two air spirits creating wind on the far left Function: Served a dual purpose Mythological and educational Artist reveled in his own creation

Chartres Cathedral Chartres, France. Gothic Europe. Orignal construction. c. 1145-1115 C.E.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass The Chartres Cathedral is probably the finest example of French Gothic architecture and said by some to be the most beautiful cathedral in France. The Chartres Cathedral is a milestone in the development of Western architecture because it employs all the structural elements of the new Gothic architecture: the pointed arch; the rib-and-panel vault; and, most significantly, the flying buttress.

Context legend says that the church was built on the site of a Druidic temple--whether or not this is true, we do know that it was built on the site of a Roman temple long history of use as a Christian space: used for Christian worship since around 200 CE by 1000 CE there was a substantial church in the site Chartres has always been associated with the worship of the Virgin Mary 9th century: the church received a relic* from Constantinople: the tunic of Mary (or the Sancta Camisia) this relic made the church a hugely popular pilgrimage site (which also made the church very rich) the Romanesque church on the original site burned down in 1194--but the tunic was found three days later, unharmed! the people of the town took this as a divine message that they should rebuild the church so that it would be as grand and beautiful as possible, deserving to be the worship place of Mary work on the reconstruction of the cathedral started around 1220 Form the formal plan of the Church is a Latin cross with three aisles, a short transept, and an ambulatory the high nave is supported by double flying buttresses three part elevation of nave arcade, triforium, and clerestory the absence of a gallery, which would have usually been present as a four-part elevation, was a conscious choice made by the architect in order to increase the amount of space for stained glass windows uses pointed arches and ribbed vaults inside the body of the church, which is very typically Gothic everything was meant to move the eye upward the radiating chapels, which in a Romanesque church would have been separate spaces of their own behind the altar, were integrated into the larger area of the church, which allowed for light to permeate all parts of the church Gothic unified space based on a cruciform basilica plan, with a transept intersecting the nave being added after the fire transept provided an extra entrance/exit, which was good for the flow of people in total, Chartres has nine portals (aka doors) the nave is the widest in France and is 121 feet high Content everything about the church was chosen by architects in the effort to create "heaven on Earth" one of the best examples of Gothic cathedrals new focuses on more airy, open spaces; thinner walls, and geometry people used the perfect proportions of geometry to try to simulate and bring to mind the balance, harmony, and beauty of the world that God had created part of the old Romanesque cathedral remains intact on the west-facing facade--it is easy to tell which part because the walls are much thicker, with small windows, and is organized according to the golden ratio jamb figures the relief figures that are carved into either side of the portals/doorways kings and queens of the Old Testament each is attached to a column carved in Gothic style representations of spiritual beings--not naturalistic in any way they seem to levitate, with no real weight to their bodies stretched out vertically their drapery obscures their bodies meant to represent gatekeepers: they "watch" the people in a kindly and calm way as they enter the church, reminding people of the ever-present eyes of God huge Gothic emphasis on stained glass large windows were made possible by the use of flying buttresses, which supported the weight of the walls and allowed them to be much thinner and taller flying buttresses took the outward thrust of heavy ceilings and directed it out and down; allowing for the structural design of the church to be taken out of the church itself "floating planes of light" were meant to make people feel completely surrounded by light; inundated by the spiritual presence light was seen as a divine symbol because it was beautiful and immaterial, so people saw it as the closest thing that they could get to the divine realm light entered the stained glass windows and cast colored patterns on the walls and pews of the church; moving during the day according to the movement of the sun vivid, rich colors used in the glass large rose window in the north transept bordered on the bottom by additional lancet windows that form almost an entire wall of stained glass the rose window images correspond with the structural program found surrounding the portals of the church; in the middle is he Virgin Mary with her son, Jesus, then above her four thrones with angels and the Kings of Judea, who were Mary's ancestors, and finally several minor prophets surrounding the rest of the program and the lancets below her shows how God foretold all of the events of Christianity from the start: it was his divine plan to have a son born on Earth to Mary who would go on to save mankind from their sin north transept portal has intricate jamb figures some are from pre-fire and some are from post-fire, so there is a marked difference in the Romanesque v. Gothic sculptural style relief archivolt sculptures protrude many feet from the side of the church, almost forming their own chapel Romanesque: shows God speaking the Word, then the Word becoming material (ie Genesis, with the creation of water/earth, Adam/Eve, etc.)--all devoted to the time before Christ an emphasis on Mary, who is being crowned in the tympanum additionally shows Mary as a baby, Mary holding Jesus, and Mary ascending to heaven Gothic: much more elongated, proportional, with a larger intricacy of drapery and greater emotional expression Abraham, Isaac, Moses, Samuel, David, Isaiah... a bunch of different Old Testament prophets, who foresaw the coming of Christ how they relate to each other aids in their didactic purpose; for example, Abraham looks up to the angel that will stop him from slaying his son, Isaac the chancel screen (aka a screen separating the area around the altar from the larger nave) once sported an astrological clock that told the day of the week, the month of the year, the time of sunrise and sunset, the phase of the moon and the current zodiac sign (unfortunately it was destroyed in the 18th century) Function was a hugely popular pilgrimage site the dimensions of the church were constructed in order to facilitate the easy flow of large numbers of people aisles surrounding the nave and behind the altar meant that people could walk all the way around the church, see the relic, and exit, without ever having to walk in front of the altar people in the Middle Ages embarked on pilgrimages in order to gain health, divine goodwill, or to ensure their place in heaven during the afterlife many components, such as the guardian jamb-figures and the stories told in the stained glass, were constructed to aid in the pilgrims' journey; the jamb figures reminded the pilgrims of the ever-present merciful (yet nonetheless judging) eyes of God and the angels, and the stories in the stained glass were didactic, telling scenes from the Old and New Testament--helpful, for many at the time were illiterate Chartres was a breakthrough for Gothic architecture because it was the first cathedral in which the flying buttresses determined the overall exterior aesthetic plan of the building--previously, architects attempted to conceal or camouflage the flying buttresses into the larger walls of the cathedrals, by the flying buttresses of Chartres had to be so extensive in order to support the extraordinarily tall nave that this just wasn't an option

alazzo Rucellai, Leon Battista Alberti, Florence Italy

Context: Constructed as part of the "building boom" after the Medici family built their own palace At the time, palaces were viewed as if they were created for the city's good and thus, brought Florence much civic pride. The Palazzo was never actually finished -- only 3/4ths of the original plan was constructed Partly based on the Medici Palace (and it's three facade design) The Medici Palace was much heavier though and more fortress-esque Form: Created in an effort to emphasize measure & harmony Filled with "geometric grace" -- intellectual & delicate All about horizontality The higher the floor = the more intricate & fancy it became (+ smaller stones were used as you moved up) The building has four floors: 4th floor: the servant quarters (it was designed to be hidden) 3rd floor: the family's apartment 2nd floor: the guest rooms and area 1st floor: the Rucellai family's center of business Content: Includes the Rucellai family seal (a diamond ring with three feathers coming out of it) several times Nearly every piece of the Palazzo's design is pulled from ancient Greek & Roman architectural ideals Pilasters Capitols Corinthian Ionic Tuscan Rounded Arches Entablature with friezes (this was different than the Medici's Palace which only had a string course with dentils) Included several features for design rather than actual support 1st Floor = grounds the building HEAVY Surrounded by benches Has: Cross-hatching Large blocks of stone Post-&-Lintel portals Rectangular windows All straight lines + The Loggia Caddy-cornered to the Palazzo Rucellai A large open space, with rounded arches, corinthian capitals, collonades, pilasters = VERY much based on the ancient Greek & Roman traditions Represents the joining of the Medici & Rucellai families Could have been created to be used as a "wedding" building (Now a shoe store!) Function: Most basically, the Palazzo Rucellai was created to house the Rucellai family (duh) In reality, it was a created as a physical representation of the family's wealth, status, power, and importance. Vocabulary: Pilaster = a shallow rectangular column that projects slightly beyond the wall into which it is built and conforms precisely to the order or style of the adjacent columns Entablature = a horizontal part in classical architecture that rests on the columns and consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice Trabeated = designed or constructed with horizontal beams or lintels

Pazzi Chapel, Filipo Brunellschi

Context: Commissioned by the Pazzi family Part of the Basilica di Santa Croce Almost a centrally-planned space (it does have some barrel vaulted halls/aisles on both sides so it's a little rectangular) reminisent of the Pantheon's floorplan Based on the models of ancient Roman temples = a revival of Greek & Roman ideals a piece that's representative of the Early Renaissance Form: Makes use of Pietra Serena Stone -- used to create spacial divisions A space with perfect geometry shapes all over (look at the floorplan and you'll be able to see this very clearly!) Content: Corinthian columns Fluted pilasters Pendentives with roundels each roundel is made of clay and is glazed (glazing had just been discovered!) and represents the four Evangelists Small barrel vaults A dome with a halo of windows (Hagio Sophia vibes!) and an oculus (Pantheon vibes!) dominates the space-- the center of the chapel the windows + oculus allow for divine light to enter the space The space feels very constructed, ordered, designed, and rational. Function: Created to be a "chapter house" = a meeting place for monks this is why a bench lines the wall Also... a burial site for Pazzi family members a physical representation of the Pazzi family's power, wealth, piety, generosity, and status

Bayeux Tapestry Romanesque Europe. c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen The Bayeux Tapestry has been much used as a source for illustrations of daily life in early medieval Europe. It depicts a total of 1515 different objects, animals and persons . Dress, arms, ships, towers, cities, halls, churches, horse trappings, regal insignia, ploughs, harrows, tableware, possible armorial changes, banners, hunting horns, axes, adzes, barrels, carts, wagons, reliquaries, biers, spits and spades are among the many items depicted

Context: Shows the Battle of Hastings in 1066 but begins with events leading up to it!! Shows the of England between William, the Duke of Normandy, and Harold, the Earl of Wessex that occurred in 1066 in the end, William the Conquerer, or the Duke of Normandy won and became the first Norman king of England textile is missing its end which most likely showed William as king Bayeux Tapestry created in Canterbury 1070 made within a generation of the war -- important because first that was made this close to the actual event believe the patron was Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, William's half-brother tapestry shows Normans nicely in the events Odo appears in many scenes with the inscription ODO EPISCOPUS (EPS) scenes believed been adapted from images in manuscripts illuminated at Canterbury Function: to commemorate the win of the Normans (original) to give a (semi) accurate depiction of the war (now) Form: not a true tapestry - not woven into the cloth imagery and inscriptions embroidered using wool yarn sewed onto linen cloth high quality of the needlework suggests that Anglo-Saxon embroiderers "A continuous narrative presents multiple scenes of a narrative within a single frame and draws from manuscript traditions such as the scroll form" "Eight colors can be made out from the tapestry; the five main colors are blue-green, terracotta, light-green, buff and grey-blue. There are also places where very dark blue, yellow and a dark green have been used. The color of skin has been left as the color of the linen." unrealistic figures 1 dimensional, flat, no depth or space perception but split into 3 sections (thin top and bottom and larger middle section) in an attempt to show depth/foreground and background top and bottom also function as boarders Content: 75 scenes w/ latin inscriptions = tituli first meal: we see dining practices examples of armor used battle preparations servants prepare food over a fire and bake bread in an outdoor oven Servants serve the food Bishop Odo, blesses the meal "chickens on skewers, a stew cooked over an open fire and food from an outdoor oven. William sits down to a feast with his nobles and Bishop Odo says grace. Servants load food onto shields to carry it to the banquet" cavalry: we see William's use of cavalry cavalry could advance quickly and easily retreat scattering an opponent's defenses allowing the infantry to invade mainly cavalry meaning that they were most common they wear conical steel helmets with a protective nose plate mail shirts carry shields and spears foot soldiers carrying spears and axes horses have no armor mortally wounded men and horses along tapestry's mid and bottom "air fills with arrows and lances, men lie dying. The English soldiers, who are all on foot, protect themselves with a wall of shields. The Normans attack from both sides. The lower border of the tapestry is filled with dead and injured soldiers"

Fruit and Insects Rachel Ruysch. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood This luscious sample of life on Earth represents at least two passions of its time: categorization and still-life, which emphasize the pleasure of the senses and their qualities

Current Location: Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy Form: Still-Life paintings Function: Painted for her Cosimo III = sign of friendship and common wealthy status Sold for double that Rembrandt's paintings sold for Painting for a widening merchant class Intricate and formulaic approach that dominated the late Renaissance Less complex but more realistic Context Renaissance art was at its peak--> artists began to challenge the societal norms (accepted artistic styles and elements of the time) Artists reinvented the way art was portrayed --> led to a new form of art Vibrant colors (red and green) Uncommon subjects 1648 = Netherlands became independent from Spain (economic prosperity) Flourishing international trade = newly affluent middle class Wealthy merchants created a new kind of patronage and art market = producing directly for buyers (rather than work commissioned by the church) Historical, mythological, or religious paintings were no longer desired = buyers wanted portraits, still-life, landscapes, and paintings of everyday life Artworks that would reflect their success Rachel Ruysch became known as one of the greatest floral painters of her time Rachel Ruysch Grew up in Amsterdam into a wealthy family of Dutch artists, architects, and scientists First successful female artist during the Baroque She specialized in still life (a theme of natural beauty in life) Art that reflected the time period (microscope was perfected) Her father, Frederik Ruysch, was a scientist (professor of anatomy and botany) who inspired the small details in her work He had a collection of rare natural historic specimens that led Rachel to help, catalogue, and record Led Rachel to her fascination with insects He encouraged her artists talents with careful observation of the natural world At 15 years old, began apprenticeship with famous painted Willem van Aelst (also specialized in still life) At 18 years old, she produced her first still life and established her career... At 29 years old, she married painter Juriaen Pool (had 10 children) Remarkably prolific = produced 250 paintings in 7 decades "Holland's art prodigy" "Our subtle art heroine" Scientific interest into categorizing Content: Possessed elegant skill and technique (element of sensitivity) She used bold and dynamic colors and textures Parallel to the growth of the Dutch industry and science of botany Flowers became newly appreciated simply for their beauty and fragrance Desirable status symbols for the wealthy However this work speaks to fruits and insects Season = Autumn Subject = fruits, vegetables, harvest, and insects Composite of the studies (combined into this composition) Grapes = blood of Christ Animals = naturalism Corn, Squash, Chestnuts Also Wheat = Eucharist (christian symbolic value) Attention to detail (particularly leaves and flowers) Less symmetrical and much more lively Curves (a sense of movement) Less formalized and orderly Possessed energy and creativity A sense of illusion and realism (the painting seem real) Story (a world of its own) Butterfly that is about to land but perhaps has second thought because their is a salamander or a small lizard

Mosque of Selim II Edrine, Turkey. Sinan (architect), 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone It is one of the most important buildings in the history of world architecture both for its design and its monumentality. It is considered to be the masterwork of the great Ottoman architect Sinan.

Date: Hegira 982/AD 1574 Architect: Koca Mimar Sinan Aga David Aga Period: Classical Ottoman Patron: Sultan Selim II (AH 974-82/AD 1568-75) Content: The mosque, with two madrasas on its southeast and southwest, is located within a courtyard (190 m x 130 m) Mosque: measures 190 x 130 meters two symmetrical square madrasas (served as a college for studying traditions of Muhammad) Square prayer hall: approached through porticoed courtyard Approach to north facade of mosque is overwhelming— aligned gates of outer precinct wall, focus eye towards dome which can be seen from a distance The ethereal dome: weightless and floating in prayer hall, architectural features are inferior to the grand dome The grand dome rests on eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches supported by eight large piers Muquarnas are faceted decorative forms, protrude and recess- they bridge a point of transition They allow the round base of the dome to join the octagon formed by the piers. Buttresses support the east and west piers— hold up the weight of the massive dome Buttresses are artfully hidden among exterior porticos and galleries (those that fill the spaces in between walls and piers) The Qibla: wall that faces Mecca, projects outward emphasizing openness of interior space Muzzin's platform (leader of prayers to chant congregation): placement under the center of the dome is not traditional— reflects Sinan's interest in surpassing Christian architecture— position of platform also creates a vertical alignment of octagon, square, circle Interior decoration: repainted, polychrome, Iznik tiles, Ottoman decoration, motifs iconography saz leaves and Chinese clouds Muquarnas: ornamented vaulting, geometric subdivision of a squinch. Squinches: Construction filling in upper angles of a square room, to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome. Pier: upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch, sections of structural walls between openings can function as piers. Additions: Shops (arasta) and recitation school to the west of courtyard— added by David Aga Summarized Information: Thin soaring minarets Abundant window space for well lit interior Decorative display of mosaic and tile work Centrally planned building Open airy interior contrasts with conventional mosques Includes a hospital, school, library Sinan was chief court architect for Suleyman the Magnificent Transitions from square ground plan to round dome achieved by inserting smaller domes in corners Huge piers support the dome Context: Completed in Edirne, rather than capital Istanbul Edirne was where Selim was stationed as a prince when his father campaigned in Persia in 1548 Edirne located in the Balkans, had historical and geographical significant for its history as a capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul and was the second city of the Empire Edirne was first major city that traveling Europeans would pass in the Ottoman Empire. Selim built this mosque there to exemplify Ottoman Empire's greatness. Mosque also was able to dominate the domestic landscape of Edirne, making it the defining place of the city. Son of Suleyman the Magnificent Form: Stone, brick, marble Function: An example of Ottoman Empire's wealth and greatness, along with its power and vastness (along a popular tourist passing through place, showed tourists of its dominance) Mosque— displays differences between Islam and Christianity The mosque represents Islam's triumph. It also was an attempt to surpass the Hagia Sophia and the Byzantine Basilica in Istanbul.

Henri IV Receives the Portrait of of Marie de'Medici, from the Marie de'Medici Cycle, Peter Paul Rubens, 1622-1625 Oil on Canvas

FORM Oil on canvas 394 x 295 cm. Marie and cherub are the only 2 looking out at the viewer: establishes the central authority and future importance of Marie and her progeny for France. Strong vertical axis running through the work from Juno/Hera (top) through Marie de'Medici shows the maternal, fertile connection between ideal wives and mothers, as Rubens depicted it. CONTEXT: RUBENS' STYLE His greatest inspiration was Titian, from the Venetian Renaissance. Enjoyed painting the body in dramatic or contorted positions (as seen in Henry IV's posture) How Rubens depicted historical figures: In the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome With intense realism and occasional eroticism He was interested in painting wild animals and exotic prints Known for painting a uniquely wide range of subjects, including portraits, landscapes, religious and historical works, and hunting scenes. Popular for the rich Baroque style he created in his portraits; which favorably depicted his patron. Rubens' landscapes later had a large influence on the Romantic style; after he married, he gained a closer relationship to nature. He wanted viewers to ponder his works' emotional aspects His inclusion of iconography in his portraits of female patrons was meant to give them equal status with the males he depicted. All of his male portraits depicted males engaging in intense, even aggressive, physical action. His typical full-figured female portraits showed women as sensual, soft, beautiful, and desirable; Marie de'Medici's cycle was an anomale but Rubens was no stranger to depicting figures (usually male) as powerful and accomplished. Well-known for his nudes of biblical and mythological women. Uses layered allegory and symbolism in his portraits CONTENT Winged Gods of Marriage (Hymen, left) and of Love (Amor/Cupid, right) present a portrait of Marie de'Medici to the enamored King Henry IV of Navarre. Hymen holds a flaming torch in his left hand: symbolizes the passion of love Cupid gestures at Marie de'Medici and praises her beauty/worth Smitten Henry IV looks on in sheer adoration and delight Jupiter and Juno (or Zeus and Hera) look down from above in approval They are a blissful, satisfied couple: their hands touch lovingly and they lean towards one another Flanked by their animal symbols: Eagle with a Thunderbolt (Jupiter) & Peacock (Juno) Even the King of all Gods succumbs to love; Henry IV should do so as well Personification of France stands behind Henry, encouraging him to marry for political reasons She looks on approvingly at his adoration of Marie Lady France wears a plumed helmet, blue robe with an embroidered fleur-de-lys Lady France whispers in King Henry's ear Tells him to ignore his battles and marry Marie as a smart political move Domestic matters are equally as important as military ones to preserving the monarchy Henry obliges; his helmet and sword are being toyed with by 2 cherubs in the foreground (putti) The remains of Henry's battle -- a burning town -- are in the right background CONTEXT King and Queen's faces, all hands, and several details in the cycle were painted by Rubens; the rest he designed, but had members of his workshop paint for him in his style. 6th painting in a series of 24 works on the life of Marie de'Medici, the orphaned daughter of the Duke of Tuscany. King Henry (her husband) was assassinated in 1610, so Marie served as Regent to her son, Louis XIII, for 7 years. Divisions in the French court and her disrepute among nobles led Marie to be exiled in 1617. The 24-painting biographical series in 1622 marked a restored relationship with her son Louis XIII and marked her return to Paris. Marie commissioned the series in 1622 to decorate 1 of the 2 galleries in the Tuileries Palace. Series is unique and unprecedented Focuses on the life and accomplishments of a Queen Includes recent, embarrassing moments from Marie's life Very intimate Marie carefully manipulated and controlled the images Rubens produced Art used as propaganda; over-idealizes her actual life and accomplishments For example, her marriage to Henry IV was riddled with infidelities, and the King didn't even show up to the wedding ceremony... Makes her life seem peaceful and prosperous Presentation of the Portrait is an idealized depiction of the agreement in April 1600 of marriage negotiations between Florence and Henry IV. A union overseen by the Gods, driven by Marie's beauty and virtue. Henry IV recognized the political and financial advantage of marrying a Medici. Henry was "pleased exceedingly" when shown the portrait of Marie Religious reasons Henry IV was under attack by French Catholics for being Protestant; marrying the Catholic Marie de'Medici absolved this tension. Financial Reasons Henry IV had a large debt to the Medicis (they funded his military campaigns) Marie's dowry lessened his debt Henry IV was also nearing 50 years, and needed to produce an heir. Marie had their 1st son one year after their wedding, then 5 more kids (4 survived to adulthood) Marie arranged successful marriages for her children Louis XIII married daughter of the Spanish king Daughter Elisabeth married the future King Philip IV, heir to the throne of Spain Daughter Henrietta married King Charles of England The cycle was installed in Luxembourg Palace in 1625, in time for Henrietta's wedding festivities Marie could show off her life accomplishments to the many dignified guests Marie died in exile in 1631; her truce with her son Louis XIII was short-lived. FUNCTION To serve as propaganda, glorifying and justifying the life and accomplishments of Marie de'Medici, Queen and Regent of France To depict Marie de'Medici's life in 24 defining paintings To compare Marie de'Medici's right to rule, wisdom, and beauty to the ancient mythological gods (ideals at the time of the Baroque era) To establish Marie's power and her lasting legacy in France. The Presentation of the Portrait To depict Marie and Henry IV's marriage as divinely sanctioned, politically and financially intelligent, and an act of love and adoration. It's questionable whether or not all of the grandeur was realistic or appropriate, but Marie certainly articulated an idealized, harmonious image of herself and her life's events-- despite the fact they weren't as glamorous as Rubens was asked to make them seem.

Las Meninas Diego Velázquez. c. 1656 C.E. Oil on canvas The painting represents a scene from daily life in the palace of Felipe IV. The points of light illuminate the characters and establish an order in the composition. The light that illuminates the room from the right hand side of the painting focuses the viewer´s look on the main group, and the open door at the back, with the person positioned against the light, is the vanishing point.

FORM: -1656 -Oil on canvas -125 1/4 x 108 5/8 in. (318 x 276 cm) - Located currently in Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid -Used to be housed in the royal palace(Royal Alcazar of Madrid), the king's study -Extremely large painting, and inside the painting we can see a very large painting of the same size of the painting itself, being painted -Uses very loose brushstrokes, but still comes together compositionally to create a clear, detailed, realistic image that also has a sense of life -Utilizes scientific, but also aerial perspective - Multiplication of the light sources FUNCTION: - Velazquez gives us informal glimpse, something we, as commoners could never see -Made for the King and Queen to privately view -at a most basic level it demonstrates the art of painting by showing an artist at work, trying to give idea that artists were intellectuals -The characters stare beyond the frame, at us -a self portrait that shows status, he is seen in the same room with the royals, holds a paintbrush because his ability to render these figures gives him his on power, this interp. fits with his obsession at the end of his life to become a gentleman, wanted to be a knight a the order of Santiago CONTENT: -Paintings of Ovid's The Metamorphisis that hang in the background, both stories of gods wrestling with mortals, very applicable to the themes of Las Meninas -These paintings on the were done by Rubens who was his hero, and their choice in the painting is a reference to his own title of art installer -Utilizes Illusions of space, depth and perspective -Surface of his canvas is hidden to us, could be a portrait of the little princess, could be a portrait of the King and Queen, who are seen reflected in the mirror -The people in the center are the princess, maids of honor,palace official, chaperone, dog, dwarf (often hired to keep children company), and other attendants -The figures in the painting look at us in a very real way, the glances tell a story -The painting is set in his studio -he paints a pallet which is very mind-blowing because it is shown housing raw paint, the very stuff Velasquez actually created this work with - He was inducted into the Catholic organization the Order of Santiago posthumously by the king, so in the painting, after he died the insignia of the group was painted onto his figure, it is even rumored that the king painted it on himself -groups of two's all male/female pairs highlighting the princess, also use of groups of three on same horizontal plane CONTEXT: -To fight the unattractive qualities from the royal family's inbreeding he compensated by painting them in elaborate clothes, demonstrating wealth and distracting from flaws - Velazquez was the court artist, "the first painter to the king" he was responsible for art instillation in the palace, and he also was commissioned to do several portraits of the royal family -Not a typical portrait, which demonstrated ethereal perfection, wealth, and command, this scene is more chaotic/informal, making commentary on the false nature of portraiture of royalty -Combines genre scene with royal portrait - Specific names of figures: King Philip IV of Spain, princess- the Infanta Margaret Theresa, attendants-María Agustina Sarmiento de Sotomayor, doña Isabel de Velasco, dwarves- Maria Barbola and Nicolas Pertusato RE-INVENTION: -The image is a classic work of art that holds a bit of mystery in its purpose -Many artists, such as Picasso, Dali, and Botero painted the scene re-imagines, or painted the princess -It is important to recognize all of these artist were Latin in origin, and were culturally connected to Velázquez

The Palace of Versailles Versailles, France. Loius Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architects). Begun 1669 C.E. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens The gigantic scale of Versailles exemplifies the architectural theme of 'creation by division' - a series of simple repetitions rhythmically marked off by the repetition of the large windows - which expresses the fundamental values of Baroque art and in which the focal point of the interior, as well as of the entire building, is the king's bed. Among its celebrated architectural designs is the Hall of Mirrors, which is one of the most famous rooms in the world. The palace and its decoration stimulated a mini-renaissance of interior design, as well as decorative art, during the 17th and 18th centuries.

FUNCTION To emphasize and demonstrate Louis XIV's Importance To host parties and military agreements To compare Louis XIV's competence and wisdom with that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, especially Apollo, the Sun God. Residential palace for Louis XIV and successive French monarchs, from 1682-1789 (Revolution began) Demonstrated the shift in the French government's power from the Noble families (aristocracy) to the King, Louis XIV To embody and define the French Baroque style, and establish Louis XIV's dominance over the arts and architecture of the 1600s. To symbolize the power and prestige of Absolute Monarchy. 2. CONTEXT Begun in 1661, completed ~1682 Louis XIV's Staff Louis le Vau: chief architect to the King Built the Grand Façade and the King and Queen's apartments Built the park's Orangerie and Menagerie Adopted the Italian-style 'invisible' roof hidden by a trophy-adorned balustrade Balustrade: a railing supported by ornamental parapets André le Nôtre: landscape designer of the gardens Charles le Brun: interior decorator and painter Jules Hardouin Mansart: favorite architect (toward the latter parts of the construction process) Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Principal advisor to the King Collaborated with Louis XIV to organize art and architecture to serve the French state. Hyacinthe Rigaud: Painter to the French King Pierre Puget: Sculptor; his works are in the King's Gardens Portraiture Often portraits of Louis XIV, the Sun King, were collaborations by artists with specializations in fabric, architecture, landscape, armor, or fur. Most famous portrait is by Hyacinthe Rigaud, called "Louis XIV," done with Oil on Canvas in 1701. Larger than life portrait Now hangs in the Louvre Shows Louis XIV in his finest robes and heels (he was only 5'4"!) Rigaud's portrait hung over his throne, and served in his place when he was absent; courtiers never turned their back to the portrait. Louis XIV Himself -- and his Plots to Control French Culture Louis XIV was most prominent patron of the arts in the 1600s France in 1600s was the largest, most powerful European nation, despite its semi-expansive economy. Louis XIV was a master of propaganda and political strategies He and Jean-Baptiste Colbert recognized the power of visual imagery and architecture in creating public personas. Louis XIV and Colbert tried to normalize artistic taste and define the dominance of the Classical Style How Louis XIV exercised his control Kept the Nobility's power in check, invited them to festivities at Versailles to remind them of his power Gave them benefits, but didn't let them rebel Stated his Divine Right to rule Named himself "le Roi Soleil," the Sun King (Like Sun God Apollo) Louis XIV converted a royal hunting lodge into the palace of Versailles Just south of Paris Louis XIV hired architects, decorators, sculptors, painters, landscapers under Charles le Brun's control 3. CONTENT Satellite city to the East of the Palace at Versailles Housed court and government officials, military and guard detachments, courtiers, servants City's 3 main avenues' axes converged on Louis XIV's bedchamber He could keep an eye on all the highest-ranking officials in his regime King's bedroom was an informal audience chamber Extremely detailed, ornate interior Top architects and decorators designed wall paintings, beds, doorknobs in French Baroque style Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces) Originally had furniture: gold and silver chairs, bedazzled trees Walls inlaid with mirrors Mirrors create illusion, the hallmark of the Baroque style Used for Louis XIV's many festivals Gardens Visible from Hall of Mirrors: central axis lined with trees, terraces, pools, and lakes Designed by André le Nôtre, who transformed a forest into the park/gardens Formal gardens serve as a transition from the ordered, man-made palace to the natural gardens Manicured shrubs, highly designed space Changes depending on time of day, season, and location: it's an experience Great undertaking, both in size and complexity 4. FORM Stone, marble, glass, gold, silver, wood, gardens 700 rooms 2153 windows 67,000 m^2 of floor space 2000 acres of gardens

Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover). Late medieval Spain. c. 1320 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum).

Form - Illuminated manuscript - Gold lead of vellum - Each image has a golden background - Resembles Christian gothic o Long flowing bodies o Small architectural details - Painted in the Barcelona area of Spain - 56 miniatures using gold leaf background Function - Depict the story of Passover to be read at seder - Used mostly at home - Show the wealth of its owner - Stands as a testament to the impact and signifigance of jewish culture in medieval spain o The rich multicultural atmosphere that produced such a magnificent manuscript Content - Haggadah = narration - The story of Passover o Miraculous salvation from slavery o Told at seder Context - Late Romanesque / Gothic Period o Christianity and how Christianity facilitates power is the emphasis now o Art was often didactic - Jewish Art o Jewish people often patroned work as the Christians and Muslims during this time o Jewish patrons would often use Christain painters to decorate important sacrad books - It was forbidden to create images at this time o Skeptical of who made is, thought to might have been a Christain o It was justified by being didactic

The Arnolfini Portrait Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 C.E. Oil on wood Van Eyck used oil-based paint as the medium for his artwork. This type of paint is manufactured by adding pigment to linseed or walnut oil. Oil based paint dries slowly allowing the painter more time to make revisions and to add detail, and it has a luminous quality that allows the artist. Van Eyck was not the inventor of oil-based paint, but he is recognized as being one of the first to perfect its use

Form Jan van Eyck 1434 Oil paint on oak panel 82.2 cm x 60 cm (32.4 in x 23.6 in) Function Art historians differ in their interpretations of the function of this painting Documentation of a wedding (why it's sometimes called "The Arnolfini Wedding Portrait") Evidence of a sacred event taking place their shoes have been removed hands joined together man raises one hand as if swearing an oath one candle in the chandelier is a symbol of God's presence dog is a symbol of fidelity serves to bless the marriage with this symbolism significant amount of religious imagery candle in chandelier (God's presence) prayer beads on the wall, next to the mirror roundels on the mirror show biblical scenes Significance of Van Eyck's signature "Jan van Eyck was here" makes it seem like he was acting as a witness, rather than just signing a work of art in the mirror's reflection of the room, there are several figures standing in the doorway, looking in on the scene of man and wife these figures could be witnesses to the wedding ceremony This was the leading interpretation of the Arnolfini portrait for a while, but now art historians generally agree that this is likely NOT a wedding portrait Double portrait of an already married couple Showing off their wealth Arnolfini was a wealthy merchant from Bruges, a "thriving economic town in the early 15th century" high fashion wearing furs, heavy clothing, despite warm weather wife is wearing gathered skirt to make her appear pregnant she is not actually pregnant, this was the style during this time oranges had to be imported expensive receiving guests in their lavish bedroom bedrooms were where people received guests, rather than living rooms they are welcoming the guests shown in the mirror reflection husband's hand may be raised in greeting rather than oath/prayer carpet sign of wealth and taste Showing off their piety, status as good christians prayer beads roundels around mirror shoes removed Content Portrait of a husband and wife Possibly Giovanni Arnolfini (?) art historians are not positive which Arnolfini this is but definitely a wealthy merchant who worked in Bruges prosperous economic town in the 15th century surrounded by token symbols of their life that give evidence of what may be happening (see various interpretations in "Function" section) dog oranges removed shoes prayer beads biblical imagery in the decorative roundels surrounding the mirror lavish drapery, carpets, clothing light streaming in from window shows Van Eyck's mastery of light and shadow, soft texture Context The Northern Renaissance Both Northern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance are concerned with realism, but in different ways Northern lacks perspective and obsession with human anatomy, but boasts greater attention to minute detail and softer gradations of color and light because of GLAZING layer upon layer of translucent oil paint creates softer colors, more realistic because translucent and smooth blending and gradations the Italian painters still used tempera and fresco The size of the detailed roundels (half a fingernail!) shows mastery of fine detail in even the smallest of scenes The dog's hair and the texture of the wife's gown/coat/cape are also great examples of this fine detail and texture

Great Mosque at Cordoba, Islamic, Spain

Form Mosque - place of Islamic worship ~ 620x460 feet Function To demonstrate the presence & permanence of the transplanted Umayyads in Cordoba built this mosque in cordoba on the site of a christian church [built by the visigoths] This appropriation of a christian site made a statement about the existence of Islam in the region & the power of the new rulers Place of worship Followers pray towards the mihrab (which faces mecca) Represents a fusion of cultures & religions Exemplifies Islamic design of tesserae & variety of color on mosaics Content Comprised of... large hypostyle prayer hall hypostyle = filled w/ columns "full of seemingly endless rows of identical [two-tiered] columns and [double-flying] arches made from alternating red and white voussoirs" (Gateways, 148) voussoirs = "stone wedges that make up the arch" Interior space seems magnified by its repeated geometry Sense of awe & monumentality mihrab The wall that indicates the direction of Mecca for Muslims' daily prayer time Mecca = birthplace of islam (in modern-day saudi arabia) Golden tesserae form bands of calligraphy Focal point in the prayer hall Famous horseshoe arched prayer niche Particularly in this mosque Framed by an exquisitely decorated arch >> the famous horseshoe arch Common in the architecture of the visigoths Visigoths = the people that ruled this area after the roman empire collapsed & before the umayyads arrived An easily identified characteristic of western islamic architecture Ribbed dome Above the mihrab / central bay A metaphor for the celestial canopy Intricate composition of criss-crossing arches demonstrates the mathematical & architectural accomplishments of the Islamic civilization ^also exemplifies the use of geometry as a source of artistic inspiration all lavishly covered with gold mosaic in a radial pattern Anticipates later gothic rib vaulting (though on a more modest scale) a courtyard with a fountain in the middle an orange grove a covered walkway circling the courtyard a minaret (now encased in a square, tapered bell tower) minaret = tower used to call the faithful to prayer Minbar Used to stand by the mihrab as the place for the prayer leader & a symbol of authority Repeating elements (columns, arches, voussoirs) - establishes a steady rhythm within the structure This structural repetition suggests the same kind of repetition in prayer (as seen in Muslim worship: recitation of the Shahada [one's profession of faith] five times per day) Repetition - alludes to the "permanence of [the] architecture" as it is "combined with the timelessness of prayer" (148) Mosaics, inscriptions from the Quran, and brilliant colors line interior Intricate patterns/designs formed by the tesserae (tiles within a mosaic) Context Demonstration of multi-cultural influence on their art Ancient roman columns in hypostyle prayer hall were recycled from the original christian church on site Interior uses spolia Reused columns of slightly varying heights Horseshoe arches of the roman & visigoth architectural style Came to be characteristic of islamic architecture The building was expanded over 200 years (even after becoming a mosque) Began as a roman temple Temple was converted to a church by visigoths - who seized cordoba in 572 CE Umayyad conquerors converted church to a mosque Completely rebuilt by the descendants of the exiled Umayyads Umayyads First Islamic dynasty who had originally ruled from their capital, Damascus (in present-day syria), from 661 to 750 7th & 8th centuries ^^period of vastly increasing wealth Rulers built mosques & palaces through the islamic empire to demonstrate dynasty authority & the increasing power of the islamic faith Yet this economic prosperity resulted in significant financial corruption among caliphs Provincial rulers fled the control of tyrannical caliphs to establish independent dynasties Post the overthrow of his family (the Umayyads) in Damascus by incoming Abbasids, Prince Abd al-Rahman I escaped to southern Spain Established himself as Emir there (w/ the support of muslim settlers) and centered his emirate in Cordoba Attempted to recreate the grandeur of Damascus in Cordoba He sponsored building programs, promoted agriculture, imported fruit trees / other plants from damascus ^^orange trees still stand in the courtyard of the mosque in Cordoba Site was practical & symbolic Place that affirmed Muslim presence Cordoba Both a major commercial & intellectual center for the arts, literature, science, & philosophy Fostered a diverse & thriving urban culture Islamic civilization appreciation for different cultures & worked to preserve/absorb preceding cultures Caliphates had classical Latin works translated into arabic gained mathematical knowledge from india Learned of the invention of paper from china ^^this willingness to incorporate other cultures extended into their art & is exemplified in this mosque One of the oldest structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled Al-Andalus in the late 8th century Al-Andalus = Muslim Iberia (includes most of spain, portugal, small section of southern france) The great mosque at córdoba (overview) Very simple plan; hypostyle hall Less of a sense of monumentality (in comparison to the great mosque of damascus) Double arches to raise the ceiling Mixing roman and byzantine mosaic work - striking juxtaposition of old and new A center for scholars all over the islamic world "Prime example of the muslim world's ability to brilliantly develop architectural styles based on pre-existing regional traditions" (Khan Academy, The Great Mosque of Cordoba) "An extraordinary combination of the familiar & the innovative" (Khan Academy, The Great Mosque of Cordoba)

Pyxis of al-Mughira Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory The Pyxis of al-Mughira, now in the Louvre, is among the best surviving examples of the royal ivory carving tradition in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). It was probably fashioned in the Madinat al-Zahra workshops and its intricate and exceptional carving set it apart from many other examples; it also contains an inscription and figurative work which are important for understanding the traditions of ivory carving and Islamic art in Al-Andalus.

Form Function Content Context Barons CC Connection Made by artists of the Madinat al-Zahra workshops during the Umayyad dynasty c. 968 The material is carved ivory with traces of jade Was likely made in Umayyad-ruled Spain The Pyxis is 16cm tall and 11cm wide, and made of carved ivory from an elephant tusk There is inlaid jade and several other precisions stones Ivory was durable, smooth, elegant, and easily carved This made it highly desirable for the creation of pyxides (the plural of pyxis) Highly portable, they were often given as gifts. In Al-Andalus, ivory objects, including Pyxides, were bestowed upon members of the royal family Specifically sons, wives and daughters on important or memorable occasions, such as a marriage, birth or coming of age Later they were given as Caliphal gifts to important allies, such as the Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of North Africa, many of whom converted to Islam and swore their allegiance to the Umayyad Caliphs in Spain. The practical function was to carry perfumes and other cosmetics The pyxis is decorated with four eight-lobed medallions These medallions are surrounded by figures and animals, including falconers, wrestlers, griffons, peacocks, birds, goats and animals to be hunted Each medallion has princely iconography Although Islamic art is commonly viewed as an-iconic, human and animal figures play an important role in iconography A Pyxis is a cylindrical contained for holding cosmetics This was a coming of age gift for al Mughira, the 18-year-old daughter of the caliph of the Umayyad dynasty Best surviving example of the tradition of carved ivory in Islamic Spain Spain was home to some of the most impressive Islamic art and architecture Ivory was part of the mediterranean art tradition, so this work is an example of local artistic tradition blended with Islamic themes This comes from the royal workshop of Madinat al-Zahra, which was one of the wealthiest cities in Umayyad-ruled Spain The work is currently located in the Louvre The Palette of King Narmer (no. 13) The Grave Stele of Hegeso (no. 36) The Relief sculpture from Chavín (no. 153)

Il Gesù, including Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco. Rome, Italy. Giacomo da Vignola, plan (architect); Giacomo della Porta, facade (architect); Giovanni Battista Gaulli, ceiling fresco (artist). Church: 16th century C.E.; facade: 1568-1584 C.E.; fresco and stucco figures: 1676-1679 C.E. Brick, marble, fresco, and stucco. (3 images)

Form: A Gesú, which is simply Italian for the name for the mother church Church was designed by Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo Della Porta in 1575 Triumph of the Name of Jesus is a fresco painted in the traditional style Ceiling fresco done in 1678-1679 by Giovanni Battista Gaulli Function: Serves as the main and original church for the Jesuits Important place for previous and current Jesuits, as it is the mother church Also served as a model for the future Jesuit churches in terms of architecture and style Ceiling fresco serves to illustrate the beliefs of the Jesuits Called the people to their faith and scared them into not believing A strong emphasis to choose this path and not leave or refuse it Content: Single aisled church, removing others as a space for traffic to clear it up Church has a cruciform floor plan, although the transept is not overly long on either side so it does not bear exactly like a cross in terms of proportions The church has a dome over the intersection of the large nave and transept Very dark interior, and it is thus chiefly dependent on natural lighting from outside An interesting mix of the rational and Baroque styles Focus on the altar in the center Renaissance style columns Corinthian, ornate, and made of rich materials Some of them reuse ancient pieces The reusing of ancient materials is called "spolia" Context: Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the newfound Jesuit religion, needed a church to serve as the religion's center The Jesuit religion was a very dramatic response to the recent reformation They were very against the reformation and focused their teachings on charitable works, education, and missionaries Very tense moment in terms of religion, as the reformation was almost 100 years prior and there were many religious wars going on It was then funded by Cardinal Farnese, who was the Pope's grandson Church is in the center of old Rome Very close to the Pantheon and Roman Forum Themes: Religion, spirituality, beliefs and values War and social conflict Power and authority Social concerns/issues God/religion Cross-Cultural Connections: Comparable to Bernini's Apse at Saint Peter's Basilica Similar in terms of interior size, shape, and style Comparable to Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel features an incredible ceiling fresco, which serves to illustrate famous religious stories and timelines in vivid detail and color Similarly to the Sistine Chapel, the Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco is a fresco painted on the ceiling of a church with the purpose of propagating the faith and captivating the followers

Last Supper Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 C.E. Oil and Tempera The Last Supper is remarkable because the disciples are all displaying very human, identifiable emotions. The Last Supper had certainly been painted before. Leonardo's version, though, was the first to depict real people acting like real people.

Form: Oil and tempura was an experimental combo Used lead white as a base instead of traditional wet plaster to achieve more brilliant colors but the paint never adhered to the wall and began immediately deteriorating Added a double layer of dried plaster to achieve greater detail Things that have contributed to its terrible condition: Location (side of a cafeteria building), materials, techniques used, humidity, dust, poor restoration efforts, bomb hit monastery in '43, destroying large section of the refectory, air pollution in postwar Milan, tourists and overcrowded viewing 42.5% of the surface is Leonardo's work, 17.5% is lost, and 40% is the additions restorers Perfect perspective is achieved at Christ's level using linear perspective This view is 15 feet in the air Strong sense of depth conveyed Vanishing point right behind Christ's head draws the viewer's eye to this central figure Christ's body forms an equilateral triangle Very unified composition (it is intentional, mathematical, and precise) Faces are individualized and figures are realistic with accurate proportions and light and shadow (chiaroscuro) Use sfumato technique (use of glazes in slightly different tones of color creating an almost imperceptible transition from light to dark) Great emotion, gesture, action (clamour and reaction of the figures), and interaction between figures Function: Monks would eat silently while looking at this painting. Used to teach and inspire contemplation about this pivotal moment in the religion Shows unity between the earthly, mortal world and the eternal and divine but also shows the chaos and flaws of humanity and greatness of the divine Content: The 12 apostles sit at a long table placed parallel to the picture plane in a simple, spacious room and react to Christ saying, "one of you will betray me" during seder at Passover (christ's mouth is still open) The apostles have highly emotional reactions In the center, JC appears isolated and composed while his apostles freak out around him, showing his divinity and ethereal nature. He is reaching for the bread and wine, the sacrament of communion Calm center with a window framing Christ's head draws attention to Christ with a realistic halo of the window and curved pediment (the only curve in the entire painting) Chaos surrounds him and all lines converge behind him- he is a divine center 4 groupings of figures create a clustered, chaotic sense to the scene Judas to the right of Christ has head down in shame and holds the bag of silver. He is reaching for the same bowl as Christ Peter is rushing to Jesus, pushing Judas back in need of knowing the betrayer, and he is holding a knife ready to defend Jesus foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. Peter was known as his protector John closes his eyes Simon, Thadeus, and Matthew to JC's far left demonstrate the force and extent of the impact of the news Thomas, to JC left points upward, questioning God Philip points to himself with a face of grief James spreads himself out to calm people down Through windows is a lush green landscape symbolizing heaven, which frames JC showing his divinity over all the others 3 windows, 4 groups of 3 apostles, Christ body forms a triangle = holy trinity and divinity Painted on the side of the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. Context: Da Vinci, born in Florence, was a painter, sculptor, engineer, architect, and scientist Trained with the prestigious Andrea del Verrocchio High renaissance (rebirth of classical ideal of beauty, use of shading, naturalism, and humanism) Centralized in Rome, art was commissioned by popes Missing halo distinguishers like early renaissance, but it is obviously the last supper because of da Vinci's complete mastery of skill Fascination with the body to show beauty of nature and convey the soul Narrative style of painting common where the body and emotion reflects the mind Da vinci had desire to depict humanity and convey individual emotions and reactions to represent their character and humanity Idealized geometry of Jesus is in line with the Renaissance's rediscovery of Neo-Platonism (humanist revival combining Greek philosophy with Christian theology) Plato believed that the mortal realm was imperfect, and the divine can be seen in heavenly, geometric perfection Da vinci practiced with live models, and therefore had a deep understanding of the observable world which is reflected in the highly individualized and proportionally correct apostles

The Venus of Urbino: Titian. c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: Oil on canvas Layered oil paints to depict the variety of lighting in the painting Lots of different rich colors to create a sense of contrast Completed in 1538 Function: The Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della Rovere wanted a gift for his new wife and therefore commissioned Titian to paint this The painting also reflected how a wife should be to the husband in a household as a sexual, respectful individual She also was depicted as a motherly figure for her future children This painting was made to be looked at by many people so Titian made the painting as beautiful as possible Content: A majority of the painting is taken up by a nude female who is known as a Venus She was named a Venus so that it would be more appropriate to paint her nude The woman has a direct gaze that meets the eyes of the viewer This draws people into the painting Makes someone want to focus on her and not the rest of the painting Background is equal in color with a darker backdrop on the left and a woman and a child lighter background on the right The body of the Venus is very different than a real body as the torso of Venus is very large while her feet are very small and unreal This Venus was a symbol of beauty during the time and that is why she is usually depicted nude The dog in the background represents fidelity while the child and maid represents motherhood Uses a wide variety of colors that really emphasizes the importance of colors and lighting The painting is very different in style as the lines as the Venus has curves and the rest of the painting is straight lines Incorporates the Roman time period by using a column and a window that is not using glass and shows that the artist is trying to revert to a style of art that emphasized human beauty The small tree in the background that looks perfect and ready to grow to represent the future of the marriage Since the painting has the woman titled Venus it makes the viewer feel more comfortable seeing a nude depiction of a woman Context: This is an example of perfect Venetian art: The movement of art in Venice was shown with its deep rich colors and use of shadows and use of lights Glazing techniques were used to create subtle changes in gradient and level Lots of different colors were available in Venice due to the amount of trade so lots of paintings could be made with a variety of colors This took place during the 15th century to the end of the 16th century Venice during this time period was a stable republican government that allowed lots of trade and had the ability to invest in artists Venice was able to invest in the artwork because of the trading style of the city which generated wealth for the city This work was created during the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) this work was based off of Giogrione's image of a female nude which was an unfinished canvas, beginning the tradition of the female nude Since then this tradition has persisted throughout history

Woman Holding a Balance. Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Form: pinky is the vanishing point center of the painting is the center of the balance compositional control in the way that color is handled gold from curtain on the inner painting frame and the pearls and dress soft swirled painting style common in baroque generally muted colors save his favorite blue and gold Baroque: - "Baroque art is characterized by great drama, rich color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque artists chose the most dramatic point, the moment when the action was occurring. 's baroque David is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance." - Vermeer uses: - light - shadows - vibrant colors - emotion thought - diagonals - attention to details Function wealth and piety / spirituality need a balance between those two world possessions in front christ behind idea of weighing ... judging mirror sign of vanity so maybe relating to the worldly possession idea ignoring the painting and focusing on what is in front of her but also sign of self knowledge and truth - To show what people in 17th C Holland were like - maybe they were straying from religion? Content: scene of everyday life BUT lots of symbolism woman is dressed in fine clothing she's part of the upper MERCHANT class in Holland during the 17th C this class was increasingly buying more art "the scale and subject of which is very much like this painting" typical cap made of linen worn by women at home fur trimmed jacket meaning it's cold out / in stands in front of table on the wall opposite her is a window LETTING LIGHT IN !!! golden curtains also a mirror right hand has a very fine balance nothing on the balance as if she is waiting for the balance to come to a rest on the table in front of her there are a number of boxes one is open and is thought to have held the balance and weights in the other box are strings of pearls coins also which are an indication of material wealth maybe she's going to weigh valuables? Behind her, there is a painting christ "in a brilliant mandola towards the top" functioning as a judge over souls souls at bottom one on the right are blessed and left are damned LAST JUDGMENT strong indication that this painting is about more than just a woman weighing her valuables her head divides the blessed from the damned Light also plays a huge part in this her front is illuminated = the side of the blessed her back is dark = damned the light also creates motion, brings to life this idea that she is waiting for the balance to become still aka the idea of time and change very real and natural at the same time bc this is a snap shot so it is frozen and quiet She is not pregnant "He observes that Dutch fashions of the mid-17th century seemed to have "encouraged a bulky silhouette. The impression of the short jacket worn over a thickly padded skirt in Vermeer's painting in particular may create just such an impression." interior scene = intimate Context: "The origins of this work has been traditionally linked to Pieter de Hooch, whose Gold Weigher matches Vermeer's work very closely. Since neither of the paintings is dated, critics have hypothesized who influenced who on the basis of style." "Owing to the intimate nature of Vermeer's art, there has been an inclination to link the painter's family members to the figures of his paintings" in this case his wife little is known about his childhood "Vermeer was required to undergo a fixed period of training with a master painter who belonged to the Guild of Saint Luke, the powerful trade organization which regulated the commerce of painters and artisans" reminder of the changes taking place in the 17C artists now painting for the merchant class as opposed to for the church 1664 was the year before the Second Anglo-Dutch War much of the lead up to the war happened in 1664 "Dutch ships were obligated by the new treaty to salute the English flag first. In 1664, English ships began to provoke the Dutch by not saluting in return. Though ordered by the Dutch government to continue saluting first, many Dutch commanders could not bear the insult. To provoke open conflict, James already in late 1663 had sent Robert Holmes, in service of the Royal African Company, to capture Dutch trading posts and colonies in West Africa. At the same time, the English invaded the Dutch colony of New Netherland in North America on 24 June 1664, and had control of it by October. The Dutch responded by sending a fleet under Michiel de Ruyter that recaptured their African trade posts, captured most English trade stations there and then crossed the Atlantic for a punitive expedition against the English in America. In December 1664, the English suddenly attacked the Dutch Smyrna fleet. Though the attack failed, the Dutch in January 1665 allowed their ships to open fire on English warships in the colonies when threatened. Charles used this as a pretext to declare war on the Netherlands on 4 March 1665."

Entombment of Christ. Jacopo da Pontormo. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood.

Form: ·Painted oil on wood · In a church to the right of the entrance, above the altar, in the Capponi Chapel in Florence o Right when you come in you are struck with this painting · Early mannerist style (see below) o This is important because the chapel is a cubical, very logical space, that is very much in the Renaissance style and there are Renaissance frescos right next to it that show in annunciation The Mannerist style: · Term used to describe the art that directly succeeded the Renaissance and preceded the baroque · Over-elaborate distortion and elongated figures · Imbalance o Very different than the perfection of the Renaissance · Response to the Protestant reformation Function: - Altar piece -Aestheticizes the well-known scene, the Deposition Content: · Mournful o The fresco beside it shows the beginning of Christ's live (annunciation) and this shows the ending · Just figures, not much land, packed with people o This is very mannerist and the completely opposite of the Renaissance · There is no depiction of a cross so we are not sure as to whether it is the deposition or the entombment · Unnatural body position of the figure in the left foreground · Abandons the high Renaissance pyramid balance · No place for our eye to rest · Constant movement · Figures have no weight to their body · Over exaggerated emotions o Not emotions of a person, rather symbols of emotions (like masks) Context: In the Capponi Chapel of Santa Felicita, Florence. Frescos clearly in early mannerist style, but chapel is a cubic space that was designed by Brunelleschi in early Renaissance style. Fresco to the right by Pontormo shows the Annunciation. Powerful juxtaposition; function almost as beginning and end of Christ's earthly existence. In pendentives, roundels showing 4 Evangelists. Mannerism=art of artifice, exaggeration, and emotion rather than Renaissance rationality. Highlighted rather than hid the contrived nature of art. Artifice manifested itself through imbalanced compositions, unusual complexity, ambiguous space, departures from convention, and innovative portrayals of traditional scenes. Historical developments contemporaneous to end of Renaissance, beginning of Mannerism: Florence is no longer a republic (Medici family abolishes it). Protestant reformation. Copernicus' discovery that planets move in orbit around sun (not around earth). Period of real revolution, new spirituality with Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Reflected in more otherworldly style of Pontormo and other mannerists.

Röttgen Pietà Late medieval Europe (Germany). c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood The statue's bold emotionalism in Mary and Jesus's face. If we focus on Mary's face, there is a mix of emotions in her gaze. The artist humanizes Mary by giving her strong emotions. Mary's face looks appalled and anguished because of her son's death, and there is also a sense of shock, and awe that anyone would kill her son- the Son of God. The artist had exaggerated Mary's sorrow in attempts to make it seem she was asking the viewer.

Form: -Röttgen Pietà painted wood, 34 1/2 inches high -Painted wooden sculpture, but it is damaged, paint is less vibrant, worm holes in Mary's head -most of the Pieta statues of the time were from Germany, and the other surviving works are marble, or other stone, making this wooden sculpture all the more unique Function: -The lamentation section of the stations of the Christ, but the scene around it is taken away forcing the viewer to examine emotion -Artistic viewing is like a vision, would have been the object of focus during prayer - Would have been on an altar with other religious art, perhaps depicting the passions of the Christ -This type of sculpture was common in German abbeys Content: -Spirituality, mysticism, pure emotion of Mary holding her dead son -Sharp crown of thorns, 3D blood and wounds, making it violent and gruesome -Mary is not looking optimistic like she knows he will rise again; she looks like she had been wronged, she is draped in the typical garb with heavy fabric and she still looks young, but she is suffering -Extremely skinny, ribs visible, body is contorted -this new depiction and way of Christian thought was called "the patient Christ" Context: -c. 1300-25, late gothic period of middle ages, which was very dramatic -Saints like St. Francis of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, St. Bernardino of Siena And Hildegard of Bingen -Originally depictions of Christ on the cross would demonstrate the Christus triumphans, like in the Lindisfarne Gospels -Greco Crucifixion came after this in the artistic evolution and it showed suffering but Christs legs are together so as no to be immodest or too humanized Principle, where his suffering is not apparent, but in this period divinity showed in a different, and more human way, belief that connection to god could be achieved through emotion -clearly reflects mysticism of the time, not caring about previous issues with iconoclasm during middles ages, as it is a holly object that would have been prayed to

Alhambra Granada, Spain. Nasrid Dynasty. 1354-1391 C.E. Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding The Alhambra's architecture shares many characteristics, but is singular in the way it complicates the relationship between interior and exterior. Its buildings feature shaded patios and covered walkways that pass from well-lit interior spaces onto shaded courtyards and sun-filled gardens all enlivened by the reflection of water and intricately carved stucco decoration.

Form: Every single space covered with decoration Extensive use of rhombus geometric forms and calligraphy Most of the interior arches are false arches, with no structure; they are there only to decorate. Built on a hill overlooking the city of Granada Walls are covered with beautiful and extremely rich ceramics and plasterwork. Walls include intricately carved wooden frames "muqarnas" hold up ceiling in Hall of Kings mocarabe vault can be seen in Hall of the two sisters Function: 3 Purposes Citadel, Barracks (alcazaba Residence palace of the Nasrid sultans Medina (the city) Connected by pathways and gardens, all of which could be blocked off Content: Contains palaces, gardens, water pools, fountains, and courtyards Three Palaces Comares Palace arched grill allows in light walls covered with inlaid tile in geometric patterns Salón de Comares hall of the ambassadors the Palace of the Lions separate building that was connected later arched covered patio encircles the marble fountain at the center contained residential halls with star motifs the Partal Palace known as the portico because of its portico in the center of an arcade and at the edge of a pool Generalife from the Arabic, Jannat al-arifa means paradise, garden vegetable and ornamental elements contribute to the paradise of the garden Context: Alhambra is an abbreviation of Qal'at al-Hamra meaning red fort. Built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492) the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (aka Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty in 1237 Palace of the Lions built by Muhammed V Exterior-Interior relationship Important transition seamlessly from shaded patios and covered walkways from well-lit interior spaces to courtyards and gardens Ornamental elements reflection of water intricately carved stucco decoration. Beautiful, detailed, and careful attention to detail

Calling of Saint Matthew Caravaggio. c. 1597-1601 C.E. Oil on canvas Caravaggio depicts the very moment when Matthew first realizes he is being called. This was Caravaggio's first important job and the completed work would win him the highest of praise as well as the harshest of criticism for its shockingly innovative style.

Form: Painted by Caravaggio c. 1599-1600 Oil on canvas located in the Contarelli chapel, San Luigi dei Francesci, Rome Content: Biblical story of the calling of Saint Matthew Matthew, a tax collector is sitting at a table counting money, generally being shady Jesus walks in from the right with Saint Peter by his side Jesus points to Matthew with his hand extended, says, "You. I want you" Jesus singles Matthew out and calls on him to join him and his disciples Matthew points to himself in a gesture of incredulity This scene takes place in what appears to be a tavern or pub setting makes the event commonplace, relatable Characters are all dressed in contemporary clothing, setting this event in Caravaggio's time, rather than biblical times this serves to make Matthew's experience (sinner turned follower) into something that is relatable to and possible for the everyday citizen of Rome closer to Caravaggio's own experiences VERNACULAR LIGHT plays an active role in furthering the action/plot, rather than merely creating a general, ethereal glow as in the high renaissance realistic looks like it is streaming in from the open doorway behind Jesus and Peter there is a clear light SOURCE stream of sunlight comes in diagonally from top right corner, follow's Christ's finger pointing toward Matthew highlights Matthew's face almost seems an extension of Jesus's pointed finger The second Adam? The formation of Jesus's outstretched hand mimics Michelangelo's hand of God in "The Creation of Adam" (Sistine Chapel ceiling) Jesus is sometimes referred to as "the second Adam" because he, also created by God, is the redeemer of Adam's original sin The artistic parallel between the work of Michelangelo and that of Caravaggio highlights Christ's status as "the redeemer" creates a full-circle/bookend effect Function: Didactic element to portray the story of The Calling of Saint Matthew taught from the Catholic perspective (recognizing Saints) so as to convince believers of the Catholic doctrines, to inspire support of the Counter-Reformation/Catholic Reformation To bring viewer into the experience of the painting Caravaggio does this by use of: commonplace setting contemporary clothing realism, naturalism rather than idealism of high renaissance emotive, expressive theatrics This also makes the "Catholic way" more accessible to people of all levels of education, of experience, of lifestyles Context: The Counter-Reformation The Catholic Church reacted against the Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther (1517) after a period of austerity and withdrawal from lavish art, Catholic church experienced a revival in Rome Change of tactics: draw believers into the Catholic faith by enthralling drama, theatrics, and shocking beauty in artwork, architecture want to make people feel an overpowering emotional response to Catholic-inspired art differentiating their approach to Christianity from that of the Protestants the Baroque style frozen action (like movie stills) theatrical high contrast chiaroscuro diagonal lines gruff, gritty realism rather than idealized, perfect realism of high renaissance

Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

Form: Overall (open): 25 3/8 x 46 3/8 in. Central panel: 25 1/4 x 24 7/8 in. Each wing: 25 3/8 x 10 3/4 in. Central scene looks like a living room of someone living in Northern Europe A lot of detail-- pay attention to everything Like shiny nails, shadows, rust Shows age of doors Even in background (can see men on horseback and a town etc.) Interest in light-- using oil paint so they can paint texture (unlike Italian Renaissance) A lot of realism, yet expressed differently Space of the room doesn't make sense because perspective hadn't really been put into place yet Not mathematically accurate The table is a double perspective Creates a telescoping that brings the viewer in-- makes the room available Function: Can be folded up and carried Made to maintain an interest-- physical objects to spiritual ideas To aid in private devotion Content: Center Scene-- Mary and Gabriel Modern context Not meant to secularize the scene-- but to make them closer to us and make prayer more intimate Gabriel just appeared to Mary to tell her she will give birth to Christ The drapery has sharp folds-- falls on the floor and obscures bodies The shiny pot represents Mary's purity Many things in the room (many have to do with the incarnation) Small figure holding a cross coming through the window heading towards Mary (the holy spirit) Unusual because it is usually a dove, but this is one of the first time that God takes human form Donors are on the left The Patrons-- man and his wife Kneeling-- can recognize them as donors In a walled garden (hortus conclusus)-- refers to Mary's virginity Joseph is on the right He is making tools in a workshop-- he is a carpenter Reminds us of how handmade the painting is (it is on wood) Can see prosperous city through window Mousetrap for sale outside window Context: Campin was a very successful painter with apprentices and assistants Newfound prosperity in Northern Europe-- so commissions are increasing Annunciation was painted first, then the left side donors were added This painting would have been seen over and over again

San Vitale (including Justinian and Theodora panels), Ravenna, Italy. c. 547 C.E.

Form: Centrally planned basilica Octagonal in shape Byzantine church Function: Obviously primarily to worship the Christian god (This is a church) Glorify the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora Serves as a reminder for the power of the Byzantine Emperor Context: Built after the split of the Roman empire

Hunters in the Snow, Pieter Bruegel the Elder

Hunters in the Snow, Pieter Bruegel Complete Identification Pieter Bruegel 1565 Oil Paint on Wood Panel Realist Period Vienna, Austria Form 117 cm by 162 cm Contrapposto, dynamic movement Figures with their back towards the viewer -- draws eye into the scene, away from the foreground Lots of contrasting colors -- draws eye around the composition Sharp forms, less gentle blending Very, very subtle use of atmospheric perspective in the back-most mountains and hills Function Represents both the hardships and the enjoyments of winter Sheds light on the activities of everyday life Reaction to the renaissance themes of nobility and religion Making art to depict the world as it is seen Content Part of a six-part series of images called seasons of the year Figures, and houses painted in warm, earthy tones -- contrasting from the cold blues and grays used to represent the elements Homogenized figures, none of which show their face--represent the poor, "nameless" Hunters return from what might have been an unsuccessful hunt Both figures and dogs bend down and sulk, looking exhausted Small figures in the background dot a pair of frozen lakes, seemingly enjoying the winter Figures dance about the ice, interacting with each other and small objects Mood in the foreground -- solemn, sense of despair Figures in bottom left third sag, trudging through the snow Left-most figures huddle by the fire, desperate for warmth Almost every visible figure has a downward gaze Architecture -- where nature and civilization meet Rows of houses fall away into vast fields of snow Context: Painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder Painted in 1565 Bruegel is best known for his landscapes and his focusing on the life and mannerisms of peasants this is fitting considering the content of this work This is probably the reason this work's patron picked Bruegel It was commissioned by Nicaels Jonghelinck This is a secular painting This is one of six works in series entitled Months of the Year strangely there are only six works instead of twelve and only 5 still exist Northern Renaissance The patron was from Antwerp in modern day Holland This probably depicts a scene somewhere in the alps This is because Holland is an extremely flat country, yet there are mountains in the background Content (cont.): The viewers eyes are drawn across the painting diagonally by the positioning of the subjects and statically placed lines No linear perspective! Aerial Perspective! We start at the bottom right as these figures are largest and appear closest to the viewer These figures appear to be coming back from an unsuccessful hunt They don't have much in the way of food and appear to be trudging through the snow with despair They are hunched over and appear to be defeated We do not see their faces, so we have to assume their emotions based on their stances They are positioned, facing towards a small village and frozen pond Our eyes instantly shift onto the frozen pond were the peasants appear to be enjoying the winter The immediate shift between the hunters and the other peasants indicate that Bruegel wanted to contrast these two groups of people This was probably to contrast the two sides to winter These figures appear to be playing a version of hockey and iceskating and do not have the give of the same negative feelings that the hunters do As our eyes continue along, we see a village in the background on the left It is pretty empty and probably is meant to keep the viewers eyes on pond, moving up into the mountains Like I said before, these mountains are probably indicating that this is in the Alps, around modern day Switzerland The birds are also pointed at the pond and help focus our eyes on the subjects Themes Everyday life and mannerisms Social commentary Beauty in simplicity

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis. Early Byzantine Europe. Early sixth century C.E. Illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum).

Illuminated Manuscript - Bible text through or shown through images - Symbolism Vienna Genesis Form - Byzantine - Continuous narrative - Animal skin pages - Completely made by hand o With silver text and died a deep royal purple - Manuscript of the first book of the bible - Preserves some of the earliest illustrations of bible stories Function - Depict the first book of the bible - Not sure who would have been reading this book o Probably a royal individual's - Illuminated manuscripts not only aimed to depict stories of the bible but be a symbol of the owner's piety Content - Caught between realistic and abstract - Shows the medieval artists and patrons value of symbolism and abstraction - written in greek Jacob Wrestling the Angles - Story o Jacob leads his family across a river over a bridge. Then, Jacob has to fight with an angel. Upon fighting with the angle Jacobs name becomes Israel. o The importance of this story is the renaming of Jacob to Israel - There is an attempt to display a transition within a single image - Calls back to the Romanesque o Looks as though it could be a freeze o Roman colonnade on the bridge o The form of the bodies under the drapery - Typical of Byzantine art o Skewed perspective o Mixing up of space in an intentional way Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well - Story o Abraham wanted to find a wife for his son (Issac) and sent his servant, Eliezer, to find one for him. On the journey, Eliezer is in need of help and Rebecca comes to the rescue. Rebecca ends up being the perfect girl for Issac. o This is a story about God intervening to ensure a sound marriage for Abraham's son - In this continuous narrative, there are two episodes o Rebecca is shown twice § Once leaving her town to get water and another helping Rebecca - Classical elements o Roman colonnades o Reclining nude next to the river § Serves as a personification of the well's water - Not a realistic showing of space (very Byzantine) Context Early Byzantine (330-726 BCE) - The capital is moved to Constantinople - Christianity becomes the official religion - Emphasis on flatness and mystery - Used the church to back the authority of the emperor - Iconoclast controversy (726-843) o Destroyed all art with icon, most of the early byzantine art. Sinful nature of making graven images

Santa Sabina Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wood The emphasis in this architecture is on the spiritual effect and not the physical. Helps to understand the essential characteristics of the early Christian basilica.

Late Antique Europe, 422-432 CE On site of Saint Sabina (300s in Rome,) who was stoned to death for converting to Christianity The building was originally a classical Roman administrative building Ordered interior served to manage large numbers of visitors and to impose the government's authority Thick columns and classical decor create structural stability Example of an ancient Constantinian basilica A pilgrim who visited a Constantinian basilica in the 300s said this about the effect of the space: "The decorations are too marvelous for words. All you can see is gold, jewels and silk...You simply cannot imagine the number and sheer weight of the candles, tapers, lamps and everything else they use for the services." Constantinian architects were the first Roman Christians; they chose the ancient Roman basilica to serve as the basis of their new churches Spolia: recycling old buildings or architectural materials for another purpose The architects reinvented a formerly governmental space into a religious one Manipulated the light from the windows so that the space became well-lit Added mosaics on the walls FORM Massive, spacious longitudinal nave Faces the altar Illuminated by natural light from windows Creates a feeling of transcendence Light from the windows was manipulated by the architect to create a spiritual effect Would've illuminated the mosaics on the nave walls (that no longer exist) Light = Christ, heaven Nave; looking at the side aisle Imagine the walls glimmering with mosaics Over the columns: wine cups and bread: first symbolization of Eucharist Windows made of celenite, not glass Wooden coffered ceiling Recalls the (domed) coffered ceiling of the Pantheon in Rome, circa 125 CE. Original paneled, wooden doors are still on the church Depict Biblical scenes, possibly the first Crucifixion depiction in the upper left panel Colonnade with a side aisle on each side Corinthian columns Like the Pantheon: walls are broken up into entablatures Columns and pilasters create verticals that tie the horizontal entablatures together Visualizes the building's weight and solidity Nave wall has little visual weight Simple architecture underlies a strong, empowered foundation Clerestory windows line the upper entablatures of the nave Walls don't have traditional classical orders Instead of organized columns and entablatures, they were covered in mosaics Walls show a shift from a focus on Man's architecture to religious imagery FUNCTION Early Christian church To respect Sabina, who supposedly died on the location Roman Emperor from the 300s and Christian convert Martyr for Christianity To impress the viewer and inspire them to follow Christianity

. Lindisfarne Gospels, St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke incipit page

Lindisfarne Gospels: Context for ALL of the Manuscript Illuminated by the bishop Eadfrith Made to honor God and St. Cuthbert Lindisfarne = island off the coast of Northumberland in England Produced in the British Isles between 500-900 CE Time of social upheaval and devastation invasions 793 CE--Vikings pillaged the monastery but the monks were able to keep the Lindisfarne Gospels safe Made in Italy St. Matthew Cross-Carpet Page Form: Codex = bound book, made from sheets of paper or parchment Designed and recorded with the use of ink pigments and gold vellum Function: Cover and opening of St. Matthew's Gospel Content: Example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art Straightforward and not TOO stylized A series of repetitive knots and spirals Ribbons = contain abstract animal forms that twist blue, pink, orange, red, green Snake-like creatures Centrally located cross Stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically Luke's Incipit Page Form: Written and recorded with the use of ink pigments Tiny red dots that envelop words Gold vellum The letters "NIAM" of "quoniam" Negative space now asserting itself as four letters Function: Opening of Luke's Gospel Content: Themes: Animal life Blue pin-wheeled shapes rotate in repetitive circles caught in the vortex of a large Q that forms Luke's opening sentence Birds also abound One knot enclosed in a rectangle unravels into a blue heron's chest shaped like a large comma (repeating shape vertically down) Feline presses off this appendage acrobatically to turn its body 90º Spiraled forms Swirling vortexes Knots reveal themselves as snakes moving along the confines of a letter's boundaries Luke's Portrait Page Form: Intricate designs made with different colored pigments Shapes create words Function: Luke's portrait Context: Curly-haired bearded evangelist sits on a red-cushioned stool Luke holds a quill in his right hand Feet hover above a tray supported by red legs Wears a purple robe streaked with red Gold halo = divinity Above halo--flies a blue-winged calf = sacrifice on the cross Eyes turned toward the viewer with its body in profile Clasps a green parallelogram = reference to gospel John's Cross Carpet Page Form: Symbols are assigned for the other three evangelists (Eadfrith included in their respective portraits) Matthew is a man= human aspect of Christ Mark is a lion = triumphant and divine Christ of the Resurrection John is a eagle = Christ's second coming Function: Opens John's Gospel Content: Interplay of stacked birds teem underneath the crosses of the carpet page One bird has blue and pink stripes in contrast to others that sport registers of feathers Stripes = negative association to the medieval mind = chaotic

Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescos, Michelangelo

The Sistine Chapel: Form every surface--ceilings, floors--are covered in mosaic and fresco Function where the College of Cardinals decides who the next pope will be Content ceiling vault completely covered in fresco 9 Old Testament scenes separated by painted architecture Context Michelangelo began work on the frescoes in 1508 for Pope Julian he continued work on it for 4 years, but took a break in 1510, and the frescoes painted after this time are palpably different--compare the complex narrative of The Deluge, which uses smaller figures, to the more idealized, monumental figures in God creates Adam the vault frescos are undeniably some of the most important images every painted--they turned into an "academy" for painters, meaning that up and coming Renaissance artists would visit the chapel in order to try to study and imitate the monumental weight, harmony, strength, anatomical perfection, and elegance of Michelangelo's figures the chapel has recently undergone a controversial cleaning in which soot and grime from years of the chapel's use were cleaned off to try to bring back the rich colors of Michelangelo's vision Sistine Chapel Ceiling (general): revolutionary painting style where the figures were so realistic that they looked like sculptures brilliant, rich colors were used Michelangelo's style involved "carving figures out of paint" figures are massive; have gravity, weight and presence are figures of idealized beauty (shows the relative religious optimism of the time; as compared to when Michelangelo paints The Last Judgement above the altar and his style has become more cynical and Mannerist) emphasized musculature and anatomy anatomy displays drama and power (despite the fact that that many of them are in positions of relative peace--for ex. Libyan Sybil) a complex "stage" of connected yet separate scenes strong visible presence of Ancient Roman and Greek sculptural style no images of Christ, but the scenes lay the stage for the coming of Christ the richly colored, monumental figures help convey the emotional impact of the scenes to the viewers gazing up at them from the floor Layout: 9 biblical scenes from Genesis that move across the ceiling lengthwise (starts with God dividing light from dark and moves on chronologically) 1. Noah is drunk and disgraced 2. The Great Flood/Deluge 3. Noah and his family make a sacrifice after the flood 4. Adam and Eve are tempted + sent from Eden 5. God creates Eve 6. God creates Adam 7. God divides the water from the Earth 8. God creates the sun and planets 9. God divides light from darkness scenes are framed by a painted architectural framework scenes are flanked on both sides by prophets and sybils that sit within the painted architecture in the spandrels, separate from the depicted scenes but connected ideologically sybils: pagan soothsayers that foretold the coming of Christ sitting on the architectural framework of the four architectural corners of each nine biblical scenes are male nude figures, called ignudi scenes from the Salvation of Israel painted in the pendentives The Delphic Sibyl: Form Function the sibyls were said to be future-seers of pagan times who saw the coming of Christ validates the Christian faith because the coming of Christ was foretold long before Jesus was even born shows a theme of foretelling present in Christian artwork since the Middle Ages; sibyls foretold the coming of Christ, the Old Testament foretold the coming of the New Testament, Mary foretold the death of her son Content her body has a circular composition signifies grace, balance, and harmony of proportion she has a "sculptural weight"--looks as though she is actually coming out of the walls due to the painted contour (contrapposto) of her skin and muscle she has idealized anatomy--by the way her muscles are sculpted, she looks as though she has incredible strength, yet she also possesses a sense of calm elegance (sprezzatura: a deceptive ease) shows close attention to human anatomy some believe that she was modeled after a man (which makes sense looking at the prominent muscles in her arms)--"biblical" beauty instead of sexual, like in Botticelli's Venus Context painted after Michelangelo took his break in 1510, so they show his new style of monumentality some believe that all the sibyls are modeled after the ancient sculpture the Belvedere Torso (see below) The Deluge: Form Highly modeled figures Facial expressions and dynamic poses reveal the sadness and desperation depicted in the scene Figures interact with each other Many hold each other in their arms or on their backs Some figures reach for each other or joste past one another Function Makes viewers question God's justice → why would he destroy the whole population of Earth, spare Noah and his family? Content Physical space of the water and sky separate the 4 parts of the narrative On the right: a group of people find makeshift shelter from the rain On the left: people scale a mountain to escape floodwaters Central: A small boat teeters, about to capsize due to the rising waters Background: men work to build the ark Full of figures → makes the event seem chaotic, large-scale; but also waters down (pun not intended) the emotional intensity of the narrative from a distance

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation

The narrative when you face the altar wall. (Top register = Yoachim and Anna (Christ's Grandparents), Mary's life. Middle register = Life of Christ, miracles. Bottom register = Passion [including lamentation]. Bottom of chapel = virtues and vices. In between the scenes = Trompe l'oeil. Exit wall opposite the altar= Last Judgement) Enrico Scrovegni giving the chapel to the three Marys (on the side of the blessed in the Last Judgement) The Lamentation Form: Fresco this chapel is COMPLETELY covered in fresco ceiling included. narrative scenes, flat figures trompe l'oeil (fools the eye) fake marble panels separate scenes. Whole thing is fresco Lapis Lazuli for the bright blues very expensive. secco fresco dry fresco at the time, Enrico didn't want the Lapiz Lazuli's color to be diminished because of this method, it didnt stick to the wall as well, so some of the blue is diminished Function: Atone for the sin of usury bankers -> usurers Enrico Scrovegni paid for the chapel as a "good work" to try and guarantee a spot in heaven worried about afterlife, so paid for huge work of art his father was included in Dante's inferno, so he had good reason to be worried Private, devotional art Content: 3 registers of narrative top: Yoakim and Anna (Christ's maternal grandparents) and birth and life of Mary middle: scenes of Christ's life (the miracles, etc) christ is moving forward in the scenes there is a rhythm to the scenes bottom: the Passion Wall Fresco: Last Judgement Enrico (the patron) is on the side of the blessed, giving the chapel to Mary The Lamentation part of the passion scenes transitionary work from Middle ages to Renaissance illusionism inserting architectural elements to give a more earthly setting not just the typical gold background from the normal Medieval this is a big deal. humanism figures interacting with each other and connection in individual ways kissing, crying THE LAMENTATION Christ being mourned by Mary and followers We see actual grief— BIG DEAL medieval scenes usually had characters being divine and not that upset Here, we see Mary not holding the dead son of God who will rise again, but holding her own dead child who she believes she will never see again she is incredibly sad, and she is looking at his dead face in grief. Very real and humanist emotions she twists her body around him and hugs him and supports him on her knee each figure has their own personalized way of grieving some throw their arms out, some sob, some quietly pity Mary even the angels are mourning in individualized ways tearing at clothes and hair, in agony Composition all eyes lead to christ the hill is a straight line straight to christ two figures face away from us first of all, big deal to have figures with their back to us. very new for the medieval period (naturalism) also makes big space bubbles around christ, emphasizing him more they do the same thing we do: watch Mary and Christ add to illusion of space symbols dead tree— will grow again (analogy to Christ's resurrection) Mary Magdalene at Christ's feet w/ typical red hair (she anointed christ's feet so it's fitting) the mountain carries over into the next scene of the resurrection Context: Painted by Giotto Called Arena Chapel because it's next to a Roman Arena Called Scrovegni Chapel because of the patrons the Scrovegni family next to the palace of the family private devotional art a good work to atone for the family's sin of Usury Enrico's attempt to get into heaven Why so groundbreaking? How is it a transitional work? This is one of the first works that shows divine figures acting in humanist ways the medieval style was figures that were not real looking, backgrounds were gold and basic, and the figures were unemotional. As divine as they could possibly be this chapel transitions us into the renaissance style of human looking and acting figures in the Renaissance figures are interacting with each other, which has basically not happened yet figures face each other they interact with each other— kissing, showing grief, Holding each other. This was a huge deal characters showing intimacy Characters not always frontal some in profile, some with their backs to us Foreshortening used 3D: the figures have weight to them, not floating like typical medieval architectural elements in some of the scenes pre linear perspective, but perspective is attempted we see Giotto's attempt at providing depth and backgrounds earthly settings for the divine scenes

Hagia Sophia Consantinople (Istanbu). Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer. The interior of Hagia Sophia was paneled with costly colored marbles and ornamental stone inlays. Decorative marble columns were taken from ancient buildings and reused to support the interior arcades. Initially, the upper part of the building was minimally decorated in gold with a huge cross in a medallion at the summit of the dome

Vocabulary List 1. Hagia Sophia - (n.) "holy wisdom" in Latin 2. Minarette- noun. a tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from which a muezzin calls Muslims to prayer. 3. Squinch- noun. a straight or arched structure across an interior angle of a square tower to carry a superstructure such as a dome. 4. Apse- noun. a large semicircular or polygonal recess in a church, arched or with a domed roof, typically at the eastern end, and usually containing the altar. 5. Pendentive- noun. a curved triangle of vaulting formed by the intersection of a dome with its supporting arches. Content: Longitudinal and Centrally planned Basilica The dome is on top of a square this is called pendentive Two half domes come from that square Four Minarets pencil minarets the place from which Muslims would be called to prayer when Hagia Sophia was a mosque The Sultan's Lodge The private and elevated balcony from which the Sultan would worship It was secluded because only certain people were allowed to talk to and interact with the Sultan. Mihrab Is off center because it faces and oreinets itself towards Mecca, but the original church was oriented in a different direction. Arabic Calligraphy The highest form of Islamic art takes years of training Context: Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532-37 (architects: Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles) Formerly Constantinople, Rome Commissioned by Emporer Constantine Showcased his power as the Roman emperor. As the Roman Emperor, he had a lot of power within the church, one of those powers was to appoint the patriarch of the church. Hagia Sophia as it is today is the third version of the building because the first two were burned down during riots. The building of Hagia Sophia put to work many citizens who would have otherwise been rioting. The current dome is taller than the original dome was because the increase in height helps to better distribute the weight of the dome. Iconoclasm The reason that there aren't any images or large mosaics of biblical scenes is because of the period of Iconoclasm or opposition to images of God and Jesus. Arabic calligraphy the other reason that there are no biblical images in Hagia Sophia is because it was turned into a mosque after the sack of Constantinople. In mosques, the only form of art is Arabic calligraphy from the Qu'ran and geometric patterns, and so any imagery in Hagia Sophia was destroyed when it was converted into a mosque. Form: Two floors centered on a giant nave with a great domed ceiling, along with smaller domes Towering above (high) Central and Longitudinally planned Basilica Function: Cathedral Mosque 1453 Museum est. 1934

Isenheim altarpiece Matthias Grünewald. c. 1512-1516 C.E. Oil on wood Emphasizing the suffering and anguish of Christ and his mother's angst. With intense colors and dramatic lighting throughout, Grunewald included a Lamentation in the predella and Saints Sebastian and Anthony on the fixed wings.

oil on wood Form: Left picture Left side: red robed figure stands next to Corinthian column Middle: Christ is centered and crucified Very macabre and dramatic Hanging down from the cross On his left side are three people: two women looking up in anguish and one person holding the woman in white On his right side is a red clothed man and a dog Right side: red and blue clothed old, bearded man with a staff Pradella: Jesus's dead body is being held by several people next to some sort of opening, possible a grave Right Picture: Left side: woman looking up at a Gothic architecture place to a robed figure Middle: Left: Woman in pink dress playing guitar-like instrument surrounded by smaller figures and instrument Right: Mary and Christ-child in a landscape, blue sky and bright orange light (sun?) Right side: figure rising divinely with a mandorla over bodies Pradella: Same as the left picture → Christ's body being held Big! 9' 9 1/2" x 10' 9" (just center panel) But she's movable Function: Created to serve as the central object of devotion in an Isenheim hospital built by the Brothers of St. Anthony Popular in Germany at the time Facilitate public prayer Fully opened on special occasions → helps to inspire hope Content: Left picture: panels is closed Virgin is swooning into the arms of St. John the Evangelist John the Baptist gestures towards Christ Lamb of God is below him (metaphor for Christ himself) not usually at crucifixion Inclusion is symbolic, since he is considered as the last of the prophets to announce the coming of the Messiah Mary Magdalene is just crying Outside panels: St. Sebastian and then the St. Anthony Abbott Right picture: panels are open From left to right: Annunciation, Virgin and Child, Resurrection Angels playing music celebrate the birth of the Christ child resurrection (fireball— hovering over the sepulchre and the bodies of the sleeping soldiers, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection and Ascension.) Both predellas show a Lamentation scene Context: Isenheim Hospital was run by Brothers of St. Anthony St. Anthony was a patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases Took care of sick and dying peasants at hospital Christ was painted in such a macabre way to show them that he too suffered like they are now Predella: the bottom part in the altarpieces Themes: Religion Devotion Power in society Divine power Power of the church

Self-Portrait with Saskia Rembrandt van Rijn. 1636 C.E. Etching Rembrandt stand out among his contemporaries is that he often created multiple states of a single image. This etching, for example, exists in three states. By reworking his plates he was able to experiment with ways to improve and extend the expressive power of his images.

orm: Rembrandt used a copper plate, eroded by acid, to create this work The Etching plate is deeper for Rembrandt than Saskia Shows him as more important, but also closer to the viewer He first etched in Saskia to help create the illusion that she is behind Rembrandt This was likely etched in a mirror it depicts Rembrandt as left handed, yet he used his right Function: Private artwork comments on the nature of their relationship We are getting a view into a private moment as if we have literally interrupted it Context: Depicts a thirty year old Rembrandt and his wife Saskia, two years after they were married Rembrandt is one of the most prolific etchers of his time with nearly 300 to his name many of his early etchings have the immediacy and spontaneity of a rapid sketch Highly experimental artist Used a soft ground to allow him to draw freely on the plate He is also well known for his portraits His style changed greatly over his lifetime With his early works we see a much more extensive use of Chiaroscuro His later works show his evolved confidence as an artist With the Self-Portrait with two circles we see him defiantly claiming his genius We also see his comparing of himself to the likes of Giotto with the two circles in the background Content: Obviously, this is a marriage portrait depicts a young Rembrandt with his wife Saskia This is the only etched portrait of the two together Rembrandt rarely depicted himself as the contemporary Gentleman Against the style of time We are present in scene We appear to have interrupted an intimate moment This etching also marks the first time Rembrandt depicted himself as an artist in the work Like I said before, this was probably etched in the mirror causing a reversed image While this is the only portrait of the two together, it was not unusual for Rembrandt to use his wife as a model

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Gian Lorenzo Bernini

Content: Media - White marble, carved out with a chisel Genre - Kinetic art Golden arrow pointing "at her heart", tilting downwards "Rays of sun" behind them; holy light of God St. Teresa herself Accompanied by a "high ranking" angel floating with wings on his back Her body is contorted as though she is about to moan (textually accurate), twisting feet and hands Rays of sunlight in the background (gold) Rocks surrounding the base of the sculpture, supporting it and allowing it to buffer the main part Expressive folds of clothing, which were not uncommon for his style (see below) A "fabulous illusion of architecture—a coffered barrel vault, doorway and columns" The Veiled Virgin Context: Artist - Gian Lorenzo Bernini Location - Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome Time period - Baroque, 1647 - 52 Subject matter is religious and distorted No central hierarchy or pyramid, center is a void Unseen source of light ("rays of sun" in the background) Weapons (arrow) and chaotic discord represented instead of religious order and structure Dramatic, theatrical; not realistic No real background/backdrop Forcefully involves the viewer--made relatable to a wider audience by depicting her revelation as sexual and physical in order to make it seem more realistic; no frame or limitation placed on it (because it relates to the human experience) Subject - Teresa of Ávila Canonized (aka made a saint by the church) Lived in 16th century Spain at the height of the Reformation St. Teresa is having a vision of an angel telling her to come worship god Cornaro Chapel Grouping of the patrons aka Cornaro family sculpture displayed to the left of St. Teresa's central sculpture Federico Cornaro, Cardinal of Venice Depicted as though they are watching her moment of revelation (see below) Similar to his past works, but fully clothed and dignified Makes her display of sexuality even more admirable (difficult to do without having clothes off) Shares religious/mythological figures and sense of movement and transformation (e.g. Greek god Apollo chasing the mortal Daphne as she begins the transformation into a tree, the first dryad) Form: Dynamic, realistic, but not naturalistic figures Flowing, rippling robes showing the outline of her body while simultaneously covering it Movement in their clothing, facial expressions, and body language St. Teresa's writhing body beneath the heavy cloth She appears to have just recently collapsed, mouth open in awe, eyes half-lidded in wordless pleasure Angel's clothing being whipped up by a perpetual wind Expressive and emotional, not passive or calm; bears resemblance to Constanza bust and his David (see below) Bernini's David Constanza bust Function: Serve as a visual representation of the moment St. Teresa was awakened and brought to god Physically, the central sculptural group in the chapel (see below) Bernini was deeply religious and wanted to help people understand divine ecstasy through a depiction of physical pleasure, attempting to embody her writings on the subject Other: Bernini crafted this sculpture at one of the lowest points in his life, after the majority of his patrons had abandoned him following the fiasco of St. Peter's church. It was, in a sense, a way for him to redeem himself, to his patrons, the church, and to God. He believed that the closest anyone would get to capturing the essence of them was to sculpt the moment directly before or after they spoke, which is clearly displayed in his Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode, William Hogarth

Context: The Tête à Tête is the second work in a set of six distinct (but interrelated) paintings that together, in a chronological order, form a coherent, meaningful (and silly!) narrative. Altogether this work is known as "Marriage à la Mode." The general plot revolves around the monetarily-motivated marriage of the daughter of a merchant (AKA the future Viscountess Squanderfield) to the son of a well-known family (AKA Viscount Squanderfield). It tells their tale from the day their marriage contract is drawn up to the day Viscountess Squanderfield dies. Ultimately, it aims to depict the (literally) fatal consequences of marriages not based on love. The six individual paintings are referred to as (& in summary depict)... 1) The Marriage Contract Shows a meeting of "Lord" Squanderfield, his son, a wealthy merchant, his daughter, a lawyer, and a counselor. Makes it clear that this is a marriage built on the exchange of a title for money and vice-versa-- a true economic deal. A scene all about self-interest-- except in the case of the son & daughter (neither of whom want to marry the other). 2) The Tête à Tête See more below. 3) The Inspection Depicts the newlywed Viscount Squanderfield and an unknown young woman (likely a prostiture or mistress) in a doctor's office (with a doctor and his assistant)-- they are likely there to get medicine to try and treat their apparent syphilis. A genuinely ghastly scene that includes many symbols of death. 4) The Toilette Shows the newlywed Viscountess Squanderfield getting ready with friends in her crowded Toilette. Silvertongue (the counselor from The Marriage Contract) looks very comfortable-- a sign that the Viscountess is having an affair with him. In general, this painting is about breaking the societal norms of behavior. 5) The Bagnio (The Brothel) Depicts Viscountess Squanderfield begging on her knees for forgiveness from the just-stabbed Viscount Squanderfield. Silvertongue crawls out the window. Insinuates that Viscount Sqaunderfield caught her sleeping with Silvertongue (and that Silvertongue then stabbed Lord Squanderfield and began to flee). 6) The Lady's Death Shows the death of Viscountess Squanderfield and makes clear that she has poisoned herself (because Silvertongue was hung for sleeping with her). Focuses on greed (Lord Squanderfield steals her ring, the dog steals the pig's head off the table, etc.) and the irredeemable nature of marriages for wealth. Includes various symbols of changing times (namely, the Thames river and the built-up city outside the window). Set in the mid-18th century (at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution) as shown in the clothing throughout the work. At this time, a middle class that wanted to buy art emerged and art became more accessible (especially through prints!). Thus, the aristocracy lost some power to the merchant class. William Hogarth capitalized upon this truth and created Marriage à la Mode directly for the enjoyment and consumption of the new middle class. Form: Medium: Oil on canvas. Size: 69.9 x 90.8 cm. Composition: A few objects in the foreground, but overall fairly empty. All central figures in the middle ground (the obvious "focal ground" of the painting) The background consists mostly of a separate room, architectural features, and paintings. One clear area of emphasis is the cluttered mantlepiece, positioned strategically between (and a little above) the couple. Verticals lines are found the in the edges of the paintings and in the columns. Curved lines are seen most prominently in the arch between rooms. Content: The Tête à Tête translates to head to head or face to face -- also a heart-to-heart or one-on-one. This second painting of the set shows the young couple just after their forced marriage and things are not looking good. The scene is set in a lavishly decorated room with plenty of art pieces, a fancy carpet, gold-outlined architecture, and a chandelier. The husband, Viscount Squanderfield is seen slouching in a chair on the right. He looks out of it -- sort of staring into the carpet. He has his legs splayed out. Possibly drunk. He has a dot on his neck that would have been recognizable to the people of the day as the mark of syphilis. He looks exhausted. Has likely just returned from a night of womanizing. A dog (a sign of fidelity in the Renaissance) sniffs at a bonnet in his pocket, insinuating that he's been intimate with another woman. The wife, Viscountess Squanderfield, sits on the left looking quite ruffled. She smirks a little and looks relaxed and quite flirtatious. The top of her bodice is undone, insinuating that she's been intimate with another man. She holds a mirror in her right hand above her head. Her gaze points towards the bottom left portion of the canvas. She has a stain on her dress. She sits with her legs apart, a position that's not very ladylike nor dignified. The account stands perplexed on the middle ground of the left side of the painting. He looks completely fed up with the couple and their lack of care for their finances. His right hand is up in the air as if to say, "I'm done!" and his eyes are pointed upwards as well. He holds tons of receipts and bills in his hands and arms. He's depicted as a pious Methodist (has a book on Christian theology in his pocket). He appears to be exiting the room. In the room, there are several important items: the instrument on the floor that's fallen out of its case (the chair it was on has also fallen!) music was often associated with sensuality and sex and that connotation is definitely present here the messy and chaotic state of the instrument mimics the chaotic state of the newlyweds' marriage the paintings of saints in the room left background of the painting provides commentary on the immorality of the couple's actions meant to be contrasted with the tacky, newly-purchased knickknacks on the mantlepiece behind the couple made to show the disparities between their lifestyle and the classical lifestyle they've been prepped to live by the classical sculpture with a broken nose on the mantlepiece the broken nature of the piece shows that's it's not valued as highly as other objects symbolizes the couple's lack of interest in classical ideals and values as well as impotence the painting of cupid in ruins expresses the idea that in strategic, money-based marriages, love itself is defeated and destroyed painting in the back room partly covered up by a curtain the only thing visible is a barefoot eludes to the fact that the painting is a nude Function: To provide a satirical commentary on the wealth-based marriage practices of the aristocrats at the time To appeal to the middle class (so that Hogarth could make $$$) (this is done by making fun of the wealthy) To draw distinctions between the inherited ideals of the aristocrats of the 18th century and the actual actions/lifestyles they lived by To criticize conspicuous consumption

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George. Early Byzantine Europe. Sixth or early seventh century C.E. St. Catherine's Monastery: Mount Sinai, Egypt.

Context: a transitional piece Classical Antiquity →→→ the height of Byzantine Christianity An amalgam of the Greek/Roman aesthetic and the emerging Byzantine aesthetic Greek/Roman Traits: Modeling (especially in the faces of each of the subjects!) Shadows (particularly in the shadow of the throne on the floor) Naturalistic features (drapery that falls as it would in real life, veins in the neck of the angels) Movement The Virgin is turned slightly at her hips a trace of dynamism a pose representative of a body that can move but is currently at rest The angel have their necks arched upwards Created in the era in which Constantinople was restoring and creating dozens of churches (AKA a time of artistic flourishment) As art become more of a part of daily life, icons and private devotional items became more popular and thus, pieces like Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George were created. Byzantine Traits: Compressed plane Very flat (with little attempt to create depth) Simple body positions (limited realism) Emotionless faces Front-facing figures (the saints) Huge, gold halos (to indicate divinity) Form: Size: 2' 3" x 1' 7 3/8" An encaustic icon painting "icon" = image, painting (in Greek) encaustic = a painting technique that uses wax as a medium to carry the color (definition from Khan Academy) Uses gold leaf Content: Subjects = the Virgin, the Christ child, Saint Theodore, Saint George, two angels, God The Saints: St. Theodore = on the left & St. George = on the right flank the Virgin on either side positioned at the front of the frame (closest to our world of all the subjects) they stare directly at the viewer emotionless and erect their feet are lifted slightly off the ground (this is their only mark of divinity) they're ready to receive veneration from a viewer The Virgin: in the center of the icon seated on a throne -- elevated (removed from our world) does not make eye contact with the viewer highlighted by Heaven's light (connected to God) The Christ child: in the Virgin's lap hard to tell exactly where he's looking (but he's not making eye contact with the viewer, like his mother) The Angels: above and between the Virgin and the soldier saints (one on either side) looking directly upwards to the hand of God dressed in all white & have slightly transparent halos (both of these characteristics makes their holiness more tangible) highest in the frame and the furthest back (the most removed from our earthly realm) God: represented by the hand emerging from the center of the top of the icon his power/guidance is seen through the light emanating from the hand this light mostly lands upon the Virgin "Hierarchy of Bodies" Saints → Virgin+Christ → Angels → God this organization leads us to move our eyes upwards (and inwards), from "zone" to "zone" altogether, the positioning of these figures represents the path of holiness between the humans and God each individual "zone" of subjects is symbolic of a different level of relative closeness to God The architecture at the top of the painting helps close off and protect the holy scene makes use of spatial ambiguity to make the piece feel otherworldly and divine Function: A private devotional object (used to inspire the pious and help them express their veneration for God and enhance their spirituality)

School of Athens, Raphael

Detail of Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) Detail of Pythagoras, amongst other philosophers known for studying the ethereal and theoretical, including Plato. Detail of Ptolemy, holding an Earth sphere, and Zoroaster, holding a celestial globe. THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS 1. Date: 1509-1511 2. Medium: fresco (and preliminary sketches with charcoal powder) 3. Location: Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican, Rome, Italy BACKGROUND ON RAPHAEL Raphael was born in Urbino, Italy, in 1483. He trained under his father, then the artist Pietro Perugino, in Florence. Raphael's work was profoundly influenced by Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, while he worked in Florence from 1504-1505. Raphael studied how they painted and sculpted the human body, its anatomy, and its movements. Around 1508, Raphael was summoned to Rome by Pope Julius II, who was in the midst of commissioning tens of works from Italy's most talented artists. Raphael first decorated the "Vatican Stanze," the Pope's apartments, where we see his famous School of Athens, followed by his Chigi Chapel and the Tapestry Cartoons of the Acts of the Apostles (Victoria and Albert Museum, London), his Madonna and Child, and his designs for the rebuilding of St Peter's. Together with Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, Raphael is regarded as one of the three greatest artists of the High Renaissance, particularly in Italy.He never married, but in 1514 he was talked into being engaged to Maria Bibbiena by her uncle, Cardinal Medici Bibbiena. He had many affairs in addition to his engagement to Maria, most permanently with "La Fornerina," or Margherita Luti, with whom, one night, he engaged in such excessive sex that he died of an acute illness two weeks later, on Good Friday. His death was compared to the death of a God, and his will left money to restore the Pantheon in Rome, where he requested to be buried. Raphael left a a lasting legacy and impression on artists for his frescoes, altarpieces, and cartoons' balance and harmony. On his tomb in the Pantheon is written: "Here lies that famous Raphael by whom Nature feared to be conquered while he lived, and when he was dying, feared herself to die." CONTEXT This work was created during the High Renaissance in the Stanza della Sengatura in the Vatican in Rome. While Raphael was painting these frescoes, Michelangelo was a few blocks away painting the Sistine Chapel's ceiling. Rome and Italy as a whole were still experiencing much cultural growth and prosperity, just years before the Protestant Reformation would shake the vitality of the Italian Renaissance and its artists. The Reformation brought about an uncertainty about salvation, and the means by which to reach it, which was reflected most notably in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel alter wall painting in the 1530s. However, Raphael's School of Athens were created just before the Reformation struck, and testify to greatness of pagan wisdom as well as the "vastness and variety" of the papal library. "The School of Athens" was originally titled "Philosophy" because the bookshelves under it were to hold Julius II's collection of philosophy books. The four walls in the Stanza della Segnatura showcase the four branches of human knowledge: Philosophy, Theology, Poetry, and Justice. On the ceiling, four allegorical figures represent these four branches. Raphael's ceiling, which is modeled after Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, contains four allegorical figures representing the four branches of knowledge. Religion, or theology, was seen as an [philosophy's equal at this time, which is important to remember with the Protestant Reformation just around the corner. Raphael drew his inspiration for the impressive architecture in his School of Athens from the surrounding Roman ruins, such as the Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Manutius and Constantine. Furthermore, he executed many preliminary sketches on a smaller scale to perfect the details of his fresco. He first created a large drawing, called a cartoon, which was almost the size of the final work and was used as a wall mural. Next small pinholes were punched along the lines of the cartoon, which was hung on the wall where Raphael painted the work, and powdered charcoal was pushed through the holes to create an impression of the drawing. The charcoal lines helped Raphael to accurately execute the final fresco, especially because he had to paint such detail in such a short amount of time before the fresco dried. Raphael's frescoes were rediscovered, in a sense, when they were cleaned and restored in 1995. CONTENT All of the great thinkers and philosophers of antiquity are gathered here in this classical space, surrounded by Roman architecture. Plato and Aristotle are the central figures. The central vanishing point is the space just between them at hip level, and the viewer's eye is drawn to them as they engage in discussion and stride forward towards the us. Plato was actually Aristotle's teacher; we can identify him by his book the Timaeus in his hand. Plato focused on the ethereal and theoretical, so he points upwards to the sky, and wears red and purple robes, which symbolize fire and air. On the other hand, Aristotle focused on the physical and observable, so he gestures towards the ground, and wears blue and brown robes, which symbolize water and earth. On Plato's side, the left side, there are the philosophers who focused on the theoretical, ethereal issues of philosophy. This includes Pythagoras, who believed in a reality that transcended reality. On the right side, Aristotle's side, there are the philosophers, such as Euclid, who focused on the physical and concrete. Euclid is modeled on Raphael's friend Bramante, the architect who Pope Julius II commissioned to create a model for the new Saint Peter's. Appropriately enough, Bramante's design for the new Saint Peter's was based on perfect geometry of squares and circles. The same is true of the architecture painted by Raphael; as we can see, he used coffered barrel vaults, pilasters. On Plato's side, there are classical sculptures of Apollo, god of Sun, Music, and poetry. On Aristotle's home, we can see Athena, god of war and wisdom, the more human and practical affairs. Raphael's work opposed the Medieval idea of an authority passing down knowledge. He glorified the history and sharing of knowledge, and emphasized his subjects' grace and wisdom. The patrons of the day would've understood and recognized all the figures in the work without their being labeled. The coffered ceiling, which uses the rules of perspective, is a tribute to man's dominance over nature. On the stairs is Diogenes, and writing on the tilted marble block is Heraclitus, writing quietly to himself. Heraclitus has Michelangelo's features, who was known for his lonely and impersonable affect...so Raphael has appropriated the personas of some of these philosophers to include some aspects of his current surroundings. Heraclitus was added after Raphael had completed the frescoe. Raphael stands to the right in a black cap, with some of the most important philosophers of antiquity, including Ptolemy and Zoroaster. Having departed from the Medieval perception of artists as mere craftsmen, Raphael includes himself as a skilled and capable intellectual. FORM The figure in the foreground of School of Athens is writing on a marble block that's tilted at an angle towards the viewer. Because of this angle, it can't depend on the central vanishing point, which was determined using one-point perspective. Therefore, Raphael added a left vanishing point and a right vanishing point, both on the same Horizon line with the central point (which follows the rules of perspective.) The writing block is the only object in the composition that uses these two vanishing points, because the viewer is not perpendicular or parallel to it. All of the other figures and objects rely on one of the two perspective points. Also, Raphael groups people on the left and right, leaving the middle space relatively empty. This serves to balance the linear perspective at the bottom of the painting to balance the sharp orthogonals at the top of the painting. Just as in da Vinci's The Last Supper, Raphael divided the figures into groups, but they are individual, and move fluidly amongst one another. The architecture uses linear perspective, most visibly in the orthogonals in the pavement and in the receding cornices (moulding around the wall of a room just below the ceiling.) Lastly, Raphael used Greek models for calculating the proportions, which were later adopted by the Romans and then Renaissance humanists. FUNCTION The four frescoes Raphael created for Pope Julius's Stanza della Segnatura, or library, were arranged to represent the classical topic of the books on the shelves below. Raphael demonstrated Renaissance perfection on a massive scale, and his work reminds us of the harmonious proportions and idealized figures of antiquity. His School of Athens is also a tribute to the wisdom of the ancient philosophers, and a prayer that their knowledge will pass onto the holy Pope, and the artists and citizens of Italy.

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Francesco Borromini

Form Facade with 3 bays Plan Two triangles (diamond) inscribed in an oval Circles inscribed in triangles Intersecting circles No right angles—curves Sophisticated inter connection of geometrical shapes Musical and mathematical stacking together three distinct units undulating lower zone Middle zone standard Greek cross plan oval dome The dome appears to be floating above the interior of the church because its springing point and light sources are concealed by the zone below. combination of precedent and novelty complex interweaving rhythms. Bold illusionistic effects, achieved by calculated lighting, intensify the space. Function Dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo and the Holy Trinity (for the Trinitarians) Make a great church within a very small and cramped space Content Facade Undulating waves Upper part= concave bays Sectioned entablature Center = oval held by asymmetrically placed angels upper facade completed only after Borromini's death Most sources believe that the top heavy look of the top half is a result of Borromini's nephew's taking over the project in about 1675-77 Lower stories = 2 outer concave bays and a convex center United by continuous entablature central niche above the portal statue of St. Charles Borromeo by Antonio Raggi sides are statues of the founders of the Trinitarian order, St. John of Matha and St. Felix of Valois Dome Windows at the base add to ethereal effect (@hagia sophia) coffering= circles with octagonal molding, unequal hexagons, and Greek crosses Has window of real sunlight where an oculus might be series of oppositions lower and upper levels the center and the edges tall columns and the smaller niches Convex and concave Paradox of imagination/ fantasy/ emotion vs. intellect Adds to the mystical effect of the church, and describes the mysteriousness of religion Impact of emotion when you're there— you don't even realize how incredibly complicated it is Decorations Symmetrical Many carvings (Borromini =stonecutter by trade) Cherubs Head and wings but no body Fills the complex spaces beautifully Light unifies the space Perk of white interior Context Characteristic of the Baroque: Undulating movements and sculptural effects Eliminated the corner in architecture (almost all corners on this are soft) Borromini built it basically for free Very thankful to the trinitarians - his first clients Also allowed himself full creative freedom San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane Because small sometimes called San Carlino alle Quattro Fontane In english, "Saint Charles at the Four Fountains" Gets name from the intersection it's on with four fountains, one of each corner Fountain on the corner of the church is preexisting depiction of Neptune, also defined as a personification of the Arno River Borromini's first independent commission Rome, It was commissioned in 1634 and was built during 1638-46 except for the tall facade, which was added about 1677 Francesco Borromini Italian architect who was a chief formulator of Baroque architectural style. based his designs on geometric figures Contemporary and rival of Bernini Gloomy man lonely, withdrawn he prided himself on his highly specialized training resented his modest degree of recognition based his art on geometry: handling of form, volume and light. Mathematics before everything Geometry, light, shapes— inseparable declared antiquity and nature to be his points of departure Also had medieval, Florentine, and mannerist influences Always alert to the context of his commissions deep sensitivity to the relationship of his buildings to the surrounding area and buildings Suffered severe melancholia made worse by hypochondriac hallucinations Fell upon a sword during a fit recovered his mind after mortally wounding himself, repented, received the last sacraments of the church, and wrote his will before he died At his own request, he was buried anonymously in the grave of his teacher and friend, Maderno It has been suggested that Borromini's suicide was the result of an increasing schizophrenia and that this pathological process is reflected in his architecture (not supported theory)

Madonna and Child with Two Angels. Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 C.E. Tempera on wood. Located in the Uffizi

Function: Medici family paid for this art to show piety to show wealth (this guy is a very famous artist) Decorative to be reminded of Christ's story wanted a humanist image to be able to relate to Mary and Christ humanity / realistic Artist painted it this way to show how human they are Content: very simple halos (unlike Giotto or Cimabue) thin white / yellow circle -- no gold or bright lights etc. Mary is youthful and beautiful sculpted face fair blond hair coiffured hair small mouth bowed nose delicate her ear is shown through the translucent part of her headpiece has her hands clasped in prayer Mary is leaning forward in prayer, facing down almost her eyes seem to be on the smiling angel not Christ Mary and Christ seem lost in thought wearing a headpiece that is both translucent and made of cloth green dress with ruffles and buttons thin jeweled "crown" body had bulk and solidity of her body careful folds of drapery around her lap sits on an ornate piece of furniture The angels look playful angel in the foreground is smiling at the audience one hand under christ and one on his back angel in the background has half of his face covered by christ both angels are holding Christ up as he kneels on them their wings seem wooden (brown) rather than feathery and white golden curly hair (like christ) wearing loose white tunics careful folds of drapery around the waist healthy, cherub-like Christ small "chubby" fair blond eyes looking up (in thought?) arms stretching out towards Mary head facing towards her facial expression (?) a cloth around his midsection and lower torso kneeling on angels Frame of the window is partly the frame of the painting a landscape is seen through a window by both christ and mary and the audience cultivated fields, soaring rocks, a distant city Context: Lots of money in Florence during this time growing middle and upper class of merchants and bankers lots of money means more indulgences "Florence saw itself as the ideal city state, a place where the freedom of the individual was guaranteed, and where many citizens had the right to participate in the government" This freedom was threatened several times all times it was avoided or they won "Florentine citizens interpreted these military "victories" as signs of God's favor and protection. They imagined themselves as the "New Rome" -- in other words, as the heirs to the Ancient Roman Republic, prepared to sacrifice for the cause of freedom and liberty." Florentine citizens very proud of their government because it valued/respected the opinions of individuals this played a huge part in Humanism He most likely trained as a painter in a convent visual experience of Masaccio and Masolino "It is said that Fra Filippo was so lustful that he would give anything to enjoy a woman he wanted if he thought he could have his way, and if he couldn't buy what he wanted, then he would cool his passion by painting her portrait and reasoning with himself. His lust was so violent that when it took hold of him he could never concentrate on his work." https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/painting-in-florence/a/lippi-madonna-and-child-with-two-angels "In 1456 he abducted a nun, Lucrezia Buti, from the convent in Prato where he was chaplain. He was finally permitted to marry her. Their son Filippino was later taught in Lippi's workshop, as was Botticelli." http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/fra-filippo-lippi It is said that Mary in this painting (as well as a few of his other paintings) is based on this woman https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2004/feb/14/art Florence by 1437, Lippi painted a Madonna and Child for Corneto Tarquinia (now in the Galleria Nazionale, Rome), shows the influence of Donatello's sculpture also that of contemporary Flemish painting in its interest in the effects of light and the portrayal of illusionistic details. round 1445 Santa Croce the Virgin and Child with Four Saints, now in the Uffizi; a Madonna and Child still in Palazzo Medici; "The devout air and gentle naturalism of the artist's last works are exemplified by two Adorations in the Uffizi (one from the convent of the Annalena, the other from the hermitage of Camaldoli), while the search for a more complex compositional balance is evident in the half-length Virgin and Child with Angels in the Uffizi, similarly datable in the 1460s." The Medici's were his main patrons Form: "playful" no gold not solemn and not traditional medieval meant to make godly people seem relatable Madonna is brought forward "Her shadow is on the frame, she is in front of it, like an actor at the front of a stage" humanist realistic mary looks like a woman one could find the angels look like children naturalism angel in the background has half of his face covered by slightly somber (not to the extreme of others) in that Mary has the foreknowledge of the fate of her son landscape in background has atmospheric perspective earthly which reflects renaissance humanism natural idea of sensuality Madonna Child and Angels but also this love of the beauty of what one can see importance to decorative components i.e. translucent drapery on Mary's head also important to Lippi's student - Botticelli

Church of Sainte-Foy and Reliquary

THE CHURCH! FORM Romanesque pilgrimage church Cruciform plan Cross commemorates Christ's sacrifice Helped crowd-control of pilgrims Pilgrims traveled around the ambulatory and radiating chapels, paying homage to saints' shrines CONTEXT Pilgrims went to receive a blessing; their visitation = demonstration of piety Located in Conques, France --> on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain Many churches on the pilgrimage route had a similar or identical layout to manage throughput The church was also an abbey: it was part of a monastery where monks lived, prayed, and worked...not all of the original monastery remains. A church had stood on the spot since the 600s; the Church of Sainte-Foy was built from 1050-1130. FUNCTION To host pilgrims on their journey to Santiago de Compostela in Spain To bless its visitors, demonstrate their piety, and help them be saved on Judgment day To inspire (or scare) Christians into behaving in a holy manner that would ultimately lead them to Heaven Reminder to both pilgrims and monks/clergymen There was a lot of misuse of church offices at the time amongst clergymen (even though it was a sin) To venerate Christ, and commemorate his sacrifice on the cross as a second chance for mankind's salvation Main Portal (South entrance, with Tympanum over the doors) Interior shot, from apse area, looking towards South entrance and the nave. Arcade covered by a Pediment (detail of the Tympanum, South/Predominant portal) The House of Paradise, on the side of the Saved Abraham sits centrally, surrounded by Saints God gestures towards a kneeling Sainte Foy CONTENT Barrel-vaulted nave, with arches on the interior Nave, apse, 1 side aisle on each side 5 radiating chapels surround the apse (in a semi-circle) Prominent transept (cruciform church) Elaborately carved Tympanum on the South Portal of Christ and the Last Judgment Semi-circular relief carving above the doors to the central portal Christ sits enthroned at the center His right hand gestures up, towards heaven, on the side of the saved His left hand gestures down, towards hell, on the side of the damned On Christ's right: Mary, Peter, the founder of the original monastery, and an entourage of saints Below the saints on Christ's Right: an arcade covered by a pediment, symbolizing the House of Paradise Houses the blessed/saved; people who will live with Christ forever Abraham is seated at the center of the House of Paradise Above Abraham, the Hand of God reaches out to a kneeling Sainte Foy (Saint Faith) On the pediment's opposite side, right under the enthroned Christ's feet, angels open and release souls from their graves to be weighed/judged by God to determine if they're going to heaven or to hell. A large doorway leads to paradise A gaping mouth leads to hell Clear divide in faith is depicted on Judgment day Pediment of the Lower register of Hell Centrally-seated Devil sits, grinning, surrounded by tortured, screaming souls Figures in intense pain, panic, chaos, and cruelty surround him All represent some capital sin Adultery, gluttony, arrogance, misuse of church offices Devil sits enthroned like Christ: he has the power to Judge and decide punishments for the damned On the Devil's left: a hanged man, representing Judas He hanged himself after he betrayed Christ RELIQUARY OF SAINTE FOY! 33.5 inches tall Head (detail) Spolia: reuses a Roman statue's head FORM Wooden interior covered in gold, silver gilt, and jewels 33.5 inches tall (just over 3 feet tall) Contains Sainte Foy's remains Uses spolia (repurposing of Roman materials to create anew,) the head of the Reliquary was originally the statue of a Roman child's head CONTEXT Originally displayed in a monastery in Agen First mentioned in written history in 1010 by Bernard of Angers He worried it would inspire Idolatry because of its extreme preciousness and expensiveness The monks at Conques conspired and stole it to draw visitors to the small town of Conques Reliquary itself was highly valued: precious metals and gems, ancient headpiece But also contained the bones of Southern France's favorite martyr Sainte Foy, a 12-year-old French, Christian convert lived in Southern France under the Roman Empire in 200 CE Killed at age 12 for refusing to worship pagan gods --> seen as a martyr Occasionally visiting pilgrims donated gems to be added to the reliquary as symbols of their piety/faith Statue gradually accrued a large variety of precious gems, including: agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, garnets, hematite, jade, onyx, opals, pearls, rubies, sapphires, topazes, antique cameos and intaglios Every October (still!) there's a festival in Conques and the region of Southern France that celebrates Sainte Foy Medieval tradition remains in present-day devotion The Reliquary brought (and continues to bring) a great number of pilgrims/tourists to the Church of Sainte Foy, which would otherwise just another obscure, rural church. This was its intention: to bring pilgrims to the tiny town of Conques To build up Conques' commerce and economy CONTENT 33.5 inch-tall statue of a seated female martyr, Sainte Foy A disproportionately large head, repurposed from an ancient Roman statue of a child The remains of Sainte Foy lie inside, hidden to the eye The reliquary is covered in gold, silver gilt, and a menagerie of precious gems Many of which were donated by pilgrims and added to the Reliquary over the years FUNCTION To commemorate Sainte Foy as a Christian martyr and saint To inspire veneration and an increased faith in Christianity Someone died for this cause...even a young child who had barely had a chance to live...so it must be amazing and powerful beyond understanding, right? To draw pilgrims (and now tourists) to the small town of Conques in Southern France To build up the Conques economy Prestige, glory, increased awareness of Conques as a city