Early National America Final

Mercy Otis Warren

(1728-1814) American poet, dramatist, Anti-Federalist, and historian whose proximity to political leaders and critical national events gives particular value to her writing on the American Revolutionary period. During the debate over the U.S. Constitution, she issued a pamphlet, "Observations on the new Constitution," under the pseudonym "A Columbian Patriot," that opposed ratification of the document and advocated the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. She was particularly skeptical of the idea of a "federal" government and thought it sounded suspiciously national. She also wrote a three volume history on the History of the American Revolution, which John Adams criticized for being overly critical of him and other Federalists.

George Washington

(1732-1799) American general and commander in chief of the colonial armies in the American Revolution (1775-1783) and subsequently the first president of the United States (1789-1797). He emerged from the Revolution as the most trusted man in the country thanks to his decision to surrender power at the end of the war (Cincinnatus). He supported efforts to centralize the government after the war, hosting delegates at the Mount Vernon Conference and presiding over the Constitutional Convention. As president, he was very conscious of the power of his actions to set precedents and was careful to show proper deference to the legislative branch (bowing to legislators before his inauguration). He crushed the Whiskey Rebellion and his condemnation of Democratic-Republican clubs resulted in them closing. He declared American neutrality in the conflict between Britain and France and supported Hamilton's reform efforts. The Jay Treaty was protested across the country. He decried partisanship, but Democratic-Republicans like Jefferson and Madison thought that he sided with Hamilton too often. He retired at the end of his second term, setting a precedent. During the Quasi War, Adams called him back to organize an army in case war broke out with the French. Washington demanded that Hamilton serve as his second-in-command when he came back to run the army.

John Adams

(1735-1826) early advocate of American independence from Great Britain, major figure in the Continental Congress (1774-77), author of the Massachusetts constitution (1780), signer of the Treaty of Paris (1783), first American ambassador to England (1785-88), and first vice president (1789-97) and second president (1797-1801) of the United States. His ideas on state governments--bicameral legislatures, a governor with veto power, and life tenured judges--were published in his "Thoughts on Government" and were hugely influential. He was a Federalist. He won the 1797 election, besting Thomas Jefferson, who came in second and so would serve as his vice president. His presidency witnessed escalating tensions with France in the form of the XYZ Affair and the Quasi War. As president, he signed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which targeted opposition to the government and sought to quell dissent. He managed to maintain peace with France but was voted out of office in the heated election of 1800. Later in his life, he corresponded with Thomas Jefferson, his friend turned political foe, about their shared political past, views on religion, and much more. He disliked Hamilton and refused to take as hard a line with France as Hamilton wanted him to, prompting Hamilton to write a political pamphlet denouncing Adams in the middle of the 1800 election.

Charles Willson Peale

(1741-1827) American painter best remembered for his portraits of the leading figures of the American Revolution and as the founder of the first major museum in the United States. He was the son of a convicted felon and an indentured servant. He founded one of the first modern art museums, open to everyone with only a small admission fee. He sought to use his museum to teach Americans to think in a republican, rational way. His museum displayed bones, animal skins, and portraits of distinguished Americans (Washington, diplomats, generals, etc.). These portraits had a profound effect on visitors. Theodore Sedgwick, for example, was moved by the portraits, struck by the fact that there were now American heroes.

Thomas Jefferson

(1743-1826) draftsman of the Declaration of Independence and the nation's first secretary of state (1789-94), second vice president (1797-1801), and, as the third president (1801-1809), the statesman responsible for the Louisiana Purchase. He founded the Democratic-Republican Party. He believed that America should be agrarian, with virtuous yeoman farmers defending the nation. He desired a gentle, removed national government. He wanted to keep manufacturing out the United States and opposed a standing army, which he viewed as the foremost threat to liberty in a republic. He favored France over England in the French Revolutionary wars. Role in the formation of the Democratic-Republican Party: upset with the passage of the bank bill, which he viewed as unconstitutional, Jefferson and Madison turned to Philip Freneau to form the National Gazette, a national newspaper that attacked Hamilton. Presidential Years Tried to call an end to the era of partisanship: "We are all Federalists; we are all Republicans." By this, he meant that most everyone could be convinced to come to his view and that the Federalists would gradually lose public favor. Change in public perception of the presidency: rather than greeting his presidency with tributes and speeches, ordinary American farmers, proud of what they do, sent agrarian gifts (including cheese) and delivered them in person. People viewed him as humbler than the presidents who came before. Change in dress: wore simple, slightly run down clothes (including slippers to greet the British ambassador). He wanted to differentiate himself from Adams and Washington and not come off as 'monarchical.' Change in relationship with Congress: rather than delivering a presidential address in person, Jefferson submitted 'presidential messages' to be read aloud to Congress. Hamilton criticized this practice as unpresidential. Policy changes: 1) Tried to decrease the size of the government. While he couldn't remove Hamilton's financial system and some other Federalist innovations, he focused on curbing the growth of the government. By the end of his second term, the federal bureaucracy had fallen from 127 people to 123 even though the size of the country had doubled. He reduced the number of foreign diplomats, scaled back the army and the navy, and, with those savings, repealed some Federalist excise taxes. 2) Embraced a broad construction of the Constitution to make his Louisiana Purchase. Although he had criticized Hamilton's broad reading of the 'necessary and proper' clause, he used a similarly broad interpretation to give him the power to drastically expand the country's territory and pave the way for westward expansion. Age of Jackson Jefferson felt disoriented by Jackson's persona and the changes in American society.

Abigail Adams

(1744-1818) American first lady (1797-1801), the wife of John Adams, and mother of John Quincy Adams. She was a prolific letter writer. She was also politically adept. At parties, she would talk to politicians like Jefferson and pass along what she was able to find out to her husband. During the American Revolution, she reminded John not to forget the ladies.

Judith Sargent Murray

(1751-1820) American writer during the early republic, remembered largely for her essays and journalistic comment on contemporary public issues, especially women's rights. She wrote "On the Equality of the Sexes" in 1790 and was an ardent Federalist. Like Mercy Otis Warren, she initially wrote under pseudonym but would later have her writings published under her own name. She believed that women, like men, had the capability of intellectual accomplishment and should be able to achieve economic independence, an idea which would go out of style with the adoption of ideas about Republican motherhood. She was an example of a "female politician," one who engaged in political debates, participated in parades, and more.

James Madison

(1751-1836) fourth POTUS and delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He prepared for the Convention by researching past republics in order to garner lessons for the American republic, in which he suggested that the critical task of the Convention was to transform a confederation of 13 states into a conventional Republic with a national government. He convinced Washington to lend his reputation to the Constitutional Convention, ensuring that more states would send delegates and increasing the likelihood that the product of the Convention would pass. He took careful notes of the proceedings at the Constitutional Convention, which were important for preserving the debate for modernity since the meetings were kept secret from the public in order to allow delegates to speak their minds freely. His Virginia Plan was presented by Edmund Randolph because Madison was seen as too radical. His plan called for correcting and enlarging the Articles, proposed a bicameral legislature (lower house elected by people, upper house elected by lower house) with representation based on population, proposed an executive branch with veto power over legislation and the creation of a judicial branch, called for a flexible amendment process, and proposed a process for admitting new states. In the early years of the Republic, he aligned closely with Jefferson, opposed Hamilton's finance reforms (though he agreed to a compromise in which Congress would approve the National Bank if the national capital were moved to the Potomac), helped write the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts, and later became president.

Philip Freneau

(1752-1832) American poet, essayist, and editor. In the wake of the passage of the Bank of the United States in 1791, Jefferson hired Freneau as a translator at the State Department and encouraged him to publish the partisan pro-Republican National Gazette. The paper launched attacks on Hamilton and increased partisanship in the early 1790s.

Alexander Hamilton

(1755-1804) New York delegate to the Constitutional Convention (1787), major author of the Federalist Essays, and first secretary of the treasury of the United States (1789-1795), who was the foremost champion of a strong central government for the new United States. He was an officer in Washington's headquarters during the American Revolution, seeing firsthand the weaknesses and inefficiencies of a weak central government. He served as a delegate at the Annapolis Convention. At the Constitutional Convention, he proposed a pseudo-monarchist form of government where the president would serve for life. On June 18, 1787, he made a six hour speech in which he proposed electing a president and senators for life and proposed turning states into merely administrative centers. As a delegate in the minority of his state's delegation, he wasn't particularly influential at the Convention, but it is thought that his radically centralized plan made Madison's Virginia Plan more amenable to delegates. Economic reforms: he proposed the national assumption of state war debts to build a national credit. This angered Jefferson and other southerners, who argued that Virginia and other states shouldn't have to pay for other states' war debts. Thanks to a compromise he reached with Jefferson and Madison at a dinner, his national assumption of state war debts was passed in exchange for moving the national capital south first to Philadelphia and then to Washington D.C.. He founded the Bank of the United States. Hamilton responded with his defense of the bank bill. Taking a broad construction of the Constitution, Hamilton, pointing to the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution, said that if a goal were constitutional and its method not explicitly forbidden, then it was constitutional. Washington's decision to side with Hamilton infuriated Jefferson, who warned Washington that Hamilton was manipulating the government and wanted to centralize it more than intended. Like his fellow Federalists, he resented popular participation in politics. In 1795, for example, he tried to explain the Jay Treaty to an angry crowd, lost his temper, and proceeded to yell at the crowd that they had no right to have an opinion about treaties. Different worldview than Jefferson: he looked to England as a model, admiring the British government, nationalized banking system, strong army, and strong national government. He wanted to promote good relations with Great Britain.

Aaron Burr

(1756-1836) third vice president of the United States (1801-1805), who killed his political rival, Alexander Hamilton, in a duel (1804) and whose turbulent political career ended with his arrest for treason in 1807. When the 1800 election ended in a tie, Republicans expected that he would step down in favor of Jefferson. Instead, he refused to say one way or the other. Eventually, a Federalist congressman from Delaware broke the stalemate, letting Jefferson win in order to maintain the union. Jefferson dropped Burr as his running mate in the next election. Burr then ran for governor of New York and promised some New England Federalists that if he won, he would take the state out of the union and join a confederacy. His massive electoral defeat and the defeat of Federalists in New England resulted in the abandoning of the plan. How his story reflects that of America Proud of his service during the Revolution: He struggled to live up to the legacy of the Revolution. Attempt to figure out the mechanics of politics: Burr was an innovative political organizer, whom people appreciated having on their side. He famously formed the first campaign headquarters. However, his innovation also turned people away and led many to believe he was an untrustworthy, unprincipled figure. Religion: When a religious revival swept through Princeton with students describing themselves as 'born again,' Burr was worried because he didn't feel it. Westward Expansion: After killing Hamilton, Burr fled west alongside men with guns and met with Spanish diplomats. He, like many white American settlers, viewed the west as a vast opportunity. He was eventually tried and acquitted for treason. Andrew Jackson and the new generation of leaders: Burr stayed with Jackson for a while before heading further west and they both liked each other. Because of Burr's hatred for the Democratic-Republicans, he urged Jackson to run against Monroe, whom he called 'dull and stupid,' in the 1816 election. He further advised Jackson in 1824 to never trust a Virginian. Martin Van Buren, himself an innovative political organizer, liked Burr a great deal and admired his early efforts at greater political organization.

John Trumbull

(1756-1843) American painter, architect, and author, whose paintings of major episodes in the American Revolution form a unique record of that conflict's events and participants. He studied for a time in Europe. He set out to chronicle a history of America and the country's war heroes, famously painting the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Abigail Adams had an emotional reaction to his paintings, saying they teached "mankind that character alone makes history."

Noah Webster

(1758-1843) American lexicographer known for his "American Spelling Book" (1783) and his "American Dictionary of the English Language" (1828). Webster was instrumental in giving American English a dignity and vitality of its own. Both his speller and dictionary reflected his principle that spelling, grammar, and usage should be based upon the living, spoken language rather than on artificial rules. He was conscious of the fact that Americans needed to build their own culture. His "American Spelling Book" (1783) was designed to replace English textbooks and was the first and most widely sold textbook, selling 50 million copies in its first 5 years. It took out u's in honor and changed re to er in theater, etc. He was a firm believer that American English was superior to British English. In 1828, he published his "American Dictionary," introducing 12,000 new words of American origin. He disliked regional variation, believing that New England pronunciation and spelling was correct.

Impressment

(1800-1815) British practice of searching American merchant ships for alleged Royal Navy deserters, carrying off thousands of US citizens into the British Navy. In 1807, the British frigate HMS Leopard went so far as to fire on US Navy frigate Chesapeake and seize four sailors, three of them US sailors. This incident, in particular, created an American backlash as Jefferson implemented a total embargo on trade with Great Britain. The practice of impressment played a critical role in escalating tensions with the United States. Britain's refusal to yield on its policies against neutral shipping pushed Madison to declare war.

William Plumer

(1759-1850) moderate Federalist congressman who set out to write a history of the founding period in the early 1800s. When he discovered congressional documents buried under logs in a lumber yard 10-15 years later, he worried that history was being lost and so set out to write the first history of the Founding. He interviewed Founders like Madison, Jefferson, and John Quincy Adams, pledging to take an impartial approach. When told of his project, Jefferson was both uneasy and pleased. John Quincy Adams argued that this was because there were certain parts of his history in the partisan squabbles of the 1790s Jefferson would rather people forget. Plumer never finished his project. Importance: demonstrated that people were beginning to realize that the new nation was old enough to have a history. Plumer is unique in that he did not try to give the Founding a political interpretation. Many other would-be historians either framed the Federalists or the Democratic-Republicans as the villains.

Citizen Edmund Genet

(1763-1834) French emissary to the United States during the French Revolution who severely strained Franco-American relations by conspiring to involve the United States in France's war against Great Britain. Ignoring Washington's declaration of neutrality, he armed privateers in American ports to operate against the British, bringing relations between France and the United States to the point of war. Impressed with his own popularity with the American public, who hailed him as Citizen Genet, he decided to go over the head of Washington and continued arming privateers in American ports after Washington's Neutrality Proclamation (April 1793). Angered, Washington requested his recall. Democratic-Republicans, on the other hand, tried to explain away his actions, saying that he did not understand the U.S. Constitution (in fact, Genet went out and bought a copy of the Constitution in the middle of the crisis). Realizing that he faced arrest if he returned to France, Genet chose to remain in the United States. Importance: tested powers of the American presidency, strained relations with France, and involved the American public even more in foreign policy.

Tecumseh

(1768-1813) Shawnee Indian chief, orator, military leader, and advocate of an intertribal Indian alliance who directed Indian resistance to white rule in the Ohio River valley. He believed that Indians needed to reject European culture to survive. He preached tribal unity. His brother Tenskwatawa's (the Prophet) passionate sermons led tribes to form meeting house and led young men to commit to resistance. In the War of 1812, he joined British forces for the capture of Detroit and the invasion of Ohio. A decisive battle against William Henry Harrison's US troops ended in Tecumseh's defeat and death.

Tenskwatawa (The Prophet)

(1768-1834) North American Indian religious revivalist of the Shawnee people, who worked with his brother Tecumseh to create a pan-tribal confederacy to resist US encroachment in the Northwest Territory. He advocated a return to distinctively indigenous ways of life and rejected colonial customs such as the use of alcohol, clothing made of textiles rather than animal skins and furs, the concept of individual ownership of property, and intermarriage with those of European descent. The Prophet allowed the Shawnees to be drawn into military action with Gen. William Henry Harrison. Their ensuing defeat discredited him and destroyed the pan-tribal confederacy.

Benjamin Franklin Bache

(1769-1798) American journalist who founded the Jeffersonian Philadelphia Aurora. He frequently attacked Federalist political leaders, including Washington and Adams, helping to politicize the press. His paper's heated attacks are thought to have contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

Henry Clay

(1777-1852) American statesman, US congressman, and US senator who was noted for his American System (which integrated a national bank, the tariff, and internal improvements to promote economic stability and prosperity) and was a major promoter of the Missouri Compromise (1820) and the Compromise of 1850, both efforts to shield the American union from sectional discord over slavery. He was a war hawk before the War of 1812. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency in 1824. His decision to throw his support behind John Quincy Adams and his subsequent appointment as Secretary of State became known as the "corrupt bargain," fueling anger that Jackson had been cheated out of becoming president.

John C. Calhoun

(1782-1850) American political leader who was a congressman, the secretary of war, the vice president (1825-1832), a senator, and the secretary of state. He championed states' rights and slavery and was a symbol of the Old South. He ran for election in 1824 but lost to John Quincy Adams. He, however, supported Andrew Jackson and served as Jackson's vice president. Champion of states' rights In 1831, he openly avowed his belief in nullification. Each state was sovereign, he contended, and the Constitution was a compact among sovereign states. Therefore, any one state could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. Although the tariff was the specific issue in the nullification crisis (1832-1833), Calhoun was actually fighting for protection of slavery, which he feared someday might be abolished by a Northern majority in Congress. Jackson opposed his push for nullification. As a result, Calhoun resigned as vice president in 1832. He spent the rest of his life fighting to stop abolitionist attacks on slavery.

Massachusetts legislature calls on Congress to revise Articles

(1785) Massachusetts legislature called on Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation. Merchants affected by British trade restrictions wanted revisions so that the Confederation Congress could help. However, Massachusetts delegates to the Confederation Congress refused to submit Massachusetts' proposals for reform because they believed that they were too dangerous to suggest and that they might create dissensions and lead to aristocracy. This event illustrates that the path to the Constitution was riddled with people worrying about going too far and overturning the fragile progress they'd made up until that point.

South Carolina Recommended Amendments

(1786) South Carolina came up with some ideas about regulation of trade in their area. The state recommended seven amendments to the Articles. The state proposed reducing the number of states needed to approve changes in regulations on commerce. It got nowhere but did prompt some newspaper discussion.

Nicholas Biddle

(1786-1844) financier who as president of the Second Bank of the United States from 1823 to 1836 made it the first effective central bank in US history. He was President Andrew Jackson's chief antagonist in a conflict (1832-36) that resulted in the termination of the bank. As president of the bank, Biddle sponsored policies that restrained the supply of credit to the country's banks; stabilized the investment, money, and discount markets; regulated the money supply; and safeguarded government deposits. Political Crisis Uncomfortable with a strong central bank and believing that a central bank only served to make the rich richer and take away funds from state banks, opponents attacked Biddle and his Bank. Jackson called the Bank a 'monster' that used its power to curtail the democratic process by extending money to congressmen and senators like Daniel Webster. When opponents to Andrew Jackson tried to force the issue by renewing the bank in 1832, Jackson vetoed it, stating in his veto message that the Bank was an example of 'vested interest,' was unjust to farmers, made the rich richer, and reduced the political and economic rights of the people. Jackson next chose to withdraw federal funds from the Bank and invest them in state banks in order to close it. Biddle responded by calling in loans from state banks. Biddle's decision resulted in another financial crisis that hit once Jackson left office, resulting in Martin Van Buren being known as 'Martin Van Ruin.'

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

(1787) established a process for creating and admitting new states. 1) Congress would appoint a territorial governor and judges. 2) Once a territory had more than 5,000 inhabitants, those inhabitants could write a temporary constitution. 3) When a total free population reached 60,000, the territory's citizens would write a state constitution and apply for admittance to the union. The law forbid slavery in the Northwest territory but provided loopholes for slaveholders already living there. Freedom of religion and other civil liberties were guaranteed, the resident Indians were promised decent treatment, and education was provided for. The ordinances were a major accomplishment of the often-maligned government under the Articles of Confederation. Moreover, the ordinances foreshadowed how the issues of territorial expansion and slavery would become intertwined during the ensuing years.

Gazette of the United States

(1789-1818) paper that ardently supported Washington's government and the Federalist cause championed by Alexander Hamilton. It claimed to be impartial, but actually explained and defended Hamilton's measures.

Federalists

(1790s-early 19th century) early U.S. national political party, which advocated for a strong central government and held power from 1789 to 1801, during the rise of the country's political party system. Parties were generally deplored as inimical to republican government, so both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans resisted organizing except they viewed the other side as a dire threat. Strong division developed over the fiscal program of the secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton, whom Washington supported, angering Madison and Jefferson. Differences with the opposition Democratic-Republicans were intensified by ideological attitudes toward the French Revolution--Federalists feared the violence of crowds while Republicans applauded French ideals. Over the decade of the 1790s, the Federalists stood for the following economic policies: funding of the old Revolutionary War debt and the assumption of state debts, passage of excise laws, creation of a central bank, maintenance of a tariff system, and favorable treatment of American shipping. IN foreign affairs, they observed neutrality in the war that broke out between France and Great Britain in 1793; approved the Jay Treaty of 1794, which terminated the difficulties with Britain but resulted in a nationwide outcry; and sponsored strong defense and internal-security legislation in the crisis of 1798-99 (such as the Alien and Sedition Acts), when French demands almost forced open war. They never held power again after 1801 and some New England Federalists even contemplated secession at the Hartford Convention.

Haitian Revolution

(1791-1804) series of conflicts between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves. Impact on America: Haitian refugees (white, mixed, and slave) challenged how Americans viewed themselves and their revolution. Slavery: the example of Haiti led some American slaves to contemplate revolt, worrying American plantation owners. Looking at the cruelty of slavery in Haiti, American southerners patted themselves on the back for their more "humane" treatment of slaves. Partisanship: that divisions between white colonists paved the way for a slave rebellion served as a testament in the minds of Americans to the idea that partisanship/faction was dangerous. Policy differences: Adams opened trade with Haiti while Jefferson closed trade with the region because he worried about spreading slave revolts.

Charles Finney

(1792-1875) American lawyer, president of Oberlin College, and a central figure in the religious revival movement of the early 19th century. His theological views emphasized common sense and humanity's innate ability to reform itself. In 1830-31, he led a religious revival in Rochester, inviting many denominations to participate. He created devices, such as an Anxious Bench on which people ready to convert sat in a public place, to speed conversions. He portrayed revivals as human creations and did not believe people were predisposed to sin. He described the converted as "born-again." He encouraged women to attend and speak in the hopes that they would encourage men to follow suit. As a result, female converts outnumbered male converts by 2 to 1. He taught people that their destinies were in their own hands.

Quasi War

(1798-1800) undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States and France, which broke out after the XYZ Affair. To protect American shipping, Federalists seized the moment to attack French vessels and build up the U.S. Navy. In March of 1798, Adams gave an address in which he called for building defenses and raising money to prepare for war. Adams recalled Washington to organize the army. Washington forced Adams' hands and said that he would only serve with Hamilton as his second-in-command. As the Federalists prepared for war, they feared international political interference and passed a series of laws to quell unrest and political opposition within the United States--the Alien and Sedition Acts. Importance: partisan tensions reached a fever pitch, with brawls in Congress and threats of nullification.

Democratic-Republican Societies

(1793-1794) local political organizations that formed in the United States to promote republicanism and democracy and to fight aristocratic tendencies. They were inspired by the French Revolution, opposed the British, and supported aid to the French. Most members were from the laboring classes and included many who were traditionally denied a political voice. Federalists feared that these organizations, like the Committees of Correspondence of the American Revolution, would promote revolution. Accusations that political clubs in western Pennsylvania contributed to the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, coupled with Washington's vocal criticisms, contributed to the rapid decline of the groups by the end of the decade. Washington called them "dangerous, self-created" societies and attacked them for claiming to speak for the public. His denunciation destroyed the societies but was termed "the greatest error of Washington's political life" by Madison.

Whiskey Rebellion

(1794) uprising that afforded the new U.S. government its first opportunity to establish federal authority by military means within state boundaries, as officials moved into western Pennsylvania to quell an uprising of settlers rebelling against the liquor tax. Alexander Hamilton had proposed the excise (enacted by Congress in 1791, the first national internal revenue tax) to raise money for the national debt and to assert the power of the national government. Small farmers of the backcountry distilled whiskey, which was easier to transport and sell than the grain that was its source. The distillers resisted the tax by attacking (often tarring and feathering) federal revenue officers who attempted to collect it. Government response: Washington, with Hamilton as his second in command, led 13,000 militiamen to quell the Whiskey Rebellion. The rebellion dispersed with the arrival of troops. Washington blamed the "self-created" Democratic-Republican societies, resulting in many of them closing of their own accord.

XYZ Affair

(1797) diplomatic incident that, when made public in 1798, nearly involved the United States and France in war. President John Adams dispatched three ministers (John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and Thomas Pinckney) to France in 1797 to negotiate a commercial agreement to protect U.S. shipping. In Paris, the ministers were approached by three French agents who suggested a bribe of $250,000 to Talleyrand, the French foreign minister, and a loan of $10,000,000 to France as a prelude to negotiations. The requests appalled the American representative, who viewed them as an insult to America (though in fact it was common practice in Europe). In April 1798, the machinations of the three French agents (called X, Y, and Z in the diplomatic correspondence) were made public in the United States. There was a great outcry over the bribe solicitation, followed by preparations for war. Although a period of undeclared naval warfare ensued between France and the United States, formal war was avoided. Importance: escalated tensions with France, resulted in the Quasi War, and empowered Federalists to pass anti-opposition laws.

Women's Suffrage in New Jersey

(1797-1807) for a brief period in New Jersey, some women were given the right to vote. While many historians had assumed it was an accident, women were in fact deliberately given the right to vote to help Federalists win. The New Jersey law said that "all inhabitants worth $50" were allowed to vote and explicitly said that no one could vote in a township "unless he or she..." In practice, this meant that wealthy widows were allowed to vote. To win their votes, Federalists spoke openly of women's rights

Alien and Sedition Acts

(1798) four internal security laws passed by the U.S. Congress, restricting aliens and curtailing an unrestrained press, in anticipation of an expected war with France. Alien Acts: aimed at stemming the flow of French immigrants to the U.S. They raised the waiting period for naturalization from 5 to 14 years, established a registration and surveillance program against foreign nationals, permitted the detention of subjects of an enemy nation, and authorized the chief executive to expel any alien he considered dangerous. Sedition Act more threatening to Republicans: banned the publishing of false or malicious writings against the government and the inciting of opposition to any act of Congress or the president--practices already forbidden in some cases by state libel statutes and the common law but not by federal law. Its language was so broad that Republicans feared it would chill criticism and free speech. Republican reaction: passage of petitions in states and the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which proposed the theory of nullification. Jefferson called this period "the reign of witches." However, Jefferson cautioned Republicans to be patient while at the same time encouraging state action to resist. Results: no aliens were deported but there were 25 prosecutions, resulting in 10 convictions, under the Sedition Act. 4 of 5 publishers of major Republican newspapers were jailed. With the war threat passing and the Republicans winning control of the federal government in 1800, all the Alien and Sedition Acts expired or were repealed during the next two years, except for the Alien Enemies Act. Importance: escalated partisan fervor, convinced Republicans that Federalists wanted to silence opposition, and culminated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

Roger Griswold vs. Matthew Lyon - Congressional brawl

(1798) in the midst of the XYZ Affair and escalating tensions with France, Connecticut congressman Roger Griswold accused Vermont Republican Matthew Lyon of being a 'coward' during the Revolutionary War. Lyon responded by spitting on Griswold's face. Griswold proceeded to cane him while the rest of Congress watched and some Federalists cheered Griswold. Importance: promoted recognition that the country was entering into a period of intense partisan conflict.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

(1798) measures passed by the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky as a protest against the Federalist Alien and Sedition Acts. The resolutions were written by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson (then vice president), but the role of those statesmen remained unknown to the public for almost 25 years. Kentucky Resolution (written by Jefferson): Jefferson's principal arguments were that the national government was a compact between the states, that any exercise of undelegated authority on its part was invalid, and that the states had the right to decide when their powers had been infringed and to determine the mode of redress. Virginia Resolution (written by Madison): more restrained, they affirmed state authority to determine the validity of federal legislation and declare the acts unconstitutional (nullification) Importance: escalated partisan tensions. While no other states went along with the idea of nullification, the fact that it was considered demonstrates people's sense of crisis.

"Reign of Witches"

(1798-1801) period during which Federalists clamped down on political opposition as tensions with France escalated. Jefferson coined the term to describe what he viewed as Federalist overreach with the Alien and Sedition Acts and other policies.

Election of 1800

(1800) American presidential election in which Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson was elected as the country's third president. Campaigning vicious, dirty, and rotten: Americans' sense of a crisis mentality led many to organize more, raising even greater fears of party and faction. Federalists were less willing to rouse the public to win the election while Democratic-Republicans were happy to do so. Regional diversity in the tickets: Federalists--Adams (MA) and Pinckney (SC); Democratic-Republicans--Jefferson (VA) and Burr (NY) Seemingly modern aspects of the election: 1) Burr created a campaign headquarters in his house in order to deliver New York's electoral votes. He would not have viewed this as "modern" because he simply thought that by providing campaign workers a place to sleep, he was being practical 2) Public debates: Hamilton and Burr debated the political issues of the day outside polling places. That elite politicians were engaging the public in this way was unprecedented and shocked newspapers, though it was pretty genteel in reality. 3) Caucuses: political leaders from both parties/alliances met before they went home to settle on a party ticket. However, this process was very informal. Delegates made personal pledges or promises to vote for people outside their particular region. Northern Federalists said they would not only support a northerner in Adams but also a southerner in Pinckney. These efforts, however, were very weak and there was no method for the "party" to ensure discipline than through personal pledges. Electoral College tie: Before the 12th amendment, each state chose its 2 favorite candidates (one of whom could be from that state and the other had to be from another state). Whoever got the most votes became president and whoever got the second most would be vice president. In 1796, this resulted in the president and vice president being from different political parties. In 1800, this produced a tie between Jefferson and Burr. How the electoral tie was broken: Despite Democratic-Republican expectations, Burr refused to step back. He wanted to be president but had promised on his honor that he would not compete for the presidency. Hence, he just stayed quiet and refused to say one way or the other. Federalists were torn: some were willing to do anything to keep Jefferson out while others (like Hamilton) distrusted Burr as much or more. It took 36 ballots and 6 days for the election to be resolved. During this time, two states, Virginia and Pennsylvania, began stockpiling arms in case they needed to march on the capital to install Jefferson. The threat of civil war or disunion prompted a Federalist delegate from the small and weak state of Delaware, Baird, to abstain and convince other Federalists to do the same because he said that disunion was a threat to the survival of his home state. Results: Jefferson elected president. Embraces a smaller-scale, simpler version of the government. However, he maintains many Federalist policies and adopts their broad construction of the Constitution to make possible the Louisiana Purchase.

Mammoth Cheese

(1801) gift from a Baptist congregation in Massachusetts to President Jefferson upon his inauguration in honor of his republicanism and his support of religious liberty. It was transported by sleigh or wagon from Massachusetts to to Washington. Jefferson's election signaled a democratization of politics. Whereas people serenaded the leadership qualities of Washington and Adams upon their inaugurations, people conceived of Jefferson in a unique way, viewing him as a "man of the people."

Louisiana Purchase

(1803) when the western half of the Mississippi River basin was purchased in 1803 from France by the United States; at less than three cents per acre for 828,000 square miles, it was the greatest land bargain in U.S. history. The purchase doubled the size of the United States, greatly strengthened the country materially and strategically, provided a powerful impetus to westward expansion, and confirmed the doctrine of implied powers of the federal Constitution. Although Jefferson initially feared that the Constitution did not give him the power to purchase the Louisiana Purchase, he eventually decided to set his qualms aside and embrace an expanded interpretation of the Constitution. Federalists feared that it would undermine the influence of New England and felt marginalized.

Federalist contemplation of a northern confederacy

(1803-1804) Angered by Jefferson's decision to expand the country with the Louisiana Purchase, which Federalists feared would reduce the influence of the coastal states and spread slavery, and by Jefferson's decision to fire some Federalist civil servants and replace them with Republican ones, Federalists, such as Timothy Pickering, proposed seceding from the union and forming a separate confederation. Feeling powerless to resist Jefferson's changes, Federalists contemplated breaking away. Fresh off being dumped from Jefferson's presidential ticket, Burr decided to run for the governor of New York and pledged to take New York out of the union if he won. In the end, there was not much support for the idea in New England. Federalists lost elections in many of the states and had to give up their plans. However, the idea of secession was revived at the Hartford Convention during the War of 1812.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

(1804-1806) US military expedition, led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark, to explore the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The expedition of 45 soldiers was instructed to follow the Missouri River to its source and follow the best water route to the Pacific. They were supposed to gather information on the culture and language of Native Americans, opening relations with many tribes. They covered 300 miles and took measurements and noted fauna.

Joseph Smith

(1805-1844) American prophet and founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon Church). Smith lived in the burned-over district in New York and was confused by competing religions. He claimed to have translated the Book of Mormon after an angel led him to it. By claiming that the US was the center of Christianity and proclaiming a new revelation from God and portraying himself as a prophet, Smith attracted followers. At the same time, others were repelled by his theology and thought it undermined the Bible. He was forced to move his church to Illinois, where he was murdered by a prophet. Brigham Young took Mormons further west to Utah. His life is a demonstration of the power of religious revivalism in the United States during the 19th century and Americans' desire for something new.

Embargo Act

(1807- March 1, 1809) US President Thomas Jefferson's nonviolent resistance to British and French molestation of US merchant ships carrying, or suspected of carrying, war materials and other cargoes to European belligerents during the Napoleonic Wars. Competing British and French blockades caught American neutral shipping in their crosshairs. Negotiations between the US and GB were worsened when the British frigate Leopard fired upon the US warship Chesapeake and forced it to submit to a search for British deserters. The Act closed all US ports to export shipping in either US or foreign vessels and placed restrictions on imports from Great Britain. The act was a hardship on US farmers as well as on New England and New York mercantile and maritime interests. It had minimal impact in Europe because French and British dealers in US cotton, for example, were able to raise prices at will while the stock already on hand lasted. American merchants took advantage of loopholes: If American ships were blown off course, they could put in at European ports. Many New Englanders chose to ignore the law altogether, smuggling and evading the law. One positive, though unintended, consequence of the embargo was that Americans began to manufacture things: before 1808 there were only 15 textile mills; an additional 87 mills were open by the time the embargo closed. The law was repealed on March 1st, 1809

Sam Patch

(1807-1829) the first famous American daredevil. He successfully jumped from a raised platform into the Niagara River near the base of Niagara Falls. His celebrity demonstrated that the traditional idea of disinterested public service winning plaudits and fame had been supplanted by a new idea of celebrity that appealed to everyday Americans.

Enforcement Act

(1808) in response to New England evasion of the Embargo Act (1807)< Congress gave customs officials strong powers for search and seizure, which may have compromised the 4th Amendment.

Transportation Revolution

(19th century) The railroad transformed how people, goods, and news traveled. People were blown away by how fast they were moving. The railroads were largely localized operations. During the 1840s, there were more than 400 railroad companies and next to no cooperation. In many cases, they didn't even share the same track size. Railroad companies also changed how people interacted with time. Railroad executives invented standardized time zones, which were formalized by the US decades after railroad executives in the late 1800s.

Macon's Bill No. 2

(1810) intended to motivate France and Great Britain to stop seizing American vessels during the Napoleonic Wars. The law lifted all embargoes with Britain and France. It stated that if either one of the two countries ceased attacks upon American shipping, the United States would end trade with the other, unless that other country agreed to recognize the rights of neutral American ships as well. Napoleon seized on the opportunity to promote his Continental System. Napoleon recognized American shipping rights, though he had no intention of following through on his promise. Madison declared nonintercourse with Britain only for Napoleon to then break his promises. The British were highly offended, escalating tensions with the great power on the eve of the War of 1812.

John Humphrey Noyes

(1811-1886) founder of the Oneida Community, the most successful of the utopian socialist communities in the United States. He believed in perfectionism, the idea that it is possible for an individual to become free of sin in this life through religious conversion and will power. He believed that only those who were completely free of sin were Christians. He declared himself free of sin and in a state of perfection. Hence, he believed he did not have to conform to the rules of society. In 1847, he set up a utopian society, envisioning a shared society without ownership. Unlike other socialist communities, he accepted money from the outside world for products produced at Oneida, helping Oneida last longer than other utopian communities. However, in 1881, Noyes' unorthodox views about marriage--he did not believe in marriage between 2 people--and mating--he wanted older people to mate with younger ones--led him to flee to Canada to avoid prosecution.

Hartford Convention

(1814) a secret meeting in Hartford, Connecticut, of Federalist delegates from Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont who were dissatisfied with President James Madison's mercantile policies and the progress of the War of 1812, as well as long resentful over the balance of political power that gave the South, particularly Virginia, effective control of the national government. The more extreme delegates raised the possibility of secession, but others sought only to dictate amendments to the Constitution that would protect their interests. Ultimately, the convention adopted a strong states' rights position and expressed its grievances in a series of resolutions against military conscription and commercial regulations. Its suggested constitutional amendments were: limit the presidency to one term; forbid consecutive presidents from coming from the same state; ban embargoes lasting more than 60 days; eliminate the 3/5 clause. Unfortunately for the Federalists, its timing was disastrous. Shortly thereafter, news arrived both of the end of the War of 1812 and Jackson's victory at New Orleans. The Convention's secrecy and implied threats of secession made many view the Federalists as unpatriotic and traitorous. As a result, the Federalists' presence on the national stage evaporated.

Battle of New Orleans

(1815) US victory against Great Britain in the War of 1812 and the final battle of that conflict. Both the British and American troops were unaware of the peace treaty that had been signed between the two countries in Ghent. Jackson's victory elevated him to national prominence and made Federalists appear unpatriotic after they contemplated secession at the Hartford Convention.

Era of Good Feelings

(1816-1824) national mood of the United States, a term coined by a New England newspaper in response to President Monroe's tour of New England. It began in 1815 with the end of the Napoleonic Wars, since American citizens could afford to pay less attention to European political and military affairs. The good feelings were stimulated by two 1816 events: 1) the enactment of the first US avowedly protective tariff and the establishment of the second National Bank. Thanks to the ill-timed Hartford Convention, Federalists retreated from the national stage. During this period, sectional interests collided regarding slavery and expansion with the Missouri Compromise. The divisive 1824 election ended the era and signaled growing party politics.

Second Bank of the United States

(1816-1836) Led by Nicholas Biddle from 1823 to 1836, the Second Bank of the United States took on central banking responsibilities. The bank sponsored policies that restrained the supply of credit to the country's banks; stabilized the investment, money, and discount markets; regulated the money supply; and safeguarded government deposits. However, the bank became known in the South and the West as 'the monster' and the enemy of the common people. Jackson argued that the bank used its powers to curtail the democratic process by extending money to congressmen like Daniel Webster. Clay and other Whigs championed the bank against the Jacksonian Democrats, bringing about the renewal four years early in 1832 of its charter. Jackson promptly vetoed the bank renewal act as unconstitutional. In a demagogic veto message, he depicted the bank as the 'prostration of our Government to the advancement of the few at the expense of the many.' Jackson decided to scuttle the bank ahead of time by withdrawing US deposits from the Bank of the United States and placing them in various state-chartered private institutions. Biddle fought Jackson's decision by calling in loans from state banks, resulting in a financial crisis after Jackson left office.

Erie Canal

(1817-1825) historic waterway of the United States, connecting the Great Lakes with New York City via the Hudson River at Albany. It was the first canal in the United States to connect western waterways with the Atlantic Ocean. Funded by New York State, it was constructed between 1817 and 1825. Its success propelled New York City into a major commercial center and encouraged canal construction throughout the United States. An ambitious project, it stretched 263 miles, bridging rivers and streams and piercing through rocks. It inspired Americans, who trumpeted the grand implications of the project, arguing that it demonstrated the superiority of American civilization to that of the New World. It connected western markets with eastern ones. Inspired, Americans in other states also wanted canals of their own: middling farmers wanted access to markets.

James Tallmadge

(1819) American abolitionist and congressman from New York who attempted to add an antislavery amendment to legislation granting Missouri statehood in 1819. There ensued an ugly and rancorous debate over slavery and the federal government's right to restrict slavery. The Tallmadge amendment prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and provided for emancipation of those already there when they reached age 25. The amendment passed the House and failed in the Senate. The body politic in the North rallied in support of the amendment. The Missouri Compromise, crafted by Henry Clay, allowed Missouri to enter the union at the same time as Maine, a free state, and banned slavery north of the 36th parallel, the southern border of Missouri. The Tallmadge Amendment resulted in harsh sectional divisions, foreshadowing the Civil War. Although slavery had been a divisive issue in the US for decades, never before had sectional antagonism been so overt and threatening as it was in the Missouri crisis.

Missouri Compromise

(1820) measure worked out between the North and the South and passed by the US Congress that allowed for admission of Missouri as the 24th state. Brokered by Henry Clay--a Kentucky Whig--it admitted Maine at the same time to maintain a delicate sectional balance (at the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states) and prohibited slavery north of Missouri in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase. It marked the beginning of the prolonged sectional conflict over the extension of slavery that led to the American Civil War. Jefferson criticized the agreement as the "death knell of the union," because it set slave and free states in permanent opposition.

Utopian communities

(1820s-1880s) an experimental, optimistic movement that was based on the idea that reform of the human condition was possible. These communities were designed by intellectuals as an alternative to capitalism. They became increasingly popular in the 1830s following an economic depression and reflected the mood of American society. Examples: Robert Owen's New Harmony; John Humphrey Noyes' Oneida; Brookfarm (creation of Transcendentalists; believed in rationalism and preached "industry without drudgery," a popular appeal with the Industrial Revolution. Like the others, it ultimately failed.)

Monroe Doctrine

(1823) Devised by John Quincy Adams, it became the cornerstone of US foreign policy. Concerned that continental powers would attempt to restore Spain's former colonies in Latin America, the British approached Adams about issuing a joint declaration opposing European intervention in South America. Adams, however, devised a unilateral approach. Declaring that the Old World and New World had different systems and must remain distinct spheres, Monroe made four basic points: 1) the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of or wars between European powers; 2) the United States recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere; 3) the Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization; and 4) any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States. It did not have a large immediate impact since the US was still a relatively minor power. It demonstrated growing American confidence on the world stage in the wake of the War of 1812.

Indian Removal Act

(1830) first major legislative departure from the US policy of officially respecting the legal and political rights of American Indians. The act authorized the president to grant Indian tribes unsettled western prairie land in exchange for their desirable territories within state borders, from which the tribes would be removed. The rapid resettlement of land east of the Mississippi River made it clear by the mid-1820s that the white man would not tolerate the presence of even peaceful Indians there. Andrew Jackson vigorously promoted this new policy, arguing that Indian tribes deserved no special nation status, that the US had ultimate control over these lands, and that he was protecting Indians from white settlers. In reality, he was privileging white settlers by opening new territories for them at Indians' expense. In the southeast, the Five Civilized Tribes (Chickasaw, Choctaw, Seminole, Cherokee, and Creek) refused to trade their cultivated farms for the promise of strange land in the Indian Territory with a so-called permanent title to that land. Many of these Indians had homes, representative government, children in missionary schools, and trades other than farming. Some 100,000 tribesmen were forced to march westward under US military coercion in the 1830s; up to 25% of the Indians perished en route. The trek of the Cherokee (1838-39) became known as the infamous Trail of Tears.

The Whig Party

(1834-1854) major political party that espoused a program of national development but foundered on the rising tide of sectional antagonism. It was formally organized, bringing together a loose coalition of groups united in their opposition to what party members viewed as the executive tyranny of King Andrew Jackson. They borrowed the name Whig from the British party opposed to royal prerogatives. They supported the supremacy of Congress over executive branch. They supported modernization and economic protectionism. Henry Clay was a prominent Whig, who espoused his American system of favoring government support for a modern, industrial economy. His system proposed an ambitious program of internal improvements funded by public land sales.

Trail of Tears

(1838-39) the forced relocation during the 1830s of Eastern Woodlands Indians of the Southeast region of the United States (including Cherokee, Creek, Chickaasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole) to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Estimates based on tribal and military records suggest that approximately 100,000 indigenous people were forced from their homes during that period and some 15,000 died during the journey west. The term Trail of Tears invokes their collective suffering. Cause Gold rush on Indian lands. Georgia extended its laws over Cherokee lands. When the Cherokees petitioned the federal government, Jackson withdrew federal forces, saying it was a matter for the states and ignoring a Supreme Court ruling. As tribal unity broke down, the US government negotiated with rogue Cherokees to buy the lands and then forcibly removed 18,000 Cherokees, 25% of whom died. The Indian Removal Act (1830) entitled the president to negotiate with the eastern nations to effect their removal to tracts of land west of the Mississippi and provided some $500,000 for transportation and for compensation to native landowners. Importance An example of Jackson privileging white settlers at the expense of Native Americans.

Second Great Awakening

(19th century) Protestant religious revival in the United States. Americans' sense that their country was transforming into a new world order led many to desire a more direct and personal relationship with religion. Successful ministers preached in humble, plain words, democratizing heaven. Leaders saw themselves as preaching a new form of Christianity, one that preached a return to gospel. It began as a series of camp meetings in Connecticut in the 1790s, culminating in mass conversions. Camp meetings were emotional affairs, as people listened to revivalists claim that the second coming of Jesus Christ was near. The Methodists especially embraced this trend, growing to become the largest protestant denomination by 1844 with over 1 million members. Traveling Methodist preachers emphasized that religion was a matter of the heart, not the mind. Parts of New York, known as the burnt-over districts, were especially swept over by the flames of religious revivalism.

Market Revolution

(19th century) a historical model which argues that there was a drastic change of the American economy that disoriented and coordinated all aspects of the market economy. Characteristics: 1) Industry and capitalistic markets grew dramatically 2) New kinds of transportation and technology became widely available: linked Americans together in new ways 3) Changing economic possibilities led to changing cultural assumptions: mindsets changed Market Revolution further divided north and south. The south became a "kingdom of cotton" while the north experienced heavy industrialization. Unequal distribution of income: In 1840, the top 1% owned 40% of the nation's wealth. Change in family structure: It shifted focus from subsistence farming to farming for markets. As a result, some farm families accumulated more cash, chipping away at the Jeffersonian ideal and increasing demand for manufactured goods. Change in nature of work: Workers, whether they be teenage girls working 16 hours a day or adults, no longer created the whole thing, they created a part of something in assembly lines. Growth of urban centers: Single women found work in cities. Family structure changed as a result. Financial Panics: Frequent mass financial panics led some to question capitalism and look for alternatives. As community ties declined, confidence men grew, relying on the fact that people no longer knew everyone in their communities. With conmen also came detectives.

Western Expansion

(19th century) movement of settlers into the American West. It was part of a process of national definition, in which land played a leading part. The availability of land in North America set the continent apart from Europe. Plentiful land was also critical to Jefferson's vision of an ideal republic of small, independent farmers. Jefferson aimed to create an "Empire of Liberty." Unfortunately, slavery spread along with the nation and the lands were seized from Native Americans

"Thoughts on Government" by John Adams

(April 1776) A response to the concluding section of Thomas Paine's "Common Sense," Adams' work argued that new governments should preserve the separation of powers. He opposed the idea of a one-house legislature without an executive (Pennsylvania model) because it could not act quickly or secretly, could not act as a judicial body, and would be unstable. He advocated for annual elections to a bicameral legislature, which would elect a governor who would have a veto and would appoint judges with tenure for life. Most state governments would be consistent with his ideas: preserving some of the features of Anglo-American government like a bicameral legislature that Adams thought were effective.

Neutrality Proclamation

(April 1793) an announcement by George Washington that declared the U.S. neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain. It threatened legal proceedings against any American providing assistance to any country at war. Nevertheless, Genet ignored the proclamation and continued to arm privateers in American ports. This worsened relations with France and resulted in Washington requesting Genet's recall.

Debating the draft of the Constitution

(August 6 - September 10, 1787) the delegates debated the draft. Most delegates had doubts. Hamilton had serious doubts but considered it better than the status quo; he even went so far as to consider scenarios and expected failure. Benjamin Franklin, for one, was surprised at the quality of the constitution.

National Gazette

(Fall of 1791) formed in the wake of the passage of the Bank of the United States, this paper criticized Hamilton. With Jefferson's support--he actually hired Freneau to serve as a translator in the State Department--the paper attacked Hamilton and took Jefferson and Madison's opposition to the American people. In response, Hamilton, writing under pseudonyms, attacked Jefferson in other papers. Along with the Gazette of the United States, this partisan paper helped escalate partisanship in the early republic

Bank of the United States

(February 1791) central bank chartered by the U.S. Congress at the urging of Alexander Hamilton and over the objections of Thomas Jefferson. The extended debate over its constitutionality contributed significantly to the development of political alliances in the form of Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. Hamilton thought it could 1) provide short-term loans to the government, 2) deposit government funds, 3) assist in tax collection, and 4) finance business and attract investments from the wealthy. Opposition centered on its constitutionality and the possibility that its location in Philadelphia would stop the capital from moving further south. When it was passed in February of 1791, Washington, unsure of its constitutionality, polled his cabinet. Taking a strict construction view of the Constitution, Madison, Randolph, and Jefferson all said it was unconstitutional. On February 21, 1791, Hamilton responded with his defense of the bank bill. Taking a broad construction of the Constitution, Hamilton, pointing to the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution, said that if a goal were constitutional and its method not explicitly forbidden, then it was constitutional. Washington's decision to side with Hamilton infuriated Jefferson, who warned Washington that Hamilton was manipulating the government and wanted to centralize it more than intended. Washington ignored his attacks and gave Hamilton a chance to respond. The passage of the bank bill played a significant role in Jefferson and Madison's decision to take their opposition public through the press.

War of 1812

(June 1812 - February 1815) conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain over British violations of US maritime rights. America was ill-prepared for war. Jefferson had refused to build up an armed force, only investing in gunboats. Thankfully, Adams' investments in frigates like the USS Constitution paid off. The US won a number of early naval victories, fueling pride. However, these ships were quickly blockaded into American ports and taken out of the war. The war began to turn against the United States. Madison's plans to invade Canada backfired, as old generals suffered military setbacks. Washington D.C. was burned in 1814. During the British attack on Fort McHenry with British rockets, Francis Scott Key wrote our national anthem, celebrating national survival. British rockets, though inaccurate, scared American soldiers. However, Dolly Madison managed to save a portrait of Washington. In August 1814, America and Britain signed the Treaty of Ghent, returning to their prewar boundaries. Jackson's victory in New Orleans, though after the peace treaty had been signed, restored American confidence and made Andrew Jackson a military hero. Symbolic importance of the war 1) showed American republic could fight with a world superpower and convinced many that the American experiment could last. 2) showed republics could fight without embracing tyranny. 3) the Battle of New Orleans raised General Jackson to prominence.

Newburgh Conspiracy

(March 1783) officers in Washington's army threatened to overthrow Congress to demand pay. Soldiers were unhappy that they hadn't been paid for some time and that the pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. Washington confronted the officers and broke the conspiracy. Before reading a letter, he took a moment to put his glasses on and said, "Gentlemen, you must pardon me, for I have grown not only gray but almost blind in service to my country." To which the officers began crying. Shortly thereafter, Congress approved a compromise agreement in which it funded some of the pay arrears and granted soldiers five years of full pay instead of a lifetime pension of half pay. This incident demonstrated the fragility of the Confederation Congress and the admiration with which George Washington was held by Americans.

Mount Vernon Conference

(March 25-28, 1785) Meeting between Virginia and Maryland to work out differences over commercial navigation on the Potomac River. They settled local navigation matters, settled custom duties, agreed on how currencies should interact, and recommended they reconvene annually, an important step toward continental unity. They even agreed to invite Delaware and Pennsylvania to next year's conference. Madison submitted the agreement to the Virginia legislature and it met with such success that Virginia invited all the states to send representatives to a convention the next year at Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss common problems of commerce and navigation. James Madison viewed this as an opportunity for states to talk to one another and form closer cooperation. Washington became personally involved in the conference when a scheduling snafu resulted in only 5 delegates showing up. He invited the delegates to his home--role of Washington in promoting a stronger government. Important because it illustrated the way commercial conflicts contributed to the movement toward a more centralized government.

Constitutional Convention

(May - September 17, 1787) convention that drew up the Constitution of the United States. All the states except Rhode Island responded to an invitation issued by the Annapolis Convention of 1786 to send delegates. George Washington presided over the Convention, which was conducted in complete secrecy to allow delegates to speak freely. Important issues they considered: 1) Representation: Connecticut Compromise made proportion representation in the lower house and 2 votes per state in the Senate, overcoming the conflict between large and small states. 2) Slavery: On August 8, 1787, delegates from northern states attacked slavery on moral grounds and proposed not counting slaves in representation. The south reacted strongly, defending slavery on moral and economic grounds. Fears of disunion led to a non-debate with leaders accepting the 3/5 compromise (count 3/5 of a state's slave population when determining representation), which boosted southern political power, and a provision that Congress could not end the slave trade until 1808. The issue was only discussed for 3 days in August out of a 4 month convention. 3) National executive: Since the Revolution was a revolt against centralized power, many feared a powerful executive. Others feared that without a strong executive, the union would dissolve. As a compromise, they agreed that the executive would serve a 4 year term and would be elected by electors in separate states (the Electoral College) to reassure state advocates. However, the executive was given surprising amounts of power, a veto over legislation (could be overturned) and would have the power of commander-in-chief in wartime. 4) Federalism: creating a strong, centralized federal government was frightening to many, who worried that it would swallow state governments. As a compromise, they formed a federal republic, which divided power between state governments and the federal government. It was seen as an experimental innovation.

The Federalist Essays

(October 1787- May 1788) series of 85 essays written pseudonymously (Publius) by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay that staged a broad, comprehensive, step-by-step defense of the Constitution in an effort to persuade New York state voters to support ratification. It advocated for the benefits of federalism, not nationalism, arguing that an energized government could be created to protect from threats without trampling states' rights or people's rights. It argued that a strong central government could limit interstate conflicts, avoid tribalism, adequately protect the country from outside threats, handle money woes, avoid a standing army because army at will of people, and ensure the government does not overstep its bounds with judicial review and checks and balances. It sought successfully to show that the Articles of Confederation were untenable, explain how new government could meet challenges and not destroy liberty, and show that national government would not take away power from state governments. Not all bought Publius' argument: Mercy Otis Warren, for one, asked "What is a federal government?"

Articles of Confederation

(Proposed in 1777 and ratified in 1781) first U.S. constitution (1781-1789) that served as a bridge between the initial government by the Continental Congress and the federal government provided under the U.S. Constitution of 1787. Because the experience of overbearing British central authority was vivid in colonial minds, the drafters of the Articles deliberately established a confederation of sovereign states. It united 13 independent states into cooperation or confederation together. They agreed to give specific powers to the Confederation Congress and reserved the rest to the states. It consisted of a single-chamber congress, in which each state got one vote. There was no executive branch or judicial system to compel acquiescence. Passing new taxes required the approval of all 13 states. It was supposed to be an improved version of the colonial system, as the Confederation Congress could not tax and couldn't mess with the judicial affairs of states without their consent. It established a rotation in office to avoid new aristocracy: 3 in 6 years for representatives; up for instant recall. It included some regulations on the behavior of states: no state could enter into a treaty or alliance without consent of Congress; no state could create its own confederation without Congress's approval; and states couldn't declare war without the consent of Congress.

Annapolis Conference

(September 1786) an important rallying point in the movement toward a federal convention to address the inadequate Articles of Confederation. Only 5 states sent delegates (NY, NJ, Delaware, Virginia, and Pennsylvania) because some arrived late and others did not want to send delegates because they were worried they would overstep their bounds and decrease state power. While the instructions for the delegates of four of the states told delegates to only deal with trade, New Jersey's instructions told its delegates to consider trade and "other important matters," which gave the delegates sufficient cause to address the larger issues they thought faced the Articles of Confederation. Hamilton wrote the address calling for a national convention as early as 1787 to revise the Articles, which was sent to the states. 8 states passed resolutions calling for a convention to rewrite the Articles and in February 1787, 4 other states joined but suggested a limited revision. Important step along the path to the Constitutional Convention; illustrates how getting to the Constitutional Convention relied on good fortune.

Shay's Rebellion

(September 1786) uprising in western Massachusetts in opposition to high taxes and stringent economic conditions. Armed bands forced the closing of several courts to prevent execution of foreclosures and debt processes. Led by Revolutionary War officer Daniel Shays, 1,200 debt holders marched on the state courts, shut them down, demanded that the Massachusetts legislature act, and seized arms. The Massachusetts legislature called for 800 militiamen to put down the revolt but the militia wouldn't act because they were either sympathetic to the farmers or were farmers themselves. In response, the Confederation Congress asked for money from the states to form an army to put down the rebellion but only Virginia responded. The elites from Massachusetts were forced to form a private army to put down the rebellion. Shays fled to Vermont. The event became a propaganda tool for people like Hamilton and Madison who wanted a stronger government.

Communications Revolution

(late 1840s) The steam-powered printing press and railroad resulted in cheaper and faster distribution of newspapers. The telegraph, developed through private enterprise, sped the passage of news. People viewed it as a way to nationalize politics. The first line, in fact, connected Washington D.C. with Baltimore (1842) and was used by Whigs in D.C. in 1844 to follow the Whig Convention in Baltimore. However, the rapid communications the telegraph fostered also made it very difficult for people to back away from extreme rhetoric. In the 1850s when a congressman pulled a gun on another congressman, a senator stood up and expressed his concern that newspaper reports would create rumors outside of congressmen's control. As the slavery debate heated up, the telegraph had the power to complicate sectional divisions and give press to extremist rhetoric.

John Quincy Adams

(president 1825-1829) sixth president of the United States and eldest son of President John Adams. In his prepresidential years he was one of America's greatest diplomats (formulating the Monroe Doctrine and arguing that the US should issue the Monroe Doctrine unilaterally) and in his post presidential years he conducted a consistent and often dramatic fight against the expansion of slavery. He won the presidency in 1824 after losing the popular vote and Electoral College vote. Because he appointed Henry Clay as his secretary of state after Clay threw his votes behind Adams, Adams' election became known as the "corrupt bargain." Adams hurt his cause further by his refusal to engage in party politics: instead of rewarding his supporters, Adams appointed strong opponents to government positions alongside supporters. At the same time, Jackson and Van Buren worked to organize the Democratic Party and canvass voters. In the end, Jackson won in resounding fashion and Adams became a one-term president.

Andrew Jackson

(president 1829-1837) military hero and seventh president of the United States. He was the first US president to come from the area west of the Appalachians and the first to gain office by a direct appeal to the mass of voters. HIs political movement has been known as Jacksonian Democracy. Military background He joined a militia unit at age 13 during the American Revolution. As a POW, he refused to clean a British officer's boots. After briefly serving as a US senator from Tennessee--and striking Thomas Jefferson as a rage-filled character--he returned to Tennessee. He became a major general in the US army in 1812. His victory at the Battle of New Orleans vaulted him to national prominence and restored American confidence. In 1817, he returned to military service, attacking Seminole Indians in Florida and arresting two British subjects, and executing one, for selling arms. His actions resulted in a public debate in Washington, though Monroe chose not to reprimand him. Jackson threatened to cut off the ears of one senator who criticized his actions. Election of 1824 Jackson was depicted as someone who would help the masses. He won the popular vote and led in the Electoral College. But Clay's decision to throw his support behind John Quincy Adams possibly in exchange for the position of Secretary of State--the "Corrupt Bargain"--elevated Adams to the presidency. Election of 1828 With Martin Van Buren's help, Jackson used party politics and organization to win the presidency in 1828. The people viewed Jackson as one of them. After his inauguration, thousands poured into the Executive Mansion to celebrate alongside Jackson and were only persuaded to leave when refreshments were carried out on the lawn. Tyrant and states' rights supporter He asserted his power aggressively. At one point, he advocated attacking or caning two Whig congressmen who were critical of him. However, he believed that slavery should be left to the states. Presidential Controversies Indian Removal: Jackson advocated for a policy of Indian Removal into reservations in the west. As a proponent of the rights of white farmers, Jackson's policies culminated in the Trail of Tears. When the Supreme Court ruled against Georgia's efforts to expel Cherokee Indians, Jackson made no effort to make Georgia comply with the Supreme Court's decision. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, authorizing Jackson to grant these Indian tribes unsettled western prairie land in exchange for their homelands. When members of the so-called Five Civilized Tribes, including the Cherokees, refused to relocate, military coercion was employed to force compliance. Nullification: Jackson's vice president espoused the cause of South Carolina in his opposition to a high protective tariff. Feeling in South Carolina was so intense that there were covert threats that the state would attempt to prevent collection of the tariff within its borders. South Carolinians like Calhoun espoused the theory of nullification, asserting that their state had the right to declare the law null and void and refuse to enforce it. Jackson responded by rejecting the theory of nullification and asking Congress for authority to send troops into South Carolina to enforce the law. Jackson, however, believed the tariff to be too high and urged Congress to reduce the rates, which it did. South Carolina responded by repealing its nullification ordinance but at the same time declaring the Force Act null and void. Hence, Jackson preserved the integrity of the Union against the threat of nullification. Bank of the United States: Jackson vetoes the bill to recharter the bank, creating controversy. His veto demonstrated his opposition to concentrated wealth. Influence on Party Politics To win election in 1828, he organized voters in unprecedented ways. His highly controversial policies, however, contributed to the formation of an organized, permanent opposition party, the Whigs. Thus, he played a prominent role in creating the Second Party System.

Martin Van Buren

(president 1837-41) eighth president of the United States and one of the founders of the Democratic Party. He was known as the "Sly Fox" to his enemies in recognition of his reputed cunning and skill as a politician. He believed that organized political parties were actually a force for good: they distracted from sectional divisions and so promoted unity and they were useful for expressing people's political demands. Van Buren believed that national political parties allowed the country to avoid the slave issue and hold the union together. He orchestrated a nationwide campaign, canvassing voters and hosting barbecues. He served as Jackson's secretary of state. He then replaced John C. Calhoun as Jackson's vice president after Calhoun quarreled with Jackson over nullification.

Jay Treaty

(took effect in 1796) treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted war, resolved issues remaining since the Treaty of Paris of 1783 (withdrawal of British troops from wilderness forts), and facilitated ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain in the midst of the French Revolutionary Wars. It bitterly divided Americans. Republicans were appalled at a provision that gave Great Britain preferential trading rights. They worried that it would promote aristocracy and undercut republicanism. Republicans believed that the U.S. should be aiding France in its wars after French assistance during the Revolution and France's embrace of the rhetoric of liberty and equality. Mass protests occurred throughout the country, in which John Jay was burned in effigy.

Changes in the Lead Up to Jacksonian Democracy

1) Changes in ground-level political infrastructure: The political convention, or mass meeting of partisan allies to pick candidates, was born. Anti-aristocratic sentiments cast doubts upon the traditional congressional caucus. In its place, some former allies of Burr invited electors to a popular convention, while at the same time choosing the candidates beforehand. Gradually, political conventions became less scripted and public participation grew, though large conventions didn't start until the 1820s. Changes in state constitutions increased popular political involvement. From 1800 to 1820, property qualifications for holding office were overturned, elected offices increasingly replaced appointed ones, voting by voice was increasingly replaced by secret ballots, and the franchise was expanded (nearly universal white male suffrage). 2) Change in Structure of Politics: Fall of the first party system. Federalist influence collapsed during the War of 1812. The ill-timed Hartford Convention and its threat of secession struck many Americans, flushed with victory from the Battle of New Orleans, as treasonous. The "Era of Good Feelings" (1816-1824) followed. President James Monroe's tour of New England convinced many that partisan battles were in the past. However, this period also saw the Democratic-Republican Party splinter into factions over bank policy. 3) Shift in the Focus of Politics: shifted from being worried about foreign contamination to being worried about the nature of union (slavery and state vs. federal power). The Missouri Compromise (1818-1820): The debate over whether Missouri should enter the union as a slave or free state threatened to split the country and tilt the balance of power (at the time, there were 11 slave and 11 free states). Brokered by Henry Clay, the Missouri Compromise admitted Maine as a free state to maintain balance and prohibited slavery north of Missouri. It demonstrates a shift in the focus of politics to the nature of an expanding union and the future of slavery. Monroe Doctrine (1823): Devised by John Quincy Adams and in response to Latin American revolutions, the Monroe Doctrine crafted a unilateral approach. It stated: 1) European powers should not try to establish colonies in North or South America, 2) European powers should not meddle in North American or South American politics, and 3) the US would in turn not interfere with European colonies in the Americas or internal European affairs. It was a broad statement declaring American resistance to European affairs and represented America's growing confidence on the world stage.

4 Important Ideas to Remember about Early National America

1) Early American republic an experiment: participants didn't know how things would work out. They were conscious of the fact that they were creating something new in the modern world--a republic--and were defining it as they went. We need to allow for contingency: idea of untrodden ground with an unclear outcome (Madison, Hamilton, Washington) 2) People knew they were engaged in an experiment and assumed people were watching: founders assumed they were setting precedents (stand for the president? how to dress?). The bounds of power and protest were frequently tested: how much popular protest was healthy? How should American public express their voices? 3) The early Republic could be ugly: early U.S. was was violent, racist, crude (slavery, killing of Native Americans, etc.). Early democratic politics could be ugly (tore each other's reputations to shreds, engaged in duels, engaged in race riots) 4) The real meaning of democracy was not defined: some had rights, others didn't. Protest was viewed as dangerous.

Major themes of the course

1) Nationalism: a complex issue. Separate colonies and then states behaved in some cases like nation-states. The Articles of Confederation maintained this delineation, as Congress could ask, not demand, contributions from the states. People referred to their states as their country and were intimidated by the idea of a 'national' government. Hence, the word 'national' never appears in the Constitution. 2) Republicanism: In early republic, people tried to define what an American republic would mean. They knew that it relied on the power of the citizenry and so maintained the power of voting. A republic of America's size was unprecedented and the result of a series of improvisations. Many assumed, and feared, that the republic would devolve into a monarchy. Politicians performed what they thought a republic should be: Washington took regular walks in the street to distinguish himself from a king and made a conscious effort of bowing to congressmen before his inauguration. "The virtuous republic": Idea that the American government was supposed to be more virtuous did not fade during this era. 3) Democracy: figuring out what democratic politics ought to consist of was hotly contested. Founders debated how much protest should be allowed and which rights should be given to which people. Federalists wanted to keep popular participation to a minimum and feared the possibility of the masses overturning the government. Age of Jackson: rise of mass party politicking 4) Regionalism and expansion: many Americans had a regional identity. They worried about what would happen to their region's interests and rights under the new Constitution. Culturally, many people viewed other parts of the country as foreign. However, we should be careful about drawing a clear distinction between the north and the south as some Northerners defended slavery. New states joining the union raised important questions about nationhood and whether states should be admitted into the union as free or slave states, led to the removal of Native Americans, and resulted in the construction of railroads, canals, and the telegraph which connected people across the country.

How past generations have defined the early Republic

1) Progressive era: Charles Beard's "An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution" argued that the early Republic is best defined as a clash between a narrow group of aristocratic individuals and the people. This definition centers on conflict. 2) Consensus school: remarkable consensus of ideas among the founding generation about justice, rights, and liberty. This school focused on shared ideas about citizenship and rights. 3) 1960s social history: looked at everyday life of common person and pushed politics into the background. It focused a lot on voting statistics. 4) Today: used central insight of social history to answer the question of how did the average American experience politics. Looks at the culture of politics.

Four Main Issues of the Constitutional Convention

1) Representation: Connecticut Compromise made proportion representation in the lower house and 2 votes per state in the Senate, overcoming the conflict between large and small states. 2) Slavery: On August 8, 1787, delegates from northern states attacked slavery on moral grounds and proposed not counting slaves in representation. The south reacted strongly, defending slavery on moral and economic grounds. Fears of disunion led to a non-debate with leaders accepting the 3/5 compromise (count 3/5 of a state's slave population when determining representation), which boosted southern political power, and a provision that Congress could not end the slave trade until 1808. The issue was only discussed for 3 days in August out of a 4 month convention. 3) National executive: Since the Revolution was a revolt against centralized power, many feared a powerful executive. Others feared that without a strong executive, the union would dissolve. As a compromise, they agreed that the executive would serve a 4 year term and would be elected by electors in separate states (the Electoral College) to reassure state advocates. However, the executive was given surprising amounts of power, a veto over legislation (could be overturned) and would have the power of commander-in-chief in wartime. 4) Federalism: creating a strong, centralized federal government was frightening to many, who worried that it would swallow state governments. As a compromise, they formed a federal republic, which divided power between state governments and the federal government. It was seen as an experimental innovation.

Jackson's Campaign Against Privilege

1) Rotation in Office: Since 1800, Republicans controlled the government and appointments. When Jackson took over, he decided that jobs would only last 4 years and then appointees would have to return to private enterprise. He argued that government jobs were so simple anyone could perform them. He saw himself as preventing an elite, unelected bureaucracy. Less nobly, the policy also opened federal jobs Jackson could give to loyal Democrats. As a result, he managed to privilege people from his own party through what would come to be known as the spoils system. 2) Indian Removal: Native American tribes claimed to have a special place as nations within the nation. Jackson rejected this interpretation, calling Indian treaties "absurd" and stating that Indians were subjects of the United States. In defense of his Indian removal policy, Jackson claimed that the US had ultimate control over Indian lands and that he was actually protecting Indians from white settlers. In reality, he was privileging white settlers by opening new territories for them. 3) War against the Bank of the United States: Jackson hated the Bank because he said it embodied privilege, favoring money men and the rich and promoting aristocracy. Jackson called the Bank a 'monster' that used its power to curtail the democratic process, extending money to congressmen and senators like Daniel Webster. In 1829, he came out against the Bank. His opponents viewed his opposition as a vulnerability; they proposed a renewal of the Charter to make Jackson look bad. In 1832, Congress passed the Bank renewal bill and Jackson vetoed it. Jackson's veto message, aimed at the American public, said that the Bank was an example of 'vested interest' and only made the rich richer, was unjust to farmers, and reduced political and economic rights of the people. Jackson then chose to withdraw federal funds from the Bank and invest them in state banks. Biddle fought this by calling in loans from state banks, producing a financial panic once Jackson left office ("Martin Van Ruin")

To what extent was the election of 1800 revolutionary?

1) Unprecedented transfer of power from one governing coalition to another: experimenting with what that means (is Jefferson allowed to fire civil servants and replace them with Republicans?)

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

1) didn't garner much respect even from the people elected to serve in the Confederation Congress: some chose not to even attend, so no quorum was possible. 2) Vermont Controversy and Congress' failure to act: New York and New Hampshire both claimed territory that became Vermont. Vermonters declared themselves an independent republic and state independent from New York. The Governor of NY asked Congress to do something. There was even some discussion in Vermont of reuniting with Great Britain if Great Britain would recognize them as an independent republic. Nevertheless, Congress didn't act until discussions commenced between Vermont and the governor of Quebec, at which point Congress offered Vermont potential statehood. Later, Congress withdrew its offer, leaving Vermont in limbo. 3) September 1786 - Shay's Rebellion: uprising in western Massachusetts in opposition to high taxes and stringent economic conditions. Armed bands forced the closing of several courts to prevent execution of foreclosures and debt processes. Led by Revolutionary War officer Daniel Shays, 1,200 debt holders marched on the state courts, shut them down, demanded that the Massachusetts legislature act, and seized arms. The Massachusetts legislature called for 800 militiamen to put down the revolt but the militia wouldn't act because they were either sympathetic to the farmers or were farmers themselves. In response, the Confederation Congress asked for money from the states to form an army to put down the rebellion but only Virginia responded. The elites from Massachusetts were forced to form a private army to put down the rebellion. Shays fled to Vermont. The event became a propaganda tool for people like Hamilton and Madison who wanted a stronger government. 4) Newburgh Conspiracy - officers in Washington's army threatened to overthrow Congress to demand pay. Soldiers were unhappy that they hadn't been paid for some time and that the pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. Washington confronted the officers and broke the conspiracy. Before reading a letter, he took a moment to put his glasses on and said, "Gentlemen, you must pardon me, for I have grown not only gray but almost blind in service to my country." To which the officers began crying.

Important ideas to keep in mind about early national American politics

1) the elite were not in a bubble separated from the people. They needed their votes and often knew their voters personally. 2) The elite and populace were figuring out how to interact. People disagreed over how much public protest was safe. 3) The electoral system is important for understanding the dynamics of the republic and how people at the time viewed and understood politics. 4) need to understand the nuts and bolts of the electoral system to fully understand political ideologies (why Federalists feared too much public participation and Democratic-Republicans supported it)

Development of American Culture

Artists and writers set out to create deliberately American works in order to create an American culture and show that America could be as refined and lofty as the Old World. Artists recognized they were setting precedents. At the same time, they did not entirely abandon European standards. Dress patterns, literature, books were imported from abroad. While fearful of British political ideas and eager to avoid European luxury, Jefferson still wanted access to European knowledge/artifacts of high culture. Jefferson encouraged young American men to understand culture while fearing that young American men would be too impressed and would sneer at what they saw in the US.

Relations between American settlers and Native Americans

Despite the Northwest Ordinance's plans for occupying the Northwest territory, the reality was that western lands were already occupied. Jefferson wanted to obtain lands by treaty and convince Native Americans to take up agriculture and join Anglo-American life. His Indian policy spoke of incorporation but mostly used threats and bribery. Indians resisted settler expansion in a number of ways, determined to maintain their culture and independence. Eventually, Jefferson's approach of assimilation was replaced by Jackson's policy of Indian removal, culminating in the Trail of Tears.

How the political process worked in 1790s

Exceedingly personal: leaders and populace often knew each other very well and interacted during campaigns. Elections represented one of the few times that the political elite felt compelled to demonstrate that they were relying on the people for power. Madison almost lost his first election because he was so reluctant to mingle with the people. The voting process itself was also very personal, as you had to vote by voice in front of the candidates. Sectional: southern elections were very colorful. People traveled to their voting places, where raucous parties were organized. Candidates paid for food and beverages. Violence often broke out. The election of Francis Preston, for example, was contested because his brother had marched soldiers to the polling place and threatened voters if they didn't support Francis. There were also lots of festivities at northern elections but they were usually less violent. Fear of ambition: Because the government was seen as vulnerable and prone to collapse, voters feared demagogues. To soothe their fears, politicians used indirection. Rather than saying "I'm running for office," they would say "my friends have put me forward for office." This extended to the presidential level. During the 1800 election, Adams and Jefferson had to appear uninterested in the results.

Communications in the era

How the public learned what was happening with their government: Congressmen would 1) write a letter to a friend and instruct him that he could show to others; 2) write a circular letter, which was meant to be passed around within a community; and 3) mail newspapers home. They also learned from newspapers, which were read aloud in taverns, passed from person-to-person, and depended on communication.

Jefferson's evolving ideas about slavery

In 1776, Jefferson expressed antislavery sentiments, blaming the King of England for the slave trade. He drafted a bill to ban slavery in western territories after 1800, but found it personally painful to defend. As president, he no longer expected abolition. By 1814, he refused to publicly approve a man's plan to free his slaves and move west. In 1819, he argued that the expansion of slavery would diffuse slavery over a large area and weaken slavery. In 1820, he described the Missouri Compromise as a terrifying alarm of the dissolution of the Union.

Massive American Growth

In 1815, there were 18 states. In 1860, there were 33. In 1814, America had a population of 8 million. In 1860, America's population was up to 31 million, a 33% increase each decade. During the 1830s, there were 600,000 immigrants to the United States. During the 1850s, there were 2.5 million immigrants.

State constitutions

In May 1776, the Continental Congress instructed colonial governments to adopt new state constitutions without royal authority, a major step towards independence. Congress decided not to draft a model constitution because Congress was unlikely to agree on its form and because Congress believed that each state should adopt a constitution that reflected their own habits and beliefs. However, Adams did publish his recommendations in "Thoughts on Government." State governments featured some common features: property requirements for voting and holding elected office, grounded in natural rights, and limited executive power. There was a sense of experimentation as each state tried to overcome the problems they saw as the causes of the American Revolution. Pennsylvania, for example, experimented with putting the people front and center of the state government: no property requirements for voting, a one-house legislature, making a bill be passed in two legislative sessions before it could become a law, annual elections, and a statewide grand jury that would police government and would be elected every 7 years.

Foreign Affairs and the Early Republic

In this period, Americans acknowledged no separation between foreign and domestic affairs. Foreign affairs was thought to affect the formation of American national character and so was important. The French Revolution: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans split over the French Revolution. Federalists feared the role of mobs in the French Revolution and sympathized with Britain. Democratic-Republicans, on the other hand, sympathized with the ideals of the French Revolution and supported giving aid to France. 1) Throughout the period, the U.S. struggled to negotiate between France and England (Jay Treaty, Quasi War, etc.) 2) Relations with foreign nations tested the powers of the presidency (Genet Affair) and determined the power of the public on policy (mass protests of the Jay Treaty). 3) Deepening divisions and evolving ideas of how republican politics will work occurred throughout the period.

The American Revolution's Effects:

Nationalism: The American Revolution taught Americans to think nationally. By uniting colonists in a shared cause, the American Revolution created a sense of national identity. The Continental Army allowed people to see different parts of the country and fight alongside people from across the country. Officers who worked in headquarters, such as Hamilton, learned about the problems of weak government and localism, as the Continental Congress struggled to supply and pay the army. At the same time, however, life was highly localized: news traveled slowly, people referred to their states as their country, people viewed people from other states as exotic and different, and it was difficult for people to figure out what was happening elsewhere in the country. Northerners thought that southerners were loud, pompous, and dressed colorfully while southerners, like Washington, thought that New Englanders were 'dirty and nasty.' Political engagement: people experienced the war in a profound way, participating in boycotts, fighting, and crop requisitioning. They had a sense of personal involvement that led them to question and debate the future political process and what their role should be in it. Nevertheless, some founders, such as Hamilton, were reluctant to cede too much political expression to the masses for fear that it would result in another revolution, this time against the new American government.

Vermont Controversy

New York and New Hampshire both claimed territory that became Vermont. Vermonters declared themselves an independent republic and state independent from New York. The Governor of NY asked Congress to do something. There was even some discussion in Vermont of reuniting with Great Britain if Great Britain would recognize them as an independent republic. Nevertheless, Congress didn't act until discussions commenced between Vermont and the governor of Quebec, at which point Congress offered Vermont potential statehood. Later, Congress withdrew its offer, leaving Vermont in limbo.

Slavery and Westward Expansion

Northern states gradually empancipated. Westward expansion, however, made slavery a pressing issue repeatedly. The question of whether a new state would enter as a slave or free state led to political debate. At the same time, cotton became increasingly profitable, fueling slavery. In 1820, the union seemed on the verge of dissolution until Henry Clay crafted the Missouri Compromise, dividing the country into north and south.

African-Americans during this period

The American Revolution produced an ambiguous result for blacks. It created the illusion of an American population dedicated to equality and at the same time increased the power of southern slaveholders with the 3/5 clause. However, African-Americans did experience some changes. The Constitution only protected the slave trade until 1808, after which it was banned. Northern states either abolished slavery or adopted gradual abolition plans. The ideas of liberty were spread to the black population, who began using the rhetoric of freedom and liberty to argue for their own emancipation. Some African Americans even published pamphlets arguing for freedom and abolition. However, all these changes prompted white men to clamp down. In the South, this counterreaction consisted of a reaffirmation of black codes and the forced removal of free blacks, who were thought to be a bad example for slaves, to the north. In many northern states, too, free black men lost the right to vote (New Jersey in 1807 and New York in 1821 which removed property qualifications for whites while raising them for blacks, e.g.)

Ratification of the Constitution

The Convention had clearly exceeded its mandate and created an entirely new form of government. Delegates decided that only 9 of 13 states would have to ratify it for the new constitution to take effect. They bypassed the Confederation Congress by requiring states to ratify it, calling on states to form ratification conventions. Things that could have gone wrong: 1) Confederation Congress could have refused to pass along the Constitution to the states; 2) the Confederation Congress could have forced the delegates to revise their plan; 3) states could have refused to hold ratifying conventions; 4) enough states could have rejected it so that it didn't pass; 5) one of the large states like Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, or Virginia could have decided not to ratify. While some in the Confederation Congress attacked the convention for violating its mandate, they voted to pass it along to the states. States formed ratifying conventions to consider ratification. The debate in New York was especially heated, prompting publication of the Federalist Essays.

Mindset of national politicians going into the election of 1800

The Election of 1796 taught important lessons: 1) how localized presidential politics could be. There was no way to organize a national campaign and there was no central place where politicians could collect political information. The country was fragmented--13 different candidates received electoral votes. 2) parties needed to meet before to discuss whom they'd like for president and vice president. Federalists and Democratic- Republicans met in caucuses before Congress adjourned. While this sounds suspiciously organized and modern, in fact they were experimenting: the discussions were still very personal and conversational. Politicians pleaded with one another to pledge to vote for someone from a different region.

Jefferson's presidency

Tried to call an end to the era of partisanship: "We are all Federalists; we are all Republicans." By this, he meant that most everyone could be convinced to come to his view and that the Federalists would gradually lose public favor. Change in public perception of the presidency: rather than greeting his presidency with tributes and speeches, ordinary American farmers, proud of what they do, sent agrarian gifts (including cheese) and delivered them in person. People viewed him as humbler than the presidents who came before. Change in dress: wore simple, slightly run down clothes (including slippers to greet the British ambassador). He wanted to differentiate himself from Adams and Washington and not come off as 'monarchical.' Change in relationship with Congress: rather than delivering a presidential address in person, Jefferson submitted 'presidential messages' to be read aloud to Congress. Hamilton criticized this practice as unpresidential. Policy changes: 1) Tried to decrease the size of the government. While he couldn't remove Hamilton's financial system and some other Federalist innovations, he focused on curbing the growth of the government. By the end of his second term, the federal bureaucracy had fallen from 127 people to 123 even though the size of the country had doubled. He reduced the number of foreign diplomats, scaled back the army and the navy, and, with those savings, repealed some Federalist excise taxes. 2) Embraced a broad construction of the Constitution to make his Louisiana Purchase. Although he had criticized Hamilton's broad reading of the 'necessary and proper' clause, he used a similarly broad interpretation to give him the power to drastically expand the country's territory and pave the way for westward expansion.

Republican Motherhood

a 20th century term for an attitude toward women's roles present in the emerging United States before, during, and after the American Revolution. It centered on the belief that the patriots' daughters should be raised to instill the ideals of republicanism in the next generation. By emphasizing their role as mothers and educators of the next generation, it simultaneously gave them power to demand an education and undermined female efforts to get involved in politics. The idea of republican mothers scared men, who were worried that women could just as easily teach children to be monarchists as they could teach them republican principles. Jefferson, in fact, wrote that women would be to blame if the revolution failed.

Unitarians

a Christian theological movement named for its belief that the God in Christianity is one person, as opposed to the trinity. Unitarian Christians, therefore, believe that Jesus was inspired by God in his moral teachings and he is a savior but he was not a deity or God incarnate. Unitarians did not participate in religious revivals because they viewed them as uncouth. The basic Unitarian idea that Jesus was less than divine gained steam during the Second Great Awakening. They believed morality should be a slow learning process.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism)

a church founded by Joseph Smith. Smith lived in the burned-over district in New York and was confused by competing religions. He claimed to have translated the Book of Mormon after an angel led him to it. By claiming that the US was the center of Christianity and proclaiming a new revelation from God and portraying himself as a prophet, Smith attracted followers. At the same time, others were repelled by his theology and thought it undermined the Bible. He was forced to move his church to Illinois, where he was murdered by a prophet. Brigham Young took Mormons further west to Utah.

Anti-Federalists

a loose political coalition of popular politicians like Patrick Henry who unsuccessfully opposed the strong central government envisioned in the US Constitution and whose agitations led to the addition of a Bill of Rights. While Anti-Federalist thought included a variety of opinions, they shared a number of similar critiques: they were concerned about a potentially tyrannical national executive, feared states losing power (supremacy of the federal government), feared the creation of a standing army, feared an aristocracy, and feared unjust representation. They were ultimately unsuccessful because Anti-Federalist campaigns were usually conducted on a state-by-state basis and the Anti-Federalists lacked an alternative vision. However, their complaints about the Constitution lacking a Bill of Rights resulted in the inclusion of a Bill of Rights after the Constitution's passage.

William Loughton Smith

an American lawyer, politician, and diplomat from South Carolina. A Federalist, he traveled to taverns in the SC backcountry, listening to what people said and wrote letters to friends to tell them what public opinion was. He handed out Federalist newspapers even as he collected opinion, trying to change what kind of news people got and build support for the Federalists.

Democratic-Republicans

first opposition political party in the United States. Formed in opposition to the fiscal program of Alexander Hamilton. Favored states' rights and a strict interpretation of the Constitution. They contended that the Federalists harbored aristocratic attitudes and that their policies placed too much power in the central government and tended to benefit the affluent at the expense of the common man. Republicans supported France in the European war that broke out in 1792, while the Federalists supported Britain. They fought against the Federalist-sponsored Jay Treaty (1794) and the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798). Unlike the Federalists, they embraced mass political involvement and encouraged protests. They came to power with the election of 1800 and then scaled back some of the Federalist institutions while keeping others like the Bank of the United States. Jefferson himself was forced to embrace a looser interpretation of the Constitution to go through with the Louisiana Purchase, angering Federalists.

Robert Owen

founded the New Harmony community in Indiana, one of several utopian communities which sprang up during the 1820s. He was an advocate of utopian socialism. He was a Welsh reformer who first went to the United States to found a cooperative community based on plans for humanity's salvation through rational thinking, cooperation, and free education. He sought to solve social problems and improve individuals through their environment. About 1,000 settlers responded to Owen's public appeal, but most were misfits who ate his rations, argued over government, and were unable to perform the menial tasks vital to such a community. His vision failed after 2 years.

George Rogers Twelves Hewes

one of the last survivors of the American Revolution. He participated in the Boston Tea Party and was present at the Boston Massacre. He later fought in the Revolutionary War. His recollections of being deferential to authority (John Hancock) and being nervous in the presence of his superiors illustrates the hierarchical nature of pre-revolutionary America. He also demonstrates how average Americans found meaning in having lived during the Founding.

Body politic

people engaged in the formal political process (voting). In this period, the body politic consisted of white men with property. The right to vote was limited to those with property because it was expected that propertied individuals were more invested in the community. Thanks to significant land ownership, the body politic was far larger in the U.S. than in Europe. How the body politic engaged in national debate: newspapers linked people with the actions of their government (seen as a 4th branch of government). Newspapers expanded from 100 in 1789 to more than 300 in 1809 as the country expanded. There were more newspapers in the north because the south had fewer urban centers and the south was less literate. These newspapers spread information and the influence of government, which is why the founders put so much stock into building a vast postal system.

Matthew Lyon

served as a U.S. representative from Vermont. In 1798, he got in a fistfight with Federalist congressman Roger Griswold after Griswold accused Lyon of being a 'coward' during the Revolutionary War and Lyon responded by spitting in Griswold's face. In 1798, he was jailed on charges of violating the Sedition Act, but he won reelection to Congress from inside his jail cell. His trial, conviction, and incarceration boosted his status among the Democratic-Republican Party and demonstrated the unpopularity of the Alien and Sedition Acts (at least in some areas).

Jefferson-Adams post-presidency correspondence

the two former presidents mused about their political careers, debating religion, policies, and history. Adams contested the idea that it was clear that the country would get better in the wake of the 1800 election and contested Jefferson's view that the election of 1800 represented a revolution.