EEE

Exotic Birds

Eurasian collared dove- The Eurasian Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto) most often simply called the Collared Dove,[2][3][4][5] also sometimes hyphenated as Eurasian Collared-dove[6] is a species of dove native to Asia and Europe, and also recently introduced in North America. Profile of a Collared Dove. It is a medium sized dove, distinctly smaller than the Wood Pigeon, similar in length to a Rock Pigeon but slimmer and longer-tailed, and slightly larger than the related Turtle Dove, 30-33 cm long from tip of beak to tip of tail, with a wingspan of 47-55 cm, and a weight of 125-240 g. It is grey-buff to pinkish-grey overall, a little darker above than below, with a blue-grey underwing patch. The tail feathers are grey-buff above, and dark grey tipped white below; the outer tail feathers also tipped whitish above. It has a black half-collar edged with white on its nape from which it gets its name. The short legs are red and the bill is black. The iris is red, but from a distance the eyes appear to be black, as the pupil is relatively large and only a narrow rim of reddish-brown iris can be seen around the black pupil. The eye is surrounded by a small area of bare skin, which is either white or yellow. The two sexes are virtually indistinguishable; juveniles differ in having a poorly developed collar, and a brown iris.[2][4][5] It is closely related to the Island Collared Dove of southeast Asia and the African Collared Dove of sub-Saharan Africa, forming a superspecies with these.[6] Identification from African Collared Dove is very difficult with silent birds, with the African species being marginally smaller and paler, but the calls are very distinct, a soft purring in African Collared Dove quite unlike the Eurasian Collared Dove's cooing.[2] • [edit] Distribution Juvenile before collar formation Juvenile with early collar development The Collared Dove is not migratory, but is strongly dispersive. Over the last century, it has been one of the great colonisers of the bird world. Its original range at the end of the 19th century was warm temperate and subtropical Asia from Turkey east to southern China and south through India to Sri Lanka. However, in the 20th century it expanded across Europe, appearing in the Balkans between 1900-1920, and then spreading rapidly northwest, reaching Germany in 1945, Great Britain by 1953 (breeding for the first time in 1956), Ireland in 1959, and the Faroe Islands in the early 1970s. Subsequent spread was 'sideways' from this fast northwest spread, reaching northeast to north of the Arctic Circle in Norway and east to the Ural Mountains in Russia, and southwest to the Canary Islands and northern Africa from Morocco to Egypt, by the end of the 20th century. In the east of its range, it has also spread northeast to most of central and northern China, and locally (probably introduced) in Japan.[2][3][4][6] It has also reached Iceland as a vagrant (41 records up to 2006), but has not colonised successfully there.[7] There are two subspecies, Streptopelia decaocto decaocto in most of the range (including all of the 20th century colonisations), and Streptopelia decaocto xanthocyclus in the southeast of the range from Burma east to southern China. The latter differs in having yellow skin around the eye (white in the nominate subspecies).[6] Two other subspecies formerly sometimes accepted, Streptopelia decaocto stoliczkae from Turkestan in central Asia, and Streptopelia decaocto intercedens from southern India and Sri Lanka,[4] are now considered synonyms of S. d. decaocto.[6] [edit] Invasive species The Collared Dove was introduced into the Bahamas in the 1970s and spread from there to Florida by 1982. It has become invasive;[8] the stronghold in North America is still the Gulf Coast, but it is now found as far south as Veracruz, as far west as California, and as far north as Alaska, the Great Lakes, and Nova Scotia. Some of the more distantly dispersed records may refer to local escapes from captivity.[6] Its impact on other species there is as yet unknown; it appears to occupy an ecological niche between that of the Mourning Dove and the Rock Pigeon (also an invasive species in North America). [edit] Behaviour Collared Doves can become hand-tame in urban areas. Photograph taken in Szczecin, Poland. Collared Doves typically breed close to human habitation wherever food resources are abundant and there are trees for nesting; almost all nests are within a kilometre of inhabited buildings. The female lays two white eggs in a stick nest, which she incubates during the night and which the male incubates during the day. Incubation lasts between fourteen and eighteen days, with the young fledging after fifteen to nineteen days. Breeding occurs throughout the year when abundant food is available, though only rarely in winter in areas with cold winters such as northeastern Europe. Three to four broods per year is common, although up to six broods in a year has been recorded.[4] The male's mating display is a ritual flight, which, as many other pigeons, consists of a rapid, near-vertical climb to height followed by a long glide downward in a circle, with the wings held below the body in an inverted "V" shape. At all other times, flight is typically direct using fast and clipped wingbeats and without use of gliding. The Collared Dove is not wary and often feeds very close to human habitation, including visiting bird tables; the largest populations are typically found around farms where spilt grain is frequent around grain stores or where livestock are fed. It is a gregarious species and sizable winter flocks will form where there are food supplies such as grain (its main food) as well as seeds, shoots and insects. Flocks most commonly number between ten and fifty, but flocks of up to ten thousand have been recorded.[4] The song is a coo-COO-coo, repeated many times. It is phonetically similar to the Greek decaocto ("eighteen"), to which the bird owes its zoological name. It also makes a harsh loud screeching call lasting about two seconds, particularly in flight just before landing. A rough way to describe the screeching sound is hah-hah. Collared Doves cooing in early spring are sometimes mistakenly reported as the calls of early-arriving Cuckoos and, as such, a mistaken sign of spring's return.[4] They are almost always seen in pairs and, like many birds, remain loyal to their mates. European starling- The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae. This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia. It is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia, while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter to these regions, and also further south to areas where it does not breed in Iberia and north Africa. It has also been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, North America, and South Africa. • [edit] Taxonomy In the genus Sturnus, the Common Starling is the type species, the one with all the typical characteristics of its genus.[dubious - discuss] It is in this genus that the terrestrial feeding technique of open-bill probing is most advanced;[citation needed] the technique involves prying into the ground by inserting and opening the bill as a way of searching for hidden food items. Common Starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique, which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide.[1] Along with Sturnus vulgaris, the Sturnus genus includes a number of species which are apparently more-or-less distantly related, but some contend that if the taxonomy is to be based on natural evolutionary grouping, then only the European and Spotless Starling ought to be grouped together.[2] [edit] Subspecies S. v. faroensis on the Faroe Islands S. v. porphyronotus There are several subspecies of the European Starling, which vary in the iridescence of adult plumage. With gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation, the subspecies are said to be clinal. Acceptance of different subspecies varies between different authorities.[3][4][5][6] • Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris Linnaeus, 1758. Common Starling. Most of Europe, except the far northwest and far southeast; also Iceland and the Canary Islands, where it is a recent colonist. Introduced populations worldwide also belong to this subspecies. Nominate subspecies. The gloss is green on the head, belly and lower back, bronzy purple on the neck to upper chest and back, and purplish on the flanks and upper wing-coverts. Inconspicuous light buff fringes are present on the under wing-coverts. In eastern parts of range, more purplish and less bronzy gloss. • Sturnus vulgaris faroensis Feilden, 1872. Faroese Starling; sometimes misspelt faeroensis or faroeensis. Faroe Islands. Slightly larger than nominate, especially bill and feet. Adult with darker and duller green gloss and far less spotting even in fresh plumage. Juvenile sooty black with whitish chin and areas on belly; throat spotted black. • Sturnus vulgaris zetlandicus Hartert, 1918. Shetland Starling. Shetland Islands. Like faroensis but intermediate in size between that and vulgaris. Birds from Fair Isle, St Kilda and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate between this subspecies and the nominate and placement with vulgarisor zetlandicus varies according to authority. Dark juveniles are occasionally found in Scotland and southwards, indicating some gene flow from faroensis or an original polymorphism that became dominant in faroensis. • Sturnus vulgaris granti Hartert, 1903. Azores Starling. Azores. Like nominate, but smaller, especially feet. Often strong purple gloss on upperparts. • Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi (Finsch, 1878). Eastern Bashkortostan eastwards through Urals and central Siberia, to Lake Baykal and western Mongolia. Like nominate, but gloss on head predominantly purple, on back green, on flanks usually purplish-blue, on upper wing-coverts bluish-green. In flight, conspicuous light cinnamon-buff fringes to under wing-coverts and axillaries; these areas may appear very pale in fresh plumage. • Sturnus vulgaris tauricus Buturlin, 1904. From Crimea and E of Dnieper River eastwards around coast of Black Sea to W Asia Minor, though not in uplands where replaced by purpurascens. Like nominate, but decidedly long-winged. Gloss of head green, of body bronze-purple, of flanks and upper wing-coverts greenish bronze. Underwing blackish with pale fringes of coverts. Nearly spotless in breeding plumage. • Sturnus vulgaris purpurascens Gould, 1868. E Turkey to Tbilisi and Lake Sevan, in uplands on E shore of Black sea replacing tauricus. Like nominate, but wing longer and green gloss restricted to ear-coverts, neck and upper chest. Purple gloss elsewehere except on flanks and upper wing-coverts where more bronzy. Dark underwing with slim white fringes to coverts. • Sturnus vulgaris caucasicus Lorenz, 1887. Volga Delta through eastern Caucasus and adjacent areas. Green gloss on head and back, purple gloss on neck and belly, more bluish on upper wing-coverts. Underwing like purpurascens. • Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus (Sharpe, 1888). Western Central Asia, grading into poltaratskyi between Dzungarian Alatau and Altai. Very similar to tauricus but smaller and completely allopatric, being separated by purpurascens, caucasicus and nobilior. • Sturnus vulgaris nobilior (Hume, 1879). Afghanistan, SE Turkmenistan and adjacent Uzbekistan to E Iran. Like purpurascens but smaller and wing shorter; ear-coverts glossed purple, and underside and upperwing gloss quite reddish. • Sturnus vulgaris humii (Brooks, 1876). Kashmir to Nepal. Small; purple gloss restricted to neck area and sometimes flanks to tail-coverts, otherwise glossed green. • Sturnus vulgaris minor (Hume, 1873). Sind Starling. Pakistan. Small; green gloss restricted to head and lower belly and back, otherwise glossed purple. Several other forms have been named, but are generally no longer considered valid. Most are intergrades from where the ranges of various subspecies meet.[5] • S. v. ruthenus Menzbier, 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin, 1904 are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia. • S. v. graecus Tschusi, 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms, 1909 are intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine (where there is some intergradation with poltaratskyi too) and throughout Greece to the Bosporus. • S. v. heinrichi Stresemann, 1928 is an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran. • S. v. persepolis Ticehurst, 1928 from southern Iran (Fars Province) is very similar to vulgaris; it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population of simply migrants from southeastern Europe. [edit] Description Adults and juveniles moulting to winter plumage, late summer It is among the most familiar of birds in temperate regions. It is 19-23 cm (7.5-9.1 in) long, with a wingspan of 31-44 cm (12-17 in) and a weight of 60-100 g (2.1-3.5 oz).[7][8] The plumage is shiny black, glossed purple or green, and spangled with white, particularly strongly so in winter. Adult male European Starlings are less spotted below than adult females. The throat feathers are long and loose, and used as a signal in display. Juveniles are grey-brown, and by their first winter resemble adults though often retain some brown juvenile feathering especially on the head in the early part of the winter. The legs are stout, pinkish-red. The bill is narrow conical with a sharp tip; in summer, it is yellow in females, and yellow with a blue-grey base in males, while in winter, and in juveniles, it is black in both sexes. Moulting occurs once a year, in late summer after the breeding season is finished; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white (breast feathers) or buff (wing and back feathers). The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved by the white feather tips largely wearing off. Starlings walk rather than hop. Their flight is quite strong and direct; they look triangular-winged and short-tailed in flight.[3][4] Confusion with other species is only likely in Iberia, the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa in winter, when it has to be distinguished from the closely related Spotless Starling, which, as its name implies, has less spotting on its plumage. The Spotless Starling can also be diagnostically distinguished at close range by its longer throat feathers.[4] At a more basic level, adult male European Blackbirds can easily be distinguished by more slender body shape, longer tail, and behaviour; they hop instead of walking and do not probe for food with open bills. In flight, only the much paler waxwings share a similar flight profile. [edit] Voice Juvenile The Common Starling is a noisy bird uttering a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical-sounding sounds, including a distinctive "wolf-whistle". Starlings are mimics, like many of its family. In captivity, Starlings will learn to imitate all types of sounds and speech earning them the nickname "poor-man's Myna". Songs are more commonly sung by males, although females also sing. Songs consist of a mixture of mimicry, clicks, wheezes, chattering, whistles, rattles, and piping notes.[9] Besides song, 11 other calls have been described, including a Flock Call, Threat Call, Attack Call, Snarl Call, and Copulation Call.[9] Birds chatter while roosting and bathing—making a great deal of noise that can frustrate local human inhabitants. Even when a flock of starlings is completely silent, the synchronized movements of the flock make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres away.[9] Singing bird showing the long throat feathers [edit] Distribution and habitat Common Starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites. They also commonly reside in grassy areas where foraging is easy—such as farmland, grazing pastures, playing fields, golf courses, and airfields.[10] They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and more rarely in shrublands such as the Australian heathland. European Starlings rarely inhabit dense, wet forests (i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests). Common starlings have also adapted to coastal areas, where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed. Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed for their dispersal and establishment throughout the world—resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests, from sea level to 1900 metres above sea level.[10] Widespread throughout the northern hemisphere, the European Starling is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe, northern Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), northern India, Nepal, the Middle East (including Syria, Iraq, and Iraq), and north-western China. Furthermore, it has been introduced to and successfully established itself in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, North America, Fiji, and several Caribbean islands. As a result, it has also been able to migrate to Thailand, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea.[11] In Australia, Common Starlings are present throughout the southeast, although some isolated populations have been observed in northern and Western Australia. They are prevalent throughout New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, and scattered sites in the southeastern part of Western Australia.[12] [edit] Behaviour A large flock in England It is a highly gregarious species in autumn and winter. Flock size is highly variable, with huge flocks providing a spectacular sight and sound usually occurring near roosts. These huge flocks often attract birds of prey such as Merlins or Sparrowhawks.[citation needed] Flocks form a tight sphere-like formation in flight, frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape, seemingly without any sort of leader. Very large roosts, exceptionally up to 1.5 million birds, can form in city centres, woodlands, or reedbeds, causing problems with their droppings. These may accumulate up to 30 cm deep, killing trees by their chemical concentration; in smaller amounts, the droppings are, however, beneficial as a fertiliser, and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to spread the benefit and avoid large toxic deposits.[13] Huge flocks of more than a million Starlings are observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland, Denmark. There they gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid-April. Their flocking creates complex shapes against the sky, a phenomenon known locally as sort sol ("Black Sun"). To witness this spectacle, the best places are the seaward marshlands (marsken in Danish) of Tønder and Esbjerg municipalities between Tønder and Ribe.[14] Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand Starlings form in areas of the UK just before sundown during mid winter. These flocks are commonly called a Starling "Moot".[citation needed] Starlings are hunted by birds of prey, including the Peregrine Falcon and Brown Falcon.[citation needed] However, in the 1970s the consumption of chemically treated (DDT) crops by the starlings which were subsequently eaten by Peregrine Falcons caused a dangerous build-up of the toxin in the falcon. As a result, lower reproductive success was observed as a result of thinner eggshells and a build-up of organochlorine residues in eggs.[15] European Starling nests are especially vulnerable to predators such as stoats, foxes, and humans. Common Mynas are also a threat, as they often evict eggs, nestlings, and adult starlings from their nests.[16] [edit] Feeding The European Starling is insectivorous, and typically consumes insects including caterpillars, moths, and cicadas, as well as spiders. While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding, starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains, seeds, fruits, nectars, and garbage, if the opportunity arises.[17][18][19] There are several methods by which they forage for their food; but for the most part, they forage from or near the ground, taking insects from or beneath the surface of the soil. Generally, starlings prefer foraging amongst short-cropped grasses and are often found between and on top of grazing animals out to pasture.[19] Large flocks forage together, in a practice called "roller-feeding": where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front of the flock as they forage so that every bird has a turn to lead (1957).[20] The larger the flock, the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging. Flocks often forage in one place for some time, and return to previous successfully foraged sites.[20] There are four types of foraging observed in the European Starling:[20] • Probing: The bird plunges its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found. Probing is often accompanied by bill gaping ('zirkelning') where the bird opens its beak while probing to enlarge a dirt hole or to separate a lump of grass. This instinctual behavior has been observed in starlings eating garbage from plastic garbage bags—the bill gaping results in the opening of holes in the garbage bags that allow for extrication of consumables. • Sallying: When the starling grabs an invertebrate directly from the air, a particularly successful behavior among this species. • Lunging: A less common technique where the s

EE Birds

Whooping Crane(Grus americana)The tallest bird in North America, the Whooping Crane breeds in the wetlands of Wood Buffalo National Park in northern Canada and spends the winter on the Texas coast at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge near Rockport. Cranes live in family groups made up of the parents and 1 or 2 offspring. In the spring, Whooping Cranes perform courtship displays (loud calling, wing flapping, leaps in the air) as they get ready to migrate to their breeding grounds. Reason for Concern:Whooping Cranes are endangered because much of their wetland habitat has been drained for farmland and pasture. From 1870 to 1920, many Whooping Cranes were shot for food and sport. Whooping Crane numbers fell from as many as 1400 in 1870 to only 18 in 1939. Today, there are over 180 Whooping Cranes living in the wild. How you can help: Whooping cranes migrate throughout the central portion of the state from the eastern panhandle to the DFW area and south through the Austin area to the central coast during October-November and again in April. If you sight a whooping crane Size:Nearly 5 feet tall.Diet:Blue crabs, clams, frogs, minnows, rodents, small birds, berries.Habitat (where it lives):Large wetland areas.Range (where found in Texas):The area in and around Aransas National Wildlife Refuge from November through March. Breeds in northern Canada.Reproduction:2 eggs laid in April or May.Population Numbers:Early 1999 counts show 183 birds left the wintering grounds on the Texas coast (with smaller populations in New Mexico and Florida).Interesting Fact:Cranes are considered sacred in many parts of the world. In China, they are a symbol of long life. Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) In the mid-1800's, huge flocks of Eskimo Curlew migrated north from South America to their nesting grounds in the Alaskan and Canadian Arctic. Historic reports tell of the skies being full of Eskimo Curlews as they migrated through the prairie states and provinces. During migration, they fed on grasshoppers and other insects on the grasslands of the central United States. Between 1870 and 1890, unrestricted hunting rapidly reduced populations of Eskimo Curlew. Considered very good to eat, the birds were killed by thousands of market hunters, just as the Passenger Pigeon had been years earlier. The curlew's lack of fear and habit of travelling in large flocks made it an easy target. Note: Special thanks to Don Bleitz for providing images of the Eskimo Curlew. This photo comes from a series of 3-4 shots taken of two individuals, the only known photos of the species anywhere in the world. It was taken in 1962 on Galveston Island, Texas. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:In 1916, nongame bird hunting in the United States was stopped by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, but the Eskimo Curlew did not recover. Conversion of native grasslands to cropland, in the South American wintering area and along the migration route through the tall grass prairies of the United States, is thought to be the reason for the birds' failure to recover. Size:12 inches in length.Diet:Grasshoppers and their eggs, grubs, cutworms.Habitat (where it lives):Variety of grassland habitats.Range (where found in Texas):Migrates from breeding grounds in the Arctic tundra through the North American prairies to wintering grounds on the Pampas grasslands of Argentina.Reproduction:Nest is a shallow depression in the ground on open Arctic tundra.Population Numbers:Thought to be extinct.Interesting Fact:An historic report of a single flock feeding in Nebraska was said to have covered 40 to 50 acres of ground. Northern Aplomado Falcon (Falco femoralis septentrionalis) Aplomado Falcons are most often seen in pairs. They do not build their own nests, but use stick nests built by other birds. Pairs work together to find prey and flush it from cover. Aplomados are fast fliers, and often chase prey animals as they try to escape into dense grass. Parents make 25-30 hunting attempts per day in order to feed their young. Chicks are fed 6 or more times each day. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Aplomado Falcons are endangered because their grassland habitat has been altered by overgrazing and brush invasion. Changing rangeland into farmland has destroyed large areas of habitat. Contamination from pesticides entering the food chain has also reduced the number of Aplomado Falcons. Size:15-18 in. long, 32-36 in. wingspan.Diet:Mostly birds and insects.Habitat (where it lives):Open grassland or savannah with scattered trees or shrubs.Range (where found in Texas):South Texas and the Trans-Pecos region.Life Span:Up to 20 years in captivity.Reproduction:2-3 eggs laid in April and May.Population Numbers:Falcons are being reintroduced in south Texas to bring back the population.Interesting Fact:In 1995, as part of the reintroduction project, the first nesting pair of Aplomado Falcons in Texas in 43 years successfully raised a chick. Southwestern Willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus)General Information Small; usually a little less than 6 inches in length, including tail. Conspicuous light-colored wingbars. Lacks the conspicuous pale eye-ring of many similar Empidonax species. Overall, body brownish-olive to gray-green above. Throat whitish, breast pale olive, and belly yellowish. Bill relatively large; lower mandible completely pale. Best identified by vocalizations. Call a liquid, sharply whistled whit! or a dry sprrit; song a sneezy witch-pew or fitz-bew. While perched, characteristically flicks tail slightly upward. Habitat Requirements For nesting, requires dense riparian habitats with microclimatic conditions dictated by the local surroundings. Saturated soils, standing water, or nearby streams, pools, or cienegas are a component of nesting habitat that also influcences the microclimate and density of the vegetation component. Habitat not suitable for nesting may be used for migration and foraging. Food Habits Primarily flying insects. Movement / Home Range The flycatcher is a summer breeder within its range in the United States. It is gone to wintering areas in Central America by the end of September. Nest territories are set up for breeding, and there is some site fidelity to nest territories. Reproductive Strategy Arrives on breeding grounds in late April to early May. Nesting begins in late May and early June, with fledging from late June to mid-August. Typically lay 3-4 eggs per clutch, laid at one day intervals and are incubated by the female for about 12 days. Young birds fledge 12-13 days after hatching. Typically only raise one brood per year; however some pairs will raise a second brood, or renest after a nest failure. Other Loss and degradation of dense riparian habitats are the primary habitat threat to the flycatcher. Historically, water developments that altered flows in the rivers and streams were the primary threat. Now, with riparian areas limited and re-growth difficult due to changes in flows, fire is a significant risk to remaining habitats. Human disturbances at nesting sites may result in nest abandonment. Brown Pelican(Pelecanus occidentalis)Brown Pelicans nest on small, isolated coastal islands where they are safe from predators such as raccoons and coyotes. When feeding, Pelicans soar in the air looking for fish near the surface of the water. When a fish is spotted, the Pelican goes into a dive, plunging 30 to 60 feet bill-first into the water. The impact of hitting the water would kill an ordinary bird, but the Pelican is equipped with air sacs just beneath the skin to cushion the blow. The loose skin on the underside of the bill extends to form a scoop net with an amazing capacity of 2.5 gallons. The Pelican drains the water from its pouch and tosses its head back to swallow the fish. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Pelicans almost disappeared from Texas because they were poisoned by the pesticide DDT, which caused them to lay thin-shelled eggs which broke during incubation. Because they were not able to produce young, the number of Pelicans dropped to less than 100 birds during the years 1967-1974. Since DDT was banned in 1972, Pelicans have made a steady comeback. Size:About 9 lbs. with a 6 foot wingspread and 18-inch bill.Diet:Menhaden and Mullet fish.Habitat (where it lives):Along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts.Range (where found in Texas):Texas coast.Life Span:Up to 30 years or moreReproduction:2 to 4 white eggs.Population Numbers:Estimated 2400 breeding pairs in 1995.Interesting Fact:Young pelicans are fed for about 9 weeks. During this time, each nestling will eat about 150 pounds of fish. Attwater's Greater Prairie Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) Attwater's Prairie Chicken - (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) Attwater's Prairie Chickens live on coastal prairie grasslands with tall grasses such as little bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass. The birds like a variety of tall and short grasses in their habitat. They gather to choose a mate in an area of bare ground or short grass where the males can be easily seen by the females. This is called a "booming ground" or "lek". The males dance and make a booming noise to attract the females. Hens build their nest in tallgrass and the eggs hatch in April or May. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Prairie chickens are endangered because the tallgrass prairie has been plowed for farmland and covered by cities. Habitat has also been lost because of heavy grazing by cattle, although some cattle ranches maintain good grassland habitat suitable for prairie chickens. Size:17 inches in length.Diet:Small green leaves, seeds, and insects.Habitat (where it lives):Tall grass coastal prairies.Range (where found in Texas):Coastal Prairies of Texas.Life Span:2-3 years.Reproduction:Usually 12 eggs.Population Numbers:1993 estimate was 456 birds.1994 estimate was 158 birds1995 estimate was 68 birds1996 estimate was 42 birdsInteresting Fact:Some traditional dances of the North American plains Indians are based on the booming display of male prairie chickens. Black-capped Vireo (Vireo atricapillus) Black-capped Vireos nest in Texas during April through July, and spend the winter on the western coast of Mexico. They build a cup-shaped nest in the fork of a branch 2 to 4 feet above the ground. Nests are usually built in shrubs such as shin oak or sumac. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Black-capped Vireos are endangered because the low growing woody cover they need for nesting has been cleared or overgrazed by livestock and deer. Also, range fires, which used to keep the land open and the shrubs growing low to the ground, are not as frequent today as in the days before people settled Texas. Another problem is that Brown-headed Cowbirds lay their eggs in vireo nests, causing the vireos to abandon their nest. Size:4.5 inches long.Diet:Insects.Habitat (where it lives):>Rangelands with scattered clumps of shrubs separated by open grassland.Range (where found in Texas):Edwards Plateau and eastern Trans-Pecos regions of Texas.Life Span:5-6 years.Reproduction:3-4 eggs which hatch in 14-17 days.Interesting Fact:Males sing to attract mates and defend territories, which are usually 2 to 4 acres in size. Vireos return year after year to the same area to nest. Bachman's warbler (Vermivora bachmanii)General Information 12 cm. Delicate warbler with slender, decurved bill. Adult male, black forecrown, grey hind-crown and nape, yellow forehead, eye-ring, lores, supercilium and throat. Yellow underparts with black patch on upper breast and white undertail. Olive-green upperparts, grey wings with olive fringes and yellow lesser coverts, grey tail with white spots on inner webs of all but central rectrices. First-year male, duller with indistinct black breast patch and no black forecrown. Adult female, duller with whitish eye-ring, no black and less well marked head. First year female, even duller and paler below. Juvenile, brownish, buffy-yellow below, whiter on throat, two buffy wing-bars. Critical Habitat No critical habitat rules have been published for the Bachman's warbler. » Conservation Plans No conservation plans have been created for Bachman's warbler » Petitions No petition findings have been published for the Bachman's warbler. » Life History No Life History information has been entered into this system for this species. Golden-cheeked Warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) Golden-cheeked Warblers nest only in central Texas mixed Ashe-juniper and oak woodlands in ravines and canyons. Warblers eat insects and spiders found on the leaves and bark of oaks and other trees. They use long strips of cedar bark and spider webs to build their nests. They come to Texas in March to nest and raise their young, and leave in July to spend the winter in Mexico and Central America. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Golden-cheeked Warblers are endangered because many tall juniper and oak woodlands have been cleared to build houses, roads, and stores. Some habitat was cleared to grow crops or grass for livestock. Other habitat areas were flooded when large lakes were built. Size:4.5 inches long.Diet:Spiders, caterpillars and other insects found on tree leaves.Habitat (where it lives):Woodlands with tall Ashe juniper (colloquially "cedar"), oaks, and other hardwood trees.Range (where found in Texas):Edwards Plateau of Texas and locally north to Palo Pinto County.Reproduction:3-4 eggs.Interesting Fact:Of the nearly 360 bird species that breed in Texas, the Golden-cheeked Warbler is the only one that nests exclusively in Texas. Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) Red-cockaded Woodpeckers sleep (roost) and nest in cavities (holes) of live pine trees. Cavities are built only in large, old pines. These woodpeckers live in family groups which may include the male and female, their chicks, and young adult "helpers". These "helpers", typically related young from previous nesting seasons, help build cavities and care for the future chicks. Pecking a cavity in a live tree takes a long time, since the wood is very hard. The birds peck the bark around the entrance to get the sap (resin) flowing around the hole. The sticky sap keeps predators like snakes away from the nest cavity. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Red-cockaded Woodpeckers are endangered because the open forests with big, old pine trees have been replaced by forests with younger, smaller pines. Also, periodic natural fires, which historically kept the pinewoods open, have been suppressed since settlement. Periodic fire is needed to control the brushy understory and keep the pinewoods open. Size:8 inches long.Diet:Insects found under the bark and along the branches of pine trees.Habitat (where it lives):Open pine forests with large, widely-spaced older trees.Range (where found in Texas):Pineywoods of east Texas.Reproduction:2 to 4 eggs.Population Numbers:1994 post-breeding estimate of 925 birds in Texas.Interesting Fact:A woodpecker group roosts and nests in a cluster of 1 to 30 cavity trees. Most clusters have some cavities under construction, some completed and in use, and some abandoned. Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis)The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is noted for its striking black-and-white plumage; robust white, chisel-tipped bill; lemon-yellow eye; and pointed crest. Males are red from the nape to the top of their crest with black outlining the front of the crest. Females have a solid black crest which is somewhat more pointed and slightly recurved to point forward. The bases of the male's red crest feathers are white and may allow a spot of white to be displayed on the side of the crest when the feathers are fully erect. Morphological data from live birds are lacking. Available information from historical sources suggests the Ivory-billed Woodpecker has an overall length of approximately 48-51 centimeters (cm), an estimated wingspan of 76-80 cm, and a weight of 454-567 grams (g). These figures are based on values of "1 pound" and "20 ounces" given in the historical records. However, no clearly documented data are available. In comparison, the more common Pileated Woodpecker has an overall length of approximately 40-48 cm and a weight of 250-355 g. Habitat Requirements The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was historically described as a resident of large, contiguous forests with numerous large trees. A significant portion of the forest must also be in some stage of decay, providing a continuous supply of food. Bottomland hardwood forests are frequently noted as important. It is unclear if this view is biased by the scant information on habitat use having been gathered near the end of a long period of population decline. Habitats occupied at the time most of the studies occurred may not have been typical or preferred by the species. Rather, the habitat may have been occupied simply because it was the last suitable habitat available. In Florida, baldcypress was noted as an important component of the forest used by Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, especially in conjunction with an adjacent pine forest. Ivory-billed Woodpeckers used higher parts of "first bottoms," bottomland forests infrequently flooded and forested primarily with species such as Nuttall oak (Quercus texana Buckley [syn., Q. nuttallii]), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), in northeastern Louisiana. Researchers also observed that habitat used by Ivory-billed Woodpeckers was also highly favored by other species of woodpeckers, a high density of other woodpecker species being indicative of good Ivory-billed Woodpecker habitat. Habitat requirements likely vary seasonally and with habitat conditions, population density, food resources, and other factors. None of these influencing factors is understood for this species. It is clear, however, that the Ivory-bill requires large tracts of forest for foraging and trees large enough for nesting and roosting. Food Habits Diet is poorly understood and based on anecdotal observations and the examination of the stomach contents of six collected birds. Large beetle larvae appear to be an important component of the diet. These are obtained by stripping bark from recently dead or dying tree trunks and branches and by excavating rotted wood. Members of the long-horned beetle family, Cerambycidae, were noted in the stomach of Ivory-billed Woodpecker several times, but many other species of wood-boring beetle larvae have also been documented. The diet, based on historical accounts, included various nuts, such as pecans and acorn, and fruits, including hackberry, persimmon, wild grape, poison ivy and possibly swamp tupelo. Due to the paucity of data on food items actually consumed by the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, limited conclusions can be drawn concerning preferences. Current research with Pileated Woodpeckers may shed additional light on this issue. Movement / Home Range Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, like other large woodpeckers, should have a greater food demand and, consequently, larger home ranges than smaller woodpeckers. They would also have a greater sensitivity to habitat alterations. This is supported by the fact that 3 other very large woodpecker species that weigh over 400 g (13 ounces) also have large home ranges and are sensitive to habitat alterations. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was known to fly distances of at least several kilometers each day between favored roost sites and feeding areas. Such movements are associated with maintaining large home ranges. However; information on daily movements is limited to one study. The ecology of the species likely includes substantial spatial and temporal flexibility, due to their use of disturbed sites containing increased volumes of stressed and dead trees. Ivory-billed Woodpeckers could have expanded home range sizes in sub-optimal habitats, such as in the regenerating southern forests. There is no evidence to suggest that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is migratory, however, the species may become nomadic in response to a fluctuating and undependable food supply. Researchers have reported the Ivory-billed Woodpecker to be a late riser, leaving its roost after sunrise. Reproductive Strategy Breeding phenology (annual cycle) is poorly known. Generally, it is thought that breeding occurs between January and April. Nest cavities are excavated in a dead or dying portion of a live tree, although in some cases a dead tree may be used. Nest cavities have ranged from 4.6 m to over 21 m up the nest tree with nests rarely being excavated below 9 m from the tree's base. The outside diameters of the limb supporting the cavities ra

Exotic Fish

goldfish Like most carp, goldfish produce a large amount of waste both in their faeces and through their gills, releasing harmful chemicals into the water. Build-up of this waste to toxic levels can occur in a relatively short period of time, and can easily cause a goldfish's death. For common and comet varieties, each goldfish should have about 20 US gallons (76 l; 17 imp gal) of water. Fancy goldfish (which are smaller) should have about 10 US gallons (38 l; 8.3 imp gal) per goldfish. The water surface area determines how much oxygen diffuses and dissolves into the water. A general rule is have 1 square foot (0.093 m2). Active aeration by way of a water pump, filter or fountain effectively increases the surface area. The goldfish is classified as a coldwater fish, and can live in unheated aquaria at a temperature comfortable for humans. However, rapid changes in temperature (for example in an office building in winter when the heat is turned off at night) can kill them, especially if the tank is small. Care must also be taken when adding water, as the new water may be of a different temperature. Temperatures under about 10 °C (50 °F) are dangerous to fancy varieties, though commons and comets can survive slightly lower temperatures. Extremely high temperatures (over 30 °C (86 °F) can also harm goldfish. However, higher temperatures may help fight protozoan infestations by accelerating the parasite's life-cycle—thus eliminating it more quickly. The optimum temperature for goldfish is between 20 °C (68 °F) and 22 °C (72 °F).[22] Like all fish, goldfish do not like to be petted. In fact, touching a goldfish can endanger its health, because it can cause the protective slime coat to be damaged or removed, exposing the fish's skin to infection from bacteria or water-born parasites. However, goldfish respond to people by surfacing at feeding time, and can be trained or acclimated to taking pellets or flakes from human fingers. The reputation of goldfish dying quickly is often due to poor care.[23] The lifespan of goldfish in captivity can extend beyond 10 years. If left in the dark for a period of time, goldfish gradually change color until they are almost gray.[citation needed] Goldfish produce pigment in response to light, in a similar manner to how human skin becomes tanned in the sun. Fish have cells called chromatophores that produce pigments which reflect light, and give the fish coloration. The color of a goldfish is determined by which pigments are in the cells, how many pigment molecules there are, and whether the pigment is grouped inside the cell or is spaced throughout the cytoplasm. Because goldfish eat live plants, their presence in a planted aquarium can be problematic. Only a few aquarium plant species for example Cryptocoryne and Anubias, can survive around goldfish, but they require special attention so that they are not uprooted. Plastic plants are often more durable, but the branches can irritate or harm a fish that touches one.Sucker mouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus (known colloquially as a sucker fish) is the scientific name for a type of freshwater tropical Central and South American fish belonging to the family Loricariidae. They are large algae eaters, and to differentiate them from small algae eaters, they are often referred to as plecostomus, often abbreviated as plecos or plecs. They are extremely popular in aquaria for their ability to clean tanks by eating algae growth and dead fish. In Malaysia, these fish are called 'ikan bandaraya' or 'municipal fish' in English because of their ability to clean fish tanks. These friendly-natured fish can typically be purchased when about 8 cm (3 inches) and may grow up to 60 cm (2 ft) if there is adequate room, making them mostly impractical for any but the largest aquariums. Plecos are omnivorous but, in the wild, feed mostly on plant material at night. During the day, their unusual omega irides block a lot of the light out of their eyes, but they are usually open at night. They can roll their eye within their sockets, giving the appearance of winking. Plecos are usually skittish and quickly hide whenever they sense danger. As they age, their foreheads enlarge in a peculiar manner. Plecos may become more aggressive with age and are best kept individually in tanks. Because of their potentially large size and aggressive behaviour, it may be advisable to procure a less aggressive catfish. In a suitably large tank, a solitary plecostomus will live amicably enough in a community alongside other tropical fish. These catfish may survive in tanks with "cold-water" species like goldfish, but it is generally not advised due to the different temperature preferences and the fact that some plecos will suck the protective slime coat off the goldfish. This however would indicate your pleco is starving and seeking the algae stuck to the slime coat. There are a number of species that are sold on the market under the name common algae sucker, including Hypostomus plecostomus, Hypostomus punctatus, Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus, and Pterygoplichthys pardalis. A maturing plecostomus sucking to an aquarium ornament. There are many types of suckermouth armoured catfishes that science has not described. As a result, they are given a common name and an L-number designation until a new scientific name for the fish is described. An example is the flash plecostomus, L204, believed to be a species of Panaque. Plecostomus catfish are some of the most commonly kept algae-eating catfish, and are also some of the largest. Individuals measuring over 60 cm (2 ft) long have been reported in ponds and large tanks; most people think they only grow large enough for their aquarium, but a small tank may only slow their rate of growth. Their growth may also become stunted in a smaller tank, leading to bad health and possibly an early death. A 40 gallon+ tank is necessary. Plecos, when introduced to an aquarium, will often find a permanent resting place (under or inside an ornament or rock, for example) to spend most of their time. This becomes a "home" for the plecostomus. If there are no hiding places, they will sleep in the corner of their tank. Some fish keepers have trouble housing them in heavily planted aquariums because some plecostomus thrash their tails to develop a "well" in the gravel of the aquarium. It is often necessary to replant aquarium plants that they dislodge. Tilapia Tilapia are unable to survive in temperate climates because they require warm water. The pure strain of the blue tilapia, Oreochromis aureus, has the greatest cold tolerance and dies at 45 °F (7 °C) while all other species of tilapia will die at a range of 52 to 62 °F (11 to 17 °C). As a result, they cannot invade temperate habitats and disrupt native ecologies in temperate zones; however, they have spread widely beyond their points of introduction in many fresh and brackish tropical and subtropical habitats, often disrupting native species significantly.[19] Because of this, tilapia are on the IUCN's 100 of the World's Worst Alien Invasive Species list.[20] In the United States, tilapia are found in much of Florida, Texas and a few other isolated areas, such as power plant discharge zones. Many state fish and wildlife agencies in the United States, Australia, South Africa and elsewhere consider them an invasive species European (common) Carp Common carp has been introduced, sometimes illegally, to most continents and some 59 countries. Due to their fecundity and their feeding habit of grubbing through bottom sediments for food they are notorious for altering their environment. In feeding, they may destroy, uproot, disturb and eat submerged vegetation causing serious damage to native duck and fish populations, like canvasbacks.[17] Similar to the Grass Carp, the vegetation they consume is not completly digested and rots, raising the nutritional level of the water and causing exsessive algae growth. They destroy nests of other fish and eat their eggs, reducing their numbers significantly. Efforts to non-chemically eradicate a small colony from Tasmania's Lake Crescent have been successful, however the long-term, expensive and intensive undertaking is an example of both the possibility and difficulty of safely removing the species once it is established.[18] It has been proposed, but is regarded as environmentally questionable, to control common carp by deliberate exposure to the common carp specific Koi herpes virus with its high mortality rate. In Utah Lake the common carp's population is expected to be reduced by 75% by using nets to catch millions of them and either give them to people who will eat them or processing them into fertilizer. This in turn will give the native June sucker a chance to recover its declining population. Another method is by trapping them in tributaries they use to spawn with seine nets and exposing them to Rotenone. This method has shown to reduce their impact within 24 hours and greatly increase the native vegetation and desirable fish species. This also leaves the baby carp easily preyed upon by native fish. In Australia there is enormous anecdotal and mounting scientific evidence that introduced carp are the cause of permanent turbidity and loss of submergent vegetation in the Murray-Darling river system, with severe consequences for river ecosystems, water quality and native fish species.[19] In Victoria, Australia, Common carp has been declared as noxious fish species therefore there is no restriction on the quantity that a fisher can take.[20] In South Australia, it is an offence for this species to be released back to the wild.[21] An Australian company churns common carp into plant fertilizer.[22] Common carp were brought to the United States in 1831.[23] In the late 1800s they were distributed widely throughout the country by the government as a foodfish. However, common carp are no longer prized as a foodfish in the United States. As in Australia, their introduction has been shown to have negative environmental consequences[24] and they are usually considered to be invasive species. Millions of dollars are spent annually by natural resource agencies to control common carp populations in the United States.[19] Common carp are believed to have been introduced into the Canadian province of British Columbia from Washington State. They were first noted in the Okanagan Valley in 1912 as was their rapid growth in population. Carp are currently distributed in the lower Columbia (Arrow Lakes), lower Kootenay, Kettle (Christina Lake), and throughout the Okanagan system.

Exotic Mammals cont.

Feral pig- Wild boar, also wild pig, (Sus scrofa) is a species of the pig genus Sus, part of the biological family Suidae. The species includes many subspecies. It is the wild ancestor of the domestic pig, an animal with which it freely hybridises.[2] Wild boar are native across much of Northern and Central Europe, the Mediterranean Region (including North Africa's Atlas Mountains) and much of Asia as far south as Indonesia. Populations have also been artificially introduced in some parts of the world, most notably the Americas and Australasia, principally for hunting. Elsewhere, populations have also become established after escapes of wild boar from captivity.[3] • [edit] Name The term boar is used to denote an adult male of certain species — including, confusingly, domestic pigs. However, for wild boar, it applies to the whole species, including, for example, "wild boar sow" or "wild boar piglet".[4] Wild boar are also known by various names, including wild hogs or simply boars. In North America they are more commonly referred to as razorbacks or European boars.[5] [edit] Physical characteristics The skull of a wild boar found at Lan Lo Au, Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park, Hong Kong Wild boar skeleton The body of the wild boar is compact; the head is large, the legs relatively short. The fur consists of stiff bristles and usually finer fur. The colour usually varies from dark grey to black or brown, but there are great regional differences in colour; even whitish animals are known from central Asia.[6] During winter the fur is much denser. Adult boars measure 90-200 cm (35-79 in) in length, not counting a tail of 15-40 cm (5.9-16 in), and have a shoulder height of 55-110 cm (22-43 in).[7][8] As a whole, their average weight is 50-90 kg (110-200 pounds), though boars show a great deal of weight variation within their geographical ranges.[9] In central Italy, their weight usually ranges from 80 to 100 kg (180 to 220 lb) while boars shot in Tuscany have been recorded to weigh up to 150 kg (331 lb). An unusually large French specimen shot in Negremont forest in Ardenne in 1999 weighed 227 kg (550 lb). Carpathian boars have been recorded to reach weights of 200 kg (441 lb). Romanian and Russian boars can reach weights of 300 kg (661 lb), while unconfirmed giants reported in early Russian hunting journals have reportedly weighed up to 320 kg (710 lb).[7][8] Generally speaking, native Eurasian boars follow Bergmann's rule, with smaller boars nearer the tropics and larger, smaller-eared boars in the North of their range. Mature sows from Southeast Asia and southern India may weigh as little as 44 kg (97 lb).[8] Adult males develop tusks, continuously growing teeth that protrude from the mouth, from their upper and lower canine teeth. These serve as weapons and tools. The upper tusks are bent upwards in males, and are regularly ground against the lower ones to produce sharp edges. The tusks normally measure about 6 cm (2.4 in), in exceptional cases even 12 cm (4.7 in). Females also have sharp canines, but they are smaller, and not protruding like the males' tusks.[10][11] Wild boar piglets are coloured differently from adults, having marbled chocolate and cream stripes lengthwise over their bodies. The stripes fade by the time the piglet is about 6 months old, when the animal takes on the adult's grizzled grey or brown colour (see photo in Reproduction section to compare adult and juvenile colouring). [edit] Behaviour/social structure Young wild boar. Adult males are usually solitary outside of the breeding season, but females and their offspring (both sub-adult males and females) live in groups called sounders. Sounders typically number around 20 animals, although groups of over 50 have been seen, and will consist of 2 to 3 sows; one of which will be the dominant female. Group structure changes with the coming and going of farrowing females, the migration of maturing males (usually when they reach around 20 months) and the arrival of unrelated sexually active males. Two wild boars in the snow. Wild boar are situationally crepuscular or nocturnal, foraging in early morning and late afternoon or at night, but resting for periods during both night and day.[1] They are omnivorous scavengers, eating almost anything they come across, including grass, nuts, berries, carrion, roots, tubers, refuse,[12] insects and small reptiles. Wild boar in Australia are also known to be predators of young deer and lambs.[13] If surprised or cornered, a boar (particularly a sow with her piglets) can and will defend itself and its young with intense vigor.[14] The male lowers its head, charges, and then slashes upward with his tusks. The female, whose tusks are not visible, charges with her head up, mouth wide, and bites. Such attacks are not often fatal to humans, but may result in severe trauma, dismemberment, or blood loss. [edit] Reproduction Piglets nursing Sexual activity and testosterone production in males is triggered by decreasing day length, reaching a peak in mid-autumn. The normally solitary males then move into female groups, and rival males fight for dominance, whereupon the largest and most dominant males achieve the most mating. The age of puberty for sows ranges from 8 to 24 months of age depending on environmental and nutritional factors. Pregnancy lasts approximately 115 days and a sow will leave the group to construct a mound-like nest out of vegetation and dirt, 1-3 days before giving birth (farrowing). The process of giving birth to a litter lasts between 2 and 3 hours, and the sow and piglets remain in, or close to, the nest for 4-6 days. Sows rejoin the group after 4-5 days, and the piglets will cross suckle between other lactating sows. Litter size is typically 4-6 piglets but may be smaller for first litter, usually 2-3. The largest litters can be up to 14 piglets. The sex ratio at birth is 1:1. Litter size of wild boars may vary depending on their location. A study in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the US reported a mean litter size of 3.3. A similar study on Santa Catalina Island, California reported a mean litter size of 5.[15] Larger litter sizes have been reported in the Middle East.[1] Piglets weigh 750g - 1000g at birth. Rooting behaviour develops in piglets as early as the first few days of life, and piglets are fully weaned after 3-4 months. They will begin to eat solid foods such as worms and grubs after about 2 weeks.[16] [edit] Range [edit] Reconstructed range Reconstructed range of wild boar (green) and introduced populations (blue). Not shown are smaller introduced populations in South America, Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere.[1][17] Wild boar were originally found in North Africa and much of Eurasia; from the British Isles to Korea and the Sunda Islands. The northern limit of its range extended from southern Scandinavia to southern Siberia and Japan. Within this range it was absent in extremely dry deserts and alpine zones. A few centuries ago it was found in North Africa along the Nile valley up to Khartum and north of the Sahara. The reconstructed northern boundary of the range in Asia ran from Lake Ladoga (at 60°N) through the area of Novgorod and Moscow into the southern Ural, where it reached 52°N. From there the boundary passed Ishim and farther east the Irtysh at 56°N. In the eastern Baraba steppe (near Novosibirsk) the boundary turned steep south, encircled the Altai Mountains, and went again eastward including the Tannu-Ola Mountains and Lake Baikal. From here the boundary went slightly north of the Amur River eastward to its lower reaches at the Sea of Okhotsk. On Sakhalin there are only fossil reports of wild boar. The southern boundaries in Europe and Asia were almost everywhere identical to the sea shores of these continents. In dry deserts and high mountain ranges, the wild boar is naturally absent. So it is absent in the dry regions of Mongolia from 44-46°N southward, in China westward of Sichuan and in India north of the Himalaya. In high altitudes of Pamir and Tien Shan they are also absent; however, at Tarim basin and on the lower slopes of the Tien Shan they do occur.[6] [edit] Present range In recent centuries, the range of wild boar has changed dramatically, largely due to hunting by humans and more recently because of captive wild boar escaping into the wild. For many years populations dwindled. They probably became extinct in Great Britain in the 13th century.[18] In Denmark the last boar was shot at the beginning of the 19th century, and in 1900 they were absent in Tunisia and Sudan and large areas of Germany, Austria and Italy. In Russia they were extinct in wide areas in the 1930s. A revival of boar populations began in the middle of the last century. By 1950 wild boar had once again reached their original northern boundary in many parts of their Asiatic range. By 1960 they reached Saint Petersburg and Moscow, and by 1975 they were to be found in Archangelsk and Astrakhan. In the 1970s they again occurred in Denmark and Sweden, where captive animals escaped and now survive in the wild. (The wild boar population in Sweden was estimated to be around 80,000 in 2006 but is now considered to be in excess of 100,000). In the 1990s boar migrated into Tuscany in Italy. In England, wild boar populations re-established themselves in the 1990s, after escaping from specialist farms that had imported European stock.[18] Elsewhere, in 1493, Christopher Columbus brought 8 hogs to the West Indies. Importation to the American mainland was in the mid 16th century by Hernan Cortes and Hernando de Soto, and in the mid 17th century by Sieur de La Salle. Pure Eurasian boar were also imported there for sport hunting in the early 20th century.[5] Large populations of wild boar also live in Australia, New Zealand and North and South America.[19] [edit] Status in Britain Between their medieval extinction and the 1980s, when wild boar farming began, only a handful of captive wild boar, imported from the continent, were present in Britain. Occasional escapes of wild boar from wildlife parks have occurred as early as the 1970s, but since the early 1990s significant populations have re-established themselves after escapes from farms; the number of which has increased as the demand for wild boar meat has grown. A 1998 MAFF (now DEFRA) study on wild boar living wild in Britain confirmed the presence of two populations of wild boar living in Britain; one in Kent/East Sussex and another in Dorset.[18] Another DEFRA report, in February 2008,[20] confirmed the existence of these two sites as 'established breeding areas' and identified a third in Gloucestershire/Herefordshire; in the Forest of Dean/Ross on Wye area. A 'new breeding population' was also identified in Devon. Populations estimates were; • The largest population, in Kent/East Sussex, was estimated at approximately 200 animals in the core distribution area. • The second largest, in Gloucestershire/Herefordshire, was estimated to be in excess of 100 animals. • The smallest, in west Dorset, was estimated to be fewer than 50 animals. • Since winter 2005/6 significant escapes/releases have also resulted in animals colonising areas around the fringes of Dartmoor, in Devon. These are considered as an additional single 'new breeding population' and currently estimated to be up to 100 animals. Population estimates for the Forest of Dean are disputed. In early 2010 the Forestry Commission embarked on a cull,[21] with the aim of reducing the boar population from an estimated 150 animals to 100. By August is was stated that efforts were being made to reduce the population from 200 to 90, but that only 25 had been killed.[22] The failure to meet cull targets was confirmed in February 2011.[23] There have also been reports of wild boar having crossed the River Wye into Monmouthshire, Wales.[24] Many other sightings, across the UK, have also been reported.[25] The effects of wild boar on the UK's woodlands were discussed with Ralph Harmer of the Forestry Commission on the BBC Radio's Farming Today radio programme in 2011. The programme prompted activist writer George Monbiot to propose a thorough population study, followed by the introduction of permit-controlled culling. The revenue could be used to compensate farmers for crop damage caused by boar.[26] [edit] Wild boar farming in the UK Captive wild boar in Britain are kept in private or public wildlife collections and in zoos, but exist predominantly on farms. Because wild boar are included in the Dangerous Wild Animals Act 1976, certain legal requirements have to be met prior to setting up a farm. A licence to keep boar is required from the local council, who will appoint a specialist to inspect the premises and report back to the council. Requirements include secure accommodation and fencing, correct drainage, temperature, lighting, hygiene, ventilation and insurance. The original U.K. wild boar farm stock was mainly of French origin, but from 1987 onwards, farmers have supplemented the original stock with animals of both west European and east European origin. The east European animals were imported from farm stock in Sweden because Sweden, unlike eastern Europe, has a similar health status for pigs to that of Britain. Currently there is no central register listing all the wild boar farms in the UK; the total number of wild boar farms is unknown.[18] [edit] Status in Germany Recently, Germany has reported a surge in the wild boar population. According to one study, "German wild boar litters have six to eight piglets on average, other countries usually only about four or five."[27] Boar in Germany are also said to be becoming increasingly 'brazen' and intruding further into cities such as Berlin.[28] [edit] Subspecies A Common wild boar piglet in the Netherlands Different subspecies can usually be distinguished by the relative lengths and shapes of their lacrimal bones. S. scrofa cristatus and S. scrofa vittatus have shorter lacrimal bones than European subspecies.[29] Spanish and French boar specimens have 36 chromosomes, as opposed to wild boar in the rest of Europe which possess 38, the same number as domestic pigs. Boars with 36 chromosomes have successfully mated with animals possessing 38, resulting in fertile offspring with 37 chromosomes.[30] Four subspecies groups are generally recognized:[31] [edit] Western races (scrofa group) • Common Wild Boar Sus scrofa scrofa: The most common and most widespread subspecies, its original distribution ranges from France to European Russia. It has been introduced in Sweden, Norway, the USA and Canada.[7] • Iberian Wild Boar Sus scrofa baeticus: A small subspecies present in the southwestern Iberian Peninsula.[7] Probably a junior synonym of S. s. meridionalis.[31] • Castillian Wild Boar Sus scrofa castilianus: Larger than S. s. baeticus, it inhabits northern Spain.[7] Probably a junior synonym of S. s. scrofa.[31] • Sardinian Wild Boar Sus scrofa meridionalis: A small, almost maneless subspecies from Corsica, Sardinia and Andalusia.[32] Possibly extinct now in its island range.[citation needed] • Italian Wild Boar Sus scrofa majori: A subspecies smaller than S. s. scrofa with a higher and wider skull. It occurs in central and southern Italy. Since the 1950s, it has hybridized extensively with introduced S. s. scrofa populations.[7] • Sus scrofa attila: A very large, long-maned, yellowish subspecies from eastern Europe to Kazakhstan, northern Caucasus and Iran.[32] • Barbary Wild Boar Sus scrofa algira: Maghreb in Africa. Closely related to, and sometimes considered a junior synonym of, S. s. scrofa, but smaller and with proportionally longer tusks.[17] Now quite rare.[citation needed] • Sus scrofa lybica: A small, pale and almost maneless subspecies from Caucasus to the Nile Delta, Turkey and the Balkans.[32] Possibly extinct now.[citation needed] • Sus scrofa sennaarensis: From Egypt and northern Sudan. Former presence in these countries, where became extinct around 1900, is linked to ancient introductions by man, and S. s. sennaarensis is probably a junior synonym of S. s. scrofa.[17][31] "Wild boars" now present in Sudan are derived from domestic pigs.[17] • Sus scrofa nigripes: A light-coloured subspecies with dark legs from Tianshan Mountains, Central Asia.[32] [edit] Indian races (cristatus group) Indian wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus) at Ranthambore National Park • Indian Wild Boar Sus scrofa cristatus: A long-maned subspecies with a coat that is brindled black unlike S. s. davidi.[32] More lightly built than European boar. Its head is larger and more pointed than that of the European boar, and its ears smaller and more pointed.[33] The plane of the forehead straight, while it is concave in the European.[33] Occurs from the Himalayas south to central India and east to Indochina (north of the Kra Isthmus).[32] • Sus scrofa affinis: This subspecies is smaller than S. s. cristatus and found in southern India and Sri Lanka.[32] Validity questionable.[31] • Sus scrofa davidi: A small, long-maned and light brown subspecies from eastern Iran to Gujarat; perhaps north to Tajikistan.[32] [edit] Eastern races (leucomystax group) • Manchurian Wild Boar Sus scrofa ussuricus: A very large (largest subspecies of the wild boar), almost maneless subspecies with a thick coat that is blackish in the summer and yellowish-grey in the winter.[32] From Manchuria and Korea.[32] • Japanese Wild Boar Sus scrofa leucomystax: A small, almost maneless, yellowish-brown subspecies from Japan (except Hokkaido where the wild boar is not naturally present, and the Ryuku Islands where replaced by S. s. riukiuanus).[32] • Ryuku Wild Boar Sus scrofa riukiuanus: A small subspecies from the Ryuku Islands.[32] • Formosan Wild Boar Sus scrofa taivanus: A small blackish subspecies from Taiwan.[32] • Sus scrofa moupinensis: A relatively small and short-maned subspecies from most of China and Vietnam. There are significant variations within this subspecies, and it is possible there actually are several subspecies involved.[32] On the contrary, recent evidence suggests the virtually unknown Heude's pig may be identical to (and consequently a synonym of) wild boars from this region.[34] • Siberian Wild Boar Sus scrofa sibiricus: A relatively small subspecies from Mongolia and Transbaikalia.[32] [edit] Sundaic race (vittatus group) • Banded pig Sus scrofa vittatus: A small, short-faced and sparsely furred subspecies with a white band on the muzzle.[32][35] From Peninsular Malaysia, and in Indonesia from Sumatra and Java east to Komodo.[32] Might be a separate species,[32] and shows some similarities with some other species of wild pigs in south-east Asia. [edit] Domestic pig The domestic pig is usually regarded as a further subspecies; Sus scrofa domestica - although sometimes classified as a separate species; Sus domestica. [edit] Natural predators Wild boar are a main food source for tigers in the regions where they coexist. Tigers typically follow boar groups, and pick them off one by one. Tigers have been noted to chase boars for longer distances than with other prey, though they will usually avoid tackling mature male boars. In many cases, boars have gored tigers to death in self defense.[36] Wolves are also major predators of boars in some areas. Wolves mostly feed on piglets, though adults have been recorded to be taken in Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, and Russia. Wolves rarely attack boars head on, preferring to tear at their perineum, causing loss of coordination and massive blood loss. In some areas of the former Soviet Union, a single wolf pack can consume an average of 50-80 wild boars annually.[37] In areas of Italy where the two animals are sympatric, the extent to which boars are preyed upon by wolves has led to them developing more aggressive behaviour toward both wolves and domestic dogs.[7] Striped hyenas occasionally feed on boars, though it has been suggested that only hyenas from the three larger subspecies present in Northwest Africa, the Middle East, and India can successfully kill them.[38] Young piglets are important prey for several species, including large snakes, such as the reticulated python, large birds of prey, and various wild felids. In Australia many piglets are killed by dingos. Adults, due to their size, strength, and defensive aggression, are generally avoided as prey. However, they have been taken additionally by mature leopards; large bears (mainly brown bears); and mature crocodiles. All predators of boars are opportunistic and would take piglets given the opportunity. Where introduced outside of their natural range, boars may be at the top of the food chain, but are also sometimes taken by predators similar to those in their native Eurasia.[9] Introduced wild boars in North America have predators such as the Grizzly bear, American black bear, Gray wolf, Red wolf, coyote, and cougars. [edit] Commercial use Tyrolean style roasted wild boar The hair of the boar was often used for the production of the toothbrush until the invention of synthetic materials in the 1930s.[39] The hair for the bristles usually came from the neck area of the boar. While such brushes were popular because the bristles were soft, this was not the best material for oral hygiene as the hairs were slow to dry and usually retained bacteria. Today's toothbrushes are made with plastic bristles. Boar hair is used in the manufacture of boar-bristle hairbrushes, which are considered to be gentler on hair—and much more expensive—than common plastic-bristle hairbrushes. Howeve

EE Fish

Fountain Darter (Etheostoma fonticola) Texas Status: Endangered Description: Fountain darters are less than 1 inch long. Life History: Small aquatic invertebrates form the fountain darter's diet. Females lay eggs year-round. Their lifespan is 1-2 years. Only two populations exist in the world. Habitat: Fountain darters require clean, spring-fed waters with bottom vegetation. Distribution: This small fish lives only in the San Marcos and Comal River headwaters (where the rivers begin) in Hays and Comal counties, Texas. They are most often found in mats of filamentous green algae. Adults occupy the quiet and flowing parts of the river, but the young stay mostly in slow-flowing backwater areas with lots of vegetation. Other: Fountain darters are endangered because there is less water flowing from the springs now than in the past. Human population growth and increased use of groundwater in the area have caused decreased flow from the springs, especially in years of low rainfall. You can help this and other aquatic species by conserving water and keeping the San Marcos and Comal Rivers clean and free from trash. Big Bend Gambusia (Gambusia gaigei) Texas Status: Endangered U.S. Status: Endangered, Listed 3/11/1967 Description: The Big Bend gambusia is about 2 inches in length. Life History: Aquatic invertebrates form the Big Bend gambusia's diet. It bears live young. Habitat: Clear, shallow spring-fed natural pools and marshes provide habitat for the Big Bend gambusia. Big Bend gambusia occur only in Big Bend National Park in west Texas . Other: The Big Bend gambusia is known only from spring habitats near Boquillas Crossing and Rio Grande Village in Big Bend National Park. The population at Boquillas Spring died when the spring stopped flowing in 1954. The population near Rio Grande Village drastically declined between 1954 and 1956, after the spring flow was altered to provide a fishing pool. By 1960, the Big Bend gambusia could no longer be found at the Rio Grande Village location. The loss of this population was probably due to competition with the western mosquitofish and predation by the introduced green sunfish.The only wild population exists in a protected pond located in Big Bend National Park. All present populations of Big Bend gambusia consist of descendants of three fish (two males and one female) taken from the declining Rio Grande Village population in 1956. The major threats to Big Bend gambusia and other desert spring fishes include habitat loss from declining spring flows and reduced surface waters, competition with introduced species, and hybridization with introduced fishes. Clear Creek Gambusia (Gambusia heterochir) Texas Status Endangered. U.S. Status Endangered, Listed in 1967. Description: Clear Creek gambusia grow to about one inch in length. Life History: It feeds on small invertebrates. This fish is found in areas with coontail, an aquatic plant, and Hyalella texana, an endemic amphipod (small crustacean). The coontail provides habitat for the amphipod, which in turn serves as the main food of the Clear Creek Gambusia. The submerged aquatic plants provide protective cover from predators such as bass and sunfish, and provide habitat for the small animals eaten by this fish. Young are born live. Clear Creek gambusia produce several broods of young from March through September. Habitat: This species lives in clear, slightly acidic spring water of constant temperature, with abundant aquatic vegetation. Distribution: First discovered in 1953, the Clear Creek Gambusia exists only in the springfed headwaters of Clear Creek, a tributary of the San Saba River in Menard County. Threats and Reasons for Decline: Originally, Clear Creek was a clear springrun that flowed freely for about 3 miles to its confluence with the San Saba River. Most or all of the creek was probably inhabited by springrun species such as the Clear Creek gambusia and associated plants and animals. A series of dams, the first one built in the 1880s and the others during the 1930s, were constructed to provide irrigation to cultivated fields. The resulting changes in habitat encouraged population buildup of plants and animals more tolerant of variable water temperatures. These eurythermal (wide temperature tolerance) organisms soon overwhelmed the springrun animals that were not isolated upstream from the first dam (Dam 1).Since the only habitat for the Clear Creek gambusia exists upstream from Dam 1, this dam is vital for protecting an environment isolated from invasion by the western mosquitofish. In 1979, Dam 1 was in serious disrepair due to age, the effects of tunneling by nutria (a large introduced rodent), and the expansion of root systems of trees. Hybridization between the Clear Creek gambusia and western mosquitofish had occurred in the vicinity of the dam. This hybridization problem was theresult of mosquitofish juvenile females moving to the upper pool through damaged portions of the dam. If allowed to continue, hybridization and competition from the western mosquitofish may have eliminated the Clear Creek gambusia. In the summer of 1979, Dam 1 was rebuilt, securing the upper pool habitat for the Clear Creek gambusia. In 1985, researchers found an increased number of Clear Creek gambusia downstream from the reconstructed dam. Soon after the damwas rebuilt, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) were found in Clear Creek below the dam. This fish is not native to the Edwards Plateau and may have been released into Clear Creek by someone discarding leftover bait. Rainwater killifish and western mosquitofish, although not closely related, are very similar with respect to food habits, habitat preferences, and tendency to move seasonally to areas of warmer water. Thus, rainwater killifish compete directly with western mosquitofish. Reduction in the numbers of western mosquitofish apparently allowed the Clear Creek gambusia to survive in greater numbers below the upper dam. Finally, the continued existence of the Clear Creek gambusia depends on continued flow of Wilkinson Springs. Protection of the Edwards- Trinity recharge zone is essential. Any changes which reduce water flow or deteriorate water quality in Wilkinson Springs could have disastrous consequences for the Clear Creek gambusia. Ongoing Recovery Continuous monitoring is ongoing to detect factors that may affect the Clear Creek gambusia population and determine the current genetic status of the population. The owners of Wilkinson Springs have been instrumental in protecting the species' habitat. Providing information to landowners and the general public concerning habitat requirements for rare and endangered fishes is an important part of the recovery process. How You Can Help Area landowners can help by protecting the groundwater of the Edwards- Trinity Aquifer. Do what you can as an individual to conserve water and prevent pollutants from entering the aquifer. Care should be taken to avoid reduction in recharge to the aquifer. Limestone aquifers are vulnerable to pollution and measures to prevent aquifer contamination are urged. Land managers can help by implementing sound range management practices designed to protect vegetative cover, improve range condition, and prevent soil erosion and runoff. Good vegetation management will help to ensure optimum aquifer recharge and the continuous flow of Wilkinson Springs and others like it. Pecos Gambusia (Gambusia nobilis) Texas Status Endangered U.S. Status Endangered, Listed 10/13/1970 Description Pecos gambusia are about 2 inches in length when fully grown. Life History Small invertebrates and algae form the diet of the Pecos gambusia. It is primarily a surface feeder. Pecos gambusia bear live young. Females produce up to 40 young every 4 to 5 days. Their population numbers are believed to be stable at present. Habitat Spring-fed pools and marshes with constant temperature are essential habitat for Pecos gambusia. Distribution Historically, the Pecos gambusia was restricted to the Pecos River basin in southeastern New Mexico and western Texas. The populations that once existed at Leon Springs and Comanche Springs were lost when these springs went dry during the mid-1950's. Today, the Pecos gambusia is found in Jeff Davis and Pecos counties in west Texas. Presently in Texas, populations of Pecos gambusia occur near Balmorhea in aquatic habitat supported by nearby springs and at the man-made ciénega. A population also occurs in Leon Creek and in Diamond-Y Spring outflow north of Fort Stockton. Other As with the other endangered desert spring fishes, the primary threat to the survival of the Pecos Gambusia is the loss of the spring-fed waters that provide their habitat. In many parts of west Texas, more water is being withdrawn from aquifers by pumping than is being replaced by rainfall. Hybridization and competition with introduced species that have similar diet and habitat requirements pose especially serious threats. Predation by Green Sunfish and Largemouth Bass can become a major problem in areas where there is no submerged vegetation or shallow water to provide protection from predators. San Marcos Gambusia (Gambusia georgei) Texas Status Endangered U.S. Status Endangered, Listed in 1980 Description Similar in appearance to the mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), the San Marcos gambusia has a prominant dark stripe along the upper edges of the dorsal fin. It reaches about one inch in length. Life History The San Marcos gambusia thrives on a diet of small invertebrates. It gives birth to live young. Habitat The San Marcos gambusia lives in clear spring water coming from the headwaters of the San Marcos River. Distribution This species is found only in the San Marcos River, Hays County, Texas. Other The genus Gambusia contains more than 30 species. The San Marcos gambusia was last collected in the wild in 1983. It is one of the rarest animals of the San Marcos River, and may already be extinct. Reduced flow of water from the springs and water pollution from the growth of nearby cities are the major threats to the San Marcos Gambusia and other species dependent on the unique ecosystem of the San Marcos River. Introduction of non-native species is also a threat because they may destroy aquatic vegetation, prey on endangered animals, or compete with them for food. Body shape: Head width about equal to distance from tip of snout to back of eye; eye contained in snout about 1.5 times; eye shorter than snout; distance from anal fin origin to end of caudal peduncle goes 2.5 or fewer times in distance from tip of snout to anal fin origin (Hubbs et al. 2008).External morphology: Predorsal scale rows not crowded except for fish with 9 or more anal fin rays; first obvious dorsal fin ray a thin splint, closely attached to the following well developed but unbranched ray, especially at tip; lower lip thin, without a fleshy lobe; lateral line usually not decurved, either straight or with a broad arch; premaxillaries protractile; upper lip separated from skin of snout by a deep groove continuous across the midline; cartilaginous ridge of lower jaw hardly evident and not separated by a definite groove from the lower lip (Hubbs et al. 2008). Intestine long and coiled, more than twice standard length (Hubbs et al. 2008).Distribution (Native and Introduced) U.S. distribution: Once abundant throughout the Rio Grande and Pecos basins; it now exists only in scattered Rio Grande locations in New Mexico (Hubbs et al. 2008).Texas distribution: Apparently extirpated in Texas (Rio Grande and Pecos basins; Hubbs et al. 2008).Abundance/Conservation status (Federal, State, NGO) State Endangered (Texas); Federally Endangered (Hubbs et al. 2000); presumably extirpated in Texas. Listed as Endangered by the American Fisheries Society; status has declined since 1989; categories of threats: present or threatened destruction, modification, or reduction of habitat or range; disease or parasitism; other natural or anthropogenic factors that affect the existence of this species, including impacts of nonidigenous organisms, hybridization, competition, and/or predation. Comanche Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon elegans) Texas Status Endangered U.S. Status Endangered, Listed 3/11/1967 Description Comanche Springs pupfish grow to about 2 inches in length. Males have a bright shiny stripe on the side to attract females Life History Like other pupfish, these fish are adapted to harsh desert conditions. They are able to tolerate a wide range of temperatures and salinities (saltiness). Their diet consists of algae and small invertebrates. They live 1-2 years. Habitat Comanche Springs pupfish habitat requires flowing water from desert springs. Distribution This rare species is found only in spring-fed waters near Balmorhea, Texas. Other Comanche Springs Pupfish live in water flowing from west Texas springs. They used to be found in Comanche Springs near Ft. Stockton, but these fish died when the springs went dry in 1955. Now they are found only in the springs near Balmorhea. These pupfish are endangered because many of the large springs in west Texas are drying up. More water is being pumped from the ground than is being replaced by rainfall. A desert oasis has been built near Balmorhea to provide habitat for the fish. Visit Balmorhea State Park to learn more about the pupfish. Leon Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon bovinus) Texas Status Endangered U.S. Status Endangered, Listed 8/15/1980 Description This tiny fish reaches an adult size of about 2 inches in length. Life History The Leon Springs pupfish feeds primarily on the bottom, ingesting large amounts of decomposed organic matter and mud. Its diet consists of diatoms, algae, and small invertebrates. "Pit digging" has been observed, where the fish rest on the bottom of the pool and undulate their bodies to churn up the substrate. Scientists think they do this to locate buried food. Leon Springs pupfish spawn throughout the year, with females laying up to 10 eggs per day. Spawning occurs on the bottom, and males aggressively defend their territories. Their population numbers are believed to be stable at present Habitat Natural spring-fed marshes, pools, and slow-flowing waters with a substrate of mud and aquatic plant roots are the Leon Springs pupfish's native habitat. Distribution Leon Springs pupfish are found only in Pecos County, Texas. Other The Leon Springs pupfish was first discovered in 1851. The fish was originally found at Leon Springs, a spring system that once flowed in the Leon Creek drainage about 6 miles west of Fort Stockton. In 1918, the area where the fish was first collected was inundated by Lake Leon. By 1938, this fish could no longer be found in the area where it was first discovered. In 1958, Leon Springs went dry due to groundwater pumping in excess of aquifer recharge. From 1958 until 1965, the Leon Springs pupfish was thought to be extinct. The fish were rediscovered in 1965, when they were collected from Diamond-Y Spring, located about 10 miles north of Fort Stockton. The major threats to this species include habitat loss from declining springflows and reduced surface waters, competition with introduced species, and hybridization with introduced fishes.

EE mammals cont.

Blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758), like all rorquals (Family Balaenopteridae, the family that includes the blue whale, Bryde's whale, fin whale, humpback whale, minke whale, and sei whale), are long, slender whales that are much more streamlined than other large whales. There are 4 recognized subspecies of the enormous blue whale, the largest marine mammal in the sea and possibly that has ever lived on Planet Ocean: Balaenoptera musculus musculus (Northern blue whale: N. Atlantic, N. Pacific)Balaenoptera musculus intermedia (Antarctic or Southern blue whale: S. Ocean)Balaenoptera musculus indica (Indian Ocean blue whale: Indian Ocean)Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda (pygmy blue whale - which reaches an impressive 24 m, as big as a fin whale) They have a pointed snout, paired blowholes, and a broad, flat rostrum (upper part of the head). The throat grooves, in addition to streamlining the shape of the whale, allow the throat area (called the cavum vent-rale) to expand tremendously during feeding. This allows the taking in of tons of food-laden water which is then discarded through their baleen plates leaving the fish or krill for swallowing. This efficient system enables the largest animals on earth to feed on some of the smallest. The baleen plates are broad and short, and the left and right rows are continuous anteriorly. The dorsal fin is falcate (curved). All rorquals have been hunted and some still are, although they are now protected by most nations subscribing to the International Whaling Commission. Whale EvolutionAll members of the Order Cetacea (includes all whales, toothed and those using baleen) are believed to have evolved from terrestrial hoofed mammals like cows, camels, and sheep some 45 million years ago - that's about 40 million years before man! Recent comparisons of some milk protein genes (beta-casein and kappa-casein) have confirmed this relationship and have suggested that the closest land-bound living relative of whales may be the hippopotamus. Throughout their evolution, cetaceans have become perfectly suited to an aquatic environment, and are virtually incapable of leaving it. Cetaceans illustrate an example of adaptive radiation among mammals. Adaptive radiation allows mammals as a group to effectively inhabit the land, the sea, and the air through the development of special adaptations needed to survive in each of these environments. Members of the Order Cetacea have undergone a number of changes or adaptations needed to fare well in their watery home: their bodies have become streamlined for efficient movement through the water; their forelimbs have been modified into flippers which aid them in steering; their hind limbs have disappeared almost completely; their tail has become broadened horizontally and consists of two large flukes which propel them powerfully through the water by moving up and down, rather than side-to-side like a fish; in place of hair they have developed a thick layer of fat called blubber under their skin that insulates them from the cold and provides buoyancy; and the position of their nostrils has shifted to the top of their head creating a blowhole that allows them to effectively come to the surface for air. A whale's blowhole generally reaches the surface before the rest of its body. Adapting to the SeaIn addition, a number of other changes have taken place to help whales adapt to life in the sea. Many of these changes are related to the position and abilities of their sensory organs, as life in the water is not the same as life on the land. Sound and light travel differently in water than they do in the air. As a result, whales have developed unique ways of hearing and seeing. Hearing in particular is highly developed in whales, so much so that they depend on it in the same way that we depend on the combination of our eyes, ears and nose to understand the world around us. Many of the whale's sensory and reproductive organs have been internalized to reduce drag while swimming. For example, whales do not have external ears, but rely on an internal system of air sinuses and bones to detect sounds. Changes in their reproductive and parental behaviors have also taken place, enabling whales to provide optimum care for their young in the cold, large ocean. Along with these differences, cetaceans do, however, possess many of the same physiological systems such as circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and nervous systems as the land mammals from which they evolved. For instance, many species possess multi-chambered stomachs even though there is no obvious advantage to having such an arrangement as whales do not chew cud! sometimes seen in larger groups and loosely defined Blue whales Balaenoptera musculus Blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758), like all rorquals (Family Balaenopteridae, the family that includes the blue whale, Bryde's whale, fin whale, humpback whale, minke whale, and sei whale), are long, slender whales that are much more streamlined than other large whales. There are 4 recognized subspecies of the enormous blue whale, the largest marine mammal in the sea and possibly that has ever lived on Planet Ocean: Balaenoptera musculus musculus (Northern blue whale: N. Atlantic, N. Pacific)Balaenoptera musculus intermedia (Antarctic or Southern blue whale: S. Ocean)Balaenoptera musculus indica (Indian Ocean blue whale: Indian Ocean)Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda (pygmy blue whale - which reaches an impressive 24 m, as big as a fin whale) They have a pointed snout, paired blowholes, and a broad, flat rostrum (upper part of the head). The throat grooves, in addition to streamlining the shape of the whale, allow the throat area (called the cavum vent-rale) to expand tremendously during feeding. This allows the taking in of tons of food-laden water which is then discarded through their baleen plates leaving the fish or krill for swallowing. This efficient system enables the largest animals on earth to feed on some of the smallest. The baleen plates are broad and short, and the left and right rows are continuous anteriorly. The dorsal fin is falcate (curved). All rorquals have been hunted and some still are, although they are now protected by most nations subscribing to the International Whaling Commission. Whale EvolutionAll members of the Order Cetacea (includes all whales, toothed and those using baleen) are believed to have evolved from terrestrial hoofed mammals like cows, camels, and sheep some 45 million years ago - that's about 40 million years before man! Recent comparisons of some milk protein genes (beta-casein and kappa-casein) have confirmed this relationship and have suggested that the closest land-bound living relative of whales may be the hippopotamus. Throughout their evolution, cetaceans have become perfectly suited to an aquatic environment, and are virtually incapable of leaving it. Cetaceans illustrate an example of adaptive radiation among mammals. Adaptive radiation allows mammals as a group to effectively inhabit the land, the sea, and the air through the development of special adaptations needed to survive in each of these environments. Members of the Order Cetacea have undergone a number of changes or adaptations needed to fare well in their watery home: their bodies have become streamlined for efficient movement through the water; their forelimbs have been modified into flippers which aid them in steering; their hind limbs have disappeared almost completely; their tail has become broadened horizontally and consists of two large flukes which propel them powerfully through the water by moving up and down, rather than side-to-side like a fish; in place of hair they have developed a thick layer of fat called blubber under their skin that insulates them from the cold and provides buoyancy; and the position of their nostrils has shifted to the top of their head creating a blowhole that allows them to effectively come to the surface for air. A whale's blowhole generally reaches the surface before the rest of its body. Adapting to the SeaIn addition, a number of other changes have taken place to help whales adapt to life in the sea. Many of these changes are related to the position and abilities of their sensory organs, as life in the water is not the same as life on the land. Sound and light travel differently in water than they do in the air. As a result, whales have developed unique ways of hearing and seeing. Hearing in particular is highly developed in whales, so much so that they depend on it in the same way that we depend on the combination of our eyes, ears and nose to understand the world around us. Many of the whale's sensory and reproductive organs have been internalized to reduce drag while swimming. For example, whales do not have external ears, but rely on an internal system of air sinuses and bones to detect sounds. Changes in their reproductive and parental behaviors have also taken place, enabling whales to provide optimum care for their young in the cold, large ocean. Along with these differences, cetaceans do, however, possess many of the same physiological systems such as circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and nervous systems as the land mammals from which they evolved. For instance, many species possess multi-chambered stomachs even though there is no obvious advantage to having such an arrangement as whales do not chew cud! The Blue WhaleThe blue whale is the largest mammal, possibly the largest animal, to ever inhabit Planet Ocean. An average blue whale is between 23-24.5 m long, and weighs about 99,800 kg, and females are even larger than males of the same age, the largest may weigh as much as 136,000 kg! The body is long, somewhat tapered, and streamlined, with the head making up less than one-fourth of its total body length. Its rostrum is very broad and flat and almost U-shaped, with a single ridge that extends just forward of the blowholes to the tip of the snout. The blowholes are contained in a large, raised "splash guard", and the blow is tall and straight and over 6 m high, sometimes as much as up 10 m high! Their body is smooth and relatively free of parasites, though barnacles attach themselves to the edge of the fluke and occasionally to the tips of the flippers and to the dorsal fin. There are 55-68 ventral grooves or pleats extending from the lower jaw to near the navel. The blue whale is blue-gray in color, often with lighter gray mottling on a dark background or with dark spots on a light background. The underside of the flippers may be a lighter color or white, while the ventral (topside) side of the fluke is dark. The ventral side of its body is often yellow-green in color because blue whales graze on microorganisms called diatoms in the cold waters of the Antarctic, North Pacific and North Atlantic. Because of this yellow color, the early whalers nicknamed blue whales "sulphur bottom." Its dorsal fin is small and triangular-to-falcate in shape, and is located three-fourths of the way back on the body. The fin measures only 30 cm at its highest point though its size and shape are highly variable. Its flippers are tapered and relatively short, about 12% of the total body length. The fluke is broad and triangular. The rear edge is smooth with a slight median notch. Though they may be found singly or in small groups, it is more common to see blue whales in pairs. They are sometimes seen in larger groups and loosely defined concentrations of 50-60 have been observed. Imagine 5,000 tons of marine mammals in one spot! They are fast, strong swimmers, capable of reaching 48.3 kph when alarmed, but they usually cruise along at about 19.3 kph. Normal dives last from 10-20 minutes and are separated by 8-15 blows. Like humpbacks, blue whales also sing or call. Hear the call of the blue whale here. World Range & Habitat Blue whales are found in all oceans of the world. They mate and calve in tropical-to-temperate waters during winter months and feed in polar waters during summer months. Blue whales in the northern hemisphere move north to Arctic waters to feed; blue whales in the southern hemisphere move south to the Antarctic to feed. Nearly all the southern hemisphere population may be found in the summer feeding grounds in the Antarctic. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) Feeding Behavior (Ecology) Blue whales are the largest predator to ever inhabit this planet, though it is thought to feed almost exclusively on tiny, shrimp-like creatures called euphausiids or krill. Feeding is usually at depths less than 100 m; harpooned animals have dived as deep as 500 m. During the summer feeding season the blue whale gorges itself, consuming an astounding 3,600 kg or more each day. This means it may eat up to 40 million krill a day. A baleen whale, it has a series of 260-400 fringed overlapping plates hanging from each side of the upper jaw where teeth would otherwise be located. These plates consist of a fingernail-like material called keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue. The plates are black and measure about 51 cm in length toward the front of the mouth and about 102 cm at the rear. During feeding, large volumes of water and food are taken into the mouth and the pleated grooves in the throat expand enormously. As the mouth closes, water is expelled through the baleen plates, which trap the food inside near the tongue to be swallowed. Life History Recent research indicates that blue whales reach sexual maturity between the ages of 6-10 years, or when males average about 23 m and females are about 24 m. Calves are born at intervals of 2 to 3 years and gestation is about 12 months. Calves are 7-8.2 m long at birth and 2,722 kg. Calves nurse for 7 to 8 months and are weaned when they reach 16 m in length. At that time they weigh about 20,900 kg. During the nursing period, calves consume 379 liters of the fat-rich mother's milk each day, gain 91 kg/day, or 3.8 kg/hour, and grow 3.78 cm in length a day. Conservation Status & Comments Check the Conservation Status of Blue Whales Note: if there are no entries found, it only means that this species has not yet been evaluated. Because of their enormous size and speed, blue whales were safe from early whalers, who could not pursue them in open boats with hand harpoons. But in 1868 a Norwegian, Sven Foyn , revolutionized the whaling industry with the invention of the exploding harpoon gun and by using steam and diesel powered factory ships and catcher boats. He also perfected the technique of inflating dead whales with air so they wouldn't sink after being harpooned. The whaling industry began to focus on blue whales after 1900. A single 27 m blue whale could yield up to 120 barrels of oil, and the blues were killed by the tens of thousands. The slaughter peaked in 1931 when over 29,000 were killed in one season. After that blue whales became so scarce that the whalers turned to other species. In 1966, almost too late, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) banned all hunting of blue whales and gave them worldwide protection. Recovery has been extremely slow, and only in the last few years have there been signs that their numbers may be increasing. Pre-whaling numbers have been estimated at 200,000, and though exact figures are not known, an estimated 5,000 survive today in three populations: North Atlantic, North Pacific, and the Southern Hemisphere. Despite their slow recovery, blue whales are classified as Endangered (EN A1abd) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V ), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Finback whale (Balaenoptera Physalus)capelin, and sand lance), and squid by lunging into schools of prey with their mouth open, using their 50-100 accordion-like throat pleats to gulp large amounts of food and water. They then filter the food particles from the water using the 260-480 "baleen" plates on each side of the mouth. Fin whales fast in the winter while they migrate to warmer waters. Little is known about the social and mating systems of fin whales. Similar to other baleen whales, long-term bonds between individuals are rare. Males become sexually mature at 6-10 years of age; females at 7-12 years of age. Physical maturity is attained at approximately 25 years for both sexes. After 11-12 months of gestation, females give birth to a single calf in tropical and subtropical areas during midwinter. Newborn calves are approximately 18 ft (6 m) long, and weigh 4,000-6,000 lb (2 tons). Fin whales can live 80-90 years. The age of large whales in family Balaenopteridae can be estimated by counting the layers present in waxy ear plugs, which are formed in the auditory canal (Hohn 2002). HabitatFin whales are found in deep, offshore waters of all major oceans, primarily in temperate to polar latitudes, and less commonly in the tropics. They occur year-round in a wide range of latitudes and longitudes, but the density of individuals in any one area changes seasonally.DistributionThere are two named subspecies of fin whale: B. physalus physalus in the North Atlantic B. physalus quoyi in the Southern Ocean There is also a population of fin whales in the North Pacific, which most experts consider a separate, unnamed subspecies. These populations rarely mix, if at all, and there are geographical stocks within these ocean basins. Fin whales are migratory, moving seasonally into and out of high-latitude feeding areas, but the overall migration pattern is complex, and specific routes have not been documented. However, acoustic recordings from passive-listening hydrophone arrays indicate that a southward "flow pattern" occurs in the fall from the Labrador-Newfoundland region, past Bermuda, and into the West Indies (Clark 1995). There may be resident groups of fin whales in some areas, such as the Gulf of California, the East China Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. Fin Whale(Balaenoptera physalus)Photo: NOAAPopulation TrendsAlthough reliable and recent estimates of fin whale abundance are available for large portions of the North Atlantic Ocean, this is not the case for most of the North Pacific Ocean nor for the Southern Oceans. The present status of populations in these ocean basins relative to their pre-whaling population size is uncertain. For management purposes, fin whales in U.S. waters have been divided into four stocks: Hawaii California/Oregon/Washington Alaska (Northeast Pacific) Western North Atlantic Reliable estimates of current and historical abundance of fin whales in the entire northeast Pacific are currently not available. While reliable estimates of the minimum population size and population trends are available for a portion of this area, much of the North Pacific range has not been surveyed. A 2002 shipboard line-transect survey of the entire Hawaiian Islands EEZ resulted in an abundance estimate of 174 fin whales (Barlow 2003). As of the 2004 Hawaii stock assessment report, this was the best available abundance estimate for this stock. The California/Oregon/Washington stock was estimated at 3,279 fin whales based on ship surveys in summer/autumn of 1996 (Barlow and Taylor 2001) and 2001 (Barlow 2003). The 2003 stock assessment report lists the minimum population of this stock at approximately 2,541 animals. Although the full range of the Alaska (Northeast Pacific) stock of fin whales has not been surveyed, a rough estimate of the size of the population west of the Kenai Peninsula is 5,700 (as of the 2007 stock assessment report). This is a minimum estimate for the entire Alaska stock because it was estimated from surveys which covered only a small portion of the range of this stock. The minimum population estimate for the Western North Atlantic fin whale stock is 1,678. There are insufficient data to determine trends for this population. ThreatsCommercial whaling for this species ended in the North Pacific Ocean in 1976, in the Southern Ocean in 1976-77, and in the North Atlantic Ocean in 1987. Fin whales are still hunted in Greenland and subject to catch limits under the International Whaling Commission's "aboriginal subsistence whaling" scheme. Other current threats are collisions with vessels, entanglement in fishing gear, reduced prey abundance due to overfishing, habitat degradation, disturbance from low-frequency noise and the possibility that illegal whaling or resumed legal whaling will cause removals at biologically unsustainable rates. Of all species of large whales, fin whales are most often reported as hit by vessels (Jensen and Silber, 2004 [pdf]). Schooling fish constitute a large proportion of the fin whale's diet in many areas of the North Atlantic, so trends in fish populations, whether driven by fishery operations, human-caused environmental deterioration, or natural processes, may strongly affect the size and distribution of fin whale populations. Conservation EffortsThe Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Team was established to develop a plan to reduce the incidental serious injury and mortality of fin whales, right whales, humpback whales, and minke whales in the South Atlantic shark gillnet fishery, the Gulf of Maine and Mid-Atlantic lobster trap/pot fishery, the Mid-Atlantic gillnet fishery, and the Gulf of Maine sink gillnet fishery. For more about the Atlantic Large Whale TRT, please visit the ALWTRT page on our Northeast Regional Office website. Sperm Whale (Ph

Exotic Reptiles

Mediterranean gecko (Hemidactylus turcicu) Mediterranean House Gecko, or more commonly Turkish Gecko as it is represented in its Latin name Hemidactylus turcicus is a species of gecko. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, rarely exceeding 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in length, have large, lidless eyes with elliptical pupils, and yellow- or tan-colored skin with black spots, often with stripes on the tail. Their bellies or undersides are somewhat translucent. In countries where the species has been introduced, they are not considered invasive due to their habits and small size; they rarely threaten populations of native animals.[citation needed] Voracious predators on moths and small roaches, they are attracted to outside lights in search of them. They emit a distinctive, high-pitched call somewhat like a squeak or the chirp of a bird, possibly expressing a territorial message. A study in Portugal found H. turcicus to be totally nocturnal, with the highest activity peak around 2am.[1] In many parts of the world the range of H. turcicus is increasing, and unlike many other reptiles, they appear to be highly resistant to pesticides. The increase may be explained as a consequence of having few predators in places where they have been introduced, and also of their tendency to take shelter in the cracks and unseen areas of human homes, for example inside walls. Reliance on human habitation has thus contributed to their proliferation, similar to rodents. Snout rounded, about as long as the distance between the eye and the ear-opening, 1.25 to 1.3 the diameter of the orbit; forehead slightly concave; ear-opening oval, oblique, nearly half the diameter of the eye. Body and limbs moderate. Digits variable in length, the inner always well developed; 6 to 8 lamellae under the inner digits, 8 to 10 under the fourth finger, and 9 to 11 under the fourth toe. Head with large granules anteriorly, posteriorly with minute granules intermixed with round tubercles. Rostrum four-sided, not twice as broad as deep, with medial cleft above; nostril pierced between the rostrum, the first labial, and three nasals; 7 to 10 upper and 6 to 8 lower labials; mental large, triangular, at least twice as long as the adjacent labials, its point between two large chin-shields, which may be in contact behind it; a smaller chin shield on each side of the larger pair. Upper surface of body covered with minute granules intermixed with large tubercles, generally larger than the spaces between them, suboval, trihedral, and arranged in 14 or 16 pretty, regular longitudinal series. Abdominal scales small, smooth, roundish-hexagonal, imbricate. Males with a short angular series of 4 to 10 (exceptionally 2) preanal pores. Tail cylindrical, slightly depressed, tapering, covered above with minute scales and transverse series of large keeled tubercles, beneath with a series of large transversely dilated plates. Light brown or grayish above, spotted with darker; many of the tubercles white, lower surfaces white Mexican Spinytail Iguana Ctenosaura pectinata The Mexican Spinytail Iguana was first described by German zoologist Arend Friedrich August Wiegmann in 1834.[1] The generic name, Ctenosaura, is derived from two Greek words: cteno (Κτενός), meaning "comb" (referring to the comblike spines on the lizard's back and tail), and saura (σαύρα), meaning "lizard".[2] Its specific name is the Latin word pectinata also meaning "comb", also referring to the comblike spines on the lizard's back.[3] The genus it belongs to represents the most diverse group of iguanas with 15 currently recognized species.[4] These species inhabit lowland (below 1200m elevation) dry forests on both coasts of Mexico and Central America.[4] All species of Ctenosaura fall within one of seven clades.[4] Distributions of these clades fall geographically within well established areas.[4] Closely related species show allopatry whereas species from divergent clades show sympatry.[4] Phylogenic study shows this species to be most closely related to C. acanthura, the Northeastern spinytail iguana.[5] Additional mitochondrial DNA research is being performed to determine whether additional subspecies may exist.[6] Because of the different human cultures throughout this species distribution, the clades are being evaluated for their impact from humans.[6] For example, these iguanas are not eaten in their northern ranges by humans as they are in the southern ranges, but the hatchlings in the southern ranges have a better survival rate due to better environmental conditions.[6] [edit] Description Mexican Spinytail Iguanas have distinctive keeled scales on their long tails, which gives them their common name. They are one of the larger members of the genus Ctenosaura, capable of growing to 140 cm (4.6 feet) in length, with females being.slightly smaller than males at 100 cm, and are typically brown or grey-brown in coloration with a yellowish ventral surface.[2] They have a crest of long spines which extend down the center of their back.[2] Hatchlings are often a bright green color with no pattern and darken as they age.[7] [edit] Distribution The Mexican Spinytail Iguana is native to Western Mexico from Sinaloa to Oaxaca.[2][3] This iguana has been introduced to Brownsville, Texas and South Florida and reproduces in the wild in several feral populations.[8] On the south-eastern Florida coast, these iguanas have been found on Key Biscayne, Hialeah, and in Broward County. On the south-western Florida coast, it has been reported on Gasparilla Island.[9] It is currently estimated as of December 2007 that there are 12,000 iguanas on this island, descended from a trio of pet lizards released by a resident in the 1970s.[10] They are regarded as a "nuisance animal" on Gasparilla island because the iguanas eat ornamental flowers and shrubs and prey on nesting birds and sea turtle eggs.[10] They have been known to chew through electrical and telephone cables.[10] They may also carry salmonella and their prehistoric appearance has been known to scare residents.[10] As the iguanas like to burrow in the sand it is feared that their tunnels could cause dunes and even seawalls to collapse and deprive the island of crucial protection from landfalling hurricanes.[10] Behavior Climbing a tree The Mexican Spiny-tailed iguana is a social lizard, which has adapted to living in groups as opposed to other species of Ctenosaura which tend to be solitary animals.[11] These iguanas are excellent climbers, and prefer a rocky habitat with plenty of crevices to hide in, rocks to bask on, and nearby trees to climb.[2][8] They are diurnal and fast moving, employing their speed to escape predators but will lash with their tails and bite if cornered.[2] They are often found dwelling near or in towns in their native Mexico and where they have been introduced elsewhere.[8] They are primarily herbivorous, eating a variety of flowers, leaves, stems, and fruit, but they will opportunistically eat small animals, eggs, and arthropods.[8] [edit] Reproduction Mating occurs in the spring. Males show dominance and interest by head bobbing, eventually chasing the female until he can catch her and subdue her.[2] Within eight to ten weeks, the female will dig a nest and lay clutches of up to 50 eggs in a burrow of loose soil.[2][7] These eggs hatch in 90 days with the bright green babies digging their way out of the sand.[2] [edit] Threatened status Ctenosaura pectinata is used as a traditional food source in its native Mexico.[12] Although not listed on the IUCN Redlist, the species is listed on the Mexican Red List NOM-059-2001 as threatened and it is currently illegal to hunt them in Mexico.[6] This protection does not apply to areas in North America where they have been introduced, however. Although hunting, trapping, and killing of these iguanas is illegal throughout Mexico; the Balsas depression along the borders of the states Michoacán and Guerrero is one of the largest illegal hunting and trading areas.[12] The remoteness of the areas and lack of enforcement of the laws is seen as the main reason.[12] A study is being conducted by the Instituto de Biologia, UNAM, to solve the over-exploitation problem and to determine if the iguanas can be successfully farmed as a food source similar to the Green Iguana and the closely related Ctenosaura similis

EE Mammals

Mexican Long-nosed Bat (Leptonycteris nivalis). During the day, Mexican Long-nosed Bats roost in caves in large groups called colonies. Strong fliers that can hover like hummingbirds, these bats come out at night to feed on the nectar and pollen in flowers of desert plants such as agaves. With long noses and tongues, they are well-adapted for nectar-feeding. They also help the agave plants reproduce by spreading pollen. The bats migrate between Big Bend and southern Mexico following the bloom periods of food plants. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern: These bats are endangered because they are often killed in southern Mexico by people wanting to control Vampire Bats, which sometimes spread disease. Also, agave plants on which the bats depend are being cleared for pasture and harvested to make liquor. Size: About 3-4 inches long. Diet: Flower nectar and pollen from agave plants. Habitat (where it lives):Roosts in caves and finds food in desert scrub vegetation. Range (where found in Texas):Trans-Pecos, Texas and Mexico. Life Span: At least 10 years. Reproduction: Usually one baby born each year. Population Numbers: Varied from 0 to 5000 in recent years at Big Bend National Park. Black-Footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)The black-footed ferret is 18 to 24 inches long, including a 5 to 6 inch tail. It weighs only one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half pounds, with males slightly larger than females. The black-footed ferret is well adapted to its prairie environment. Its color and markings blend so well with grassland soils and plants, that it is hard to detect until it moves. It is a slender, wiry animal with a black face mask, black feet, and a black-tipped tail. The rest of its short, sleek fur is a yellow-buff color, lighter on the belly and nearly white on the forehead, muzzle, and throat. It has short legs with large front paws and claws developed for digging. The ferret's large ears and eyes suggest it has acute hearing and sight, but smell is probably its most important sense for hunting prey underground in the dark. Population detail The FWS is currently monitoring the following populations of the Black-Footed ferret Population location: Entire, except where listed as an experimental population belowListing status: Endangered States/US Territories in which this population is known to or is believed to occur: Arizona , Colorado , Kansas , Montana , Nebraska , New Mexico , North Dakota , South Dakota , Utah , Wyoming US Counties in which this population is known to or is believed to occur:Countries in which the this population is known to occur: Mexico For more information: http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/mammals/blackfootedferret/ Population location: U.S.A. (specific portions of AZ, CO, MT, SD, UT, and WY, see 17.84(g))Listing status: Experimental Population, Non-Essential States/US Territories in which this population is known to or is believed to occur: Arizona , Colorado , Montana , South Dakota , Utah , Wyoming US Counties in which this population is known to or is believed to occur: Countries in which the this population is known to occur: Mexico Jaguar Order Carnivora : Family Felidae : Panthera onca Linnaeus Description. Largest of the spotted American cats; form robust; tail relatively short and tapering; ears small, short, and rounded, without tufts; pelage short and rather bristly; upperparts spotted at all ages; ground color buffy to tan, spots blackish, often with light-colored centers; underparts and inner surfaces of legs white, heavily spotted with black; tail with irregular black markings. Dental formula as in the mountain lion, but canines relatively smaller. External measurements of an adult male: total length, 1,933 mm; tail, 533 mm; female, 1,574-432 mm; height at shoulder of a large male, 712 mm. Weight, up to 90 kg; one male from Texas weighed 63.6 kg; another, 42 kg. Distribution in Texas. The jaguar inhabits the dense chaparral and timbered sections of the New World tropics and seldom ventures into the high, cooler inland areas. Apparently, it was once fairly common over southern Texas and nearly the whole of the eastern part of the state to Louisiana and north to the Red River. The last verified records of the jaguar in Texas are from near the turn of the century and this beautiful cat is now extirpated from the state. The jaguar is listed as "endangered" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Habits. Jaguars are the third largest cat of the world, ranking behind the tiger and African lion. In spite of their large size and powerful build, however, jaguars (el tigre of the Mexicans) are shy and retiring. They seldom, if ever, attack man unless cornered or at bay. They are thought to roam over a large territory, much as does the mountain lion, and nowhere are they abundant. Their food habits are not well-known. In Mexico, they are known to prey on peccaries; many of the Mexicans believe that each large herd of peccaries is trailed by a jaguar so that he can feed on the stragglers. They probably prey also on deer and large ground-dwelling birds. Jaguars are reputed to be so destructive of cattle and horses that the larger Mexican ranches retain a "tiger hunter" to kill them or at least to drive them away. Jaguars are also fond of sea turtle eggs and they roam the beaches on spring nights to dig up and eat the eggs that are buried in the sand. The den is a rocky cave or the security of a dense, thorny thicket. The mating season is in December and January, and the two to four young are born in April or May after a gestation period varying from 93 to 110 days. The kittens are covered with woolly fur, are heavily spotted at birth, and have their eyes closed. When about 6 weeks old they are as large as house cats and begin to follow their parents about. The parents mate at least for the season of parenthood, and both cooperate in rearing the young, although most of the burden falls on the mother. The family unit is maintained until the kittens are nearly a year old, at which time they begin to fend for themselves. Jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi) Jaguarundis move in a quick weasel-like manner. Their coat is a solid color; either rusty-brown or charcoal gray. Jaguarundis hunt during early morning and evening. They hunt mostly on the ground, but also climb trees easily. Jaguarundis have been seen springing into the air to capture prey. Historical accounts from Mexico suggest that Jaguarundis are also good swimmers and enter the water freely. They are solitary (live alone) except during the mating season of November and December. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened plants. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Jaguarundis are endangered because the dense brush that provides habitat has been cleared for farming or for the growth of cities. Jaguarundis still exist in Mexico, but they are now very rare in Texas. People in the Lower Rio Grande Valley are working together to plant native shrubs and restore habitat for the Jaguarundi, Ocelot, migrating songbirds, and other animals. Size:Slightly larger than a domestic cat (8-16 lbs.)Diet:Birds, rabbits, and small rodents.Habitat (where it lives):Dense, thorny shrublands.Range (where found in Texas):South Texas Brush Country and Lower Rio Grande Valley.Life Span:16 to 22 years in captivity.Reproduction:2 to 4 kittens born once or twice a year.Population Numbers:UnknownInteresting Fact:Jaguarundis are active mainly at night, but also move around during the day, often going to water to drink at midday. West Indian Manatee Order Sirenia : Family Trichechidae : Trichechus manatus Linnaeus Description. A large, grayish, nearly hairless, aquatic mammal without hind limbs; tail broadened into a horizontal, rounded paddle; front limbs paddlelike. Dental formula: I 2/2 (nonfunctional), C 0/0, Pm 0/0, M 6/6 (variable and continuously being replaced) X 2 = 32. Total length of adults, up to 3.5 m; weight, up to 1,000 kg. Distribution in Texas. West Indian manatees are found in rivers, estuaries, and coastal areas of the tropical and subtropical New World from the southeastern United States coast along Central America and the West Indies to the northern coastline of South America. Manatees are extremely rare in Texas although near the turn of the century they apparently were not uncommon in the Laguna Madre. Texas records also include specimens from Cow Bayou, near Sabine Lake, Copano Bay, the Bolivar Peninsula, and the mouth of the Rio Grande. Habits. These animals occur chiefly in the larger rivers and brackish water bays. They are able to live in salt waters of the sea, however, and travel from one island to another or from place to place along the coast. They are extremely sensitive to cold and may be killed by a sudden drop in the temperature of the water to as low as 8°C. This intolerance doubtless limits their northward distribution in North America. Their irregular occurrence along the Texas coast suggests that they do considerable wandering — specimens from Texas probably represent migrants from coastal Mexico. Sluggish and easily captured, West Indian manatees were once extensively exploited as a food source. Although now protected as an endangered mammal, manatees still face occasional losses from poaching and from collisions with speedboats. Additionally, habitat loss to land development and channelization continues to pose problems for them. Conversely, in Florida the construction of power plants and industrial parks has apparently been beneficial in creating new warm water habitat that may be preferred by manatees in winter. Manatees are opportunistic, aquatic herbivores that feed exclusively on aquatic vegetation, although captive animals have eaten lawn grass, dandelions, palmetto, and garden vegetables. Wild manatees seem to prefer submergent vegetation, followed by floating and emergent species. Manatees consume 30-50 kg of food per day. In saline waters, they feed on seagrasses. Manatees occur in loosely knit groups, but are not gregarious by nature. Breeding and calving occurs year round with the gestation period lasting 12-13 months. Newborn manatees are about a meter long at birth and weigh 18-27 kg. One young is born. Remarks. Stephanie Fernandez and Sherman Jones reported the recent (February, 1986) stranding of a manatee on the Texas coast. A local fisherman found the carcass of a male manatee, in an advanced state of decomposition, rolling in the surf about 1.5 km west of Caplen, Bolivar Peninsula. Parts of the anterior portion of the skull, the flipper bones, and sternum were exposed. The total length of the manatee was 274 cm. Along the right side of the abdomen were 10 golfball-sized holes, which penetrated, but did not pass through, the blubber. Seven holes formed a V-shaped figure, with the other three forming a straight line immediately beneath it. The cause of these holes was undetermined. A recent rope mark was also visible around the tail stock. This was the first manatee stranding recorded by the Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network since its inception in 1980. The North Atlantic right whale was classified along with the closely-related southern right whale, Eubalaena australis under the genus Eubalaena, which literally means 'right whale', referring to the belief that these were the 'right' whales to kill because they were known to float after being killed, making them easy to catch. World Range & Habitat Small concentrations of the North Atlantic right whales can be found in the North Pacific (Eubalaena japonica) and the North Atlantic (Eubalaena glacialis). North Atlantic right whales are only found in the Northern Atlantic Ocean from West of Greenland south to Florida and Texas on the western brim and Madeira on the eastern brim. All species of right whales can be found in polar waters, but in summer they are normally located in temperate and subpolar seas. Right whales often travel in slow moving, small groups of six or less. They have early migrations to the breeding and birthing grounds in the winter months and travel north to the plankton-rich colder feeding waters in the summer. Dives of up to 50 m for 15-20 minutes are common. Calving seems to occur in shallow bays near to the coast, although there is insufficient evidence for this in some areas. Feeding Behavior (Ecology) Northern right whales feed by filtering small marine animals out of the water with their baleen plates. The main food is small crustaceans—copepods, krill, and pteropods. They usually feed below the surface, occasionally near to the seabed, on concentrations of copepods. Surface feeding has also been observed. Life History Mating and birthing occurs February to April in the warmer southern waters. Young are born the following spring after a gestation period of a year and measure about 5.5 m at birth. Young nurse for 6-7 months and by weaning have doubled their body size. Conservation Status & Comments Check the Conservation Status of North Atlantic Right Whales Note: if there are no entries found, it only means that this species has not yet been evaluated. Longevity: Unknown. All three species of right whales were the first large cetaceans to be commercially hunted by man, possibly as early as the 10th Century. In the nineteenth century alone, over 100,000 whales were slaughtered, and, although having been granted protection in 1935, it is doubtful that this species will ever recover.Estimated Current Population: <1,000 animals (North Atlantic population <300 animals). The most endangered 'great' whale, with full species extinction expected by 2200. North Atlantic right whales, Eubalaena glacialis, are classified as Endangered D on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V ), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. North Pacific right whales, Eubalaena japonica, are classified as Endangered D on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V ), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Southern right whales, Eubalaena australis, are classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : LEAST CONCERN (LC) A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

Exotic Mammals

Tokay Geckos -Nocturnal, arboreal gecko -lives in india, bangladesh, southeast asia, the phillipines, indonesia, and new guinea -introduced to hawaii, texas, florida, belize, and Carribean islands in the 80s and 90s. -considered and invasive species -The Tokay Gecko is the second largest Gecko species, attaining lengths of about 30-40 cm (11-15 inches) for males, and 20-30 cm (7-11 inches) for females, with weights of only 150-300g (5-10 oz). They are distinctive in appearance, with a bluish or grayish body, sporting spots ranging from light yellow to bright red. The male is more brightly colored than the female. They have large eyes with a vertical slit pupil. Eyes are brown to greenish brown and can be orange or yellow. Males are very territorial, and will attack other male Tokays as well as other Gecko species, as well as anything else in their territory. They are solitary and only meet during the mating season. Females lay clutches of one or two hard shelled eggs which are guarded until they hatch.[1] Tokay Geckos feed on insects and small vertebrates.[2] The typical lifespan is 7-10 years, however in captivity some Tokays have been known to live over 18 years.[citation needed] [edit] Call Tokays are renowned for their loud vocalizations. Their mating call, a loud croak, is variously described as sounding like token, gekk-gekk or Poo-Kay where both the common and the scientific name (deriving from onomatopoeic names in Malay, Sundanese, Tagalog, Thai, or Javanese), as well as the family name Gekkonidae and the generic term gecko come from. The call is similar to the call made by Gekko smithii (Large Forest Gecko). [edit] As pets Tokay in Vietnam Tokay in Thailand When the Tokay bites, they often won't let go for a few minutes or even up to an hour or more, and it is very difficult to remove without causing harm to the gecko. Submerging it partially in water may settle it down, encouraging the lizard to let go, but it causes harm and stress. A less stressful method is to simply put a drop of vinegar on the gecko's nose, which sometimes makes them let go. Its bite is very powerful. For this reason, it is considered to be best as an ornamental animal for experienced reptile owners. [edit] Recent Fad The Tokay Gecko or Toko is quickly becoming a threatened species in The Philippines because of indiscriminate hunting. Collecting, transporting and trading geckos without a license can be punishable by up to twelve years in jail and a fine of up to 1,000,000 pesos under Republic Act 9147 in addition to other applicable international laws. However, the trade runs unchecked due to the sheer number of illegal traders and reports of lucrative deals. Chinese buyers and other foreign nationals are rumored to pay thousands of dollars for large specimens, reportedly because of their alleged medicinal value or as commodities in the illegal wildlife trade.[3] The Philippine government has issued a warning against using geckos to treat AIDS and impotence, saying the folkloric practice in parts of Asia may put patients at risk. Nutria The nutria, Myocastor coypus, is a large semi-aquatic rodent. The generic name is derived from two Greek words (mys, for mouse, and kastor, for beaver) that translate as mouse beaver. The specific name coypus is the Latinized form of coypu, a name in the language of the Araucanian Indians of south-central Chile and adjacent parts of Argentina for an aquatic mammal that was possibly this species. In most of the world the animal is called coypu, but in North America the animal is called nutria. In the rest of the world, nutria is the name of the fur of the animal. Nutria are smaller than a beaver but larger than a muskrat; unlike beavers or muskrats, however, it has a round, slightly haired tail. The forelegs are small compared with its body size. The forepaws, have five toes; four are clawed and the fifth is reduced in size. The digits are used to groom and to excavate roots, rhizomes, and burrows, and are used in feeding. The hindfoot consists of four webbed, strongly clawed toes and one unwebbed toe. The hind legs are large compared with the forelegs; consequently, when moving on land, the nutria's chest drags on the ground and its back appears hunched. Although appearing awkward, the nutria is capable of fast overland travel for considerable distances. The ears are small and the eyes are set high on the head. The nose and mouth are valvular (i.e., can be closed to prevent entry of water), and nutria are capable of swimming long distances underwater. When pursed while underwater, nutria can see and will take evasive action to avoid capture. Males are slightly larger then females. Nutria weigh an average of 12.0 pounds (5.4 kg). Females have four pairs of mammary glands that are located on the side of the body, rather than on the belly. Presumably, this positioning of the mammary glands allow the young to nurse with their nose above the water's surface while the mother is floating. Nutria breed year round and are extremely prolific. Males reach sexual maturity between 4 and 9 months, whereas, females reach sexual maturity between 3 and 9 months. Sexual maturity may vary with habitat quality. With a gestation period of only 130 days, in one year, an adult nutria can produce two litters and be pregnant for a third. The number of young in a litter ranges from 1-13 with an average of 4.5 young. Females can breed within a day of having a litter. Litter size can vary with age of female, habitat quality and time of year. The young nutria at birth are fully furred and the eyes are open. Newborn nutria feed on vegetation within hours and will nurse for 7-8 weeks. Nutria are well adapted for movement on land, however, are more at home in the water. In the coastal marshes they are often seen moving about leisurely in the daytime, but their period of greatest feeding activity is just prior to sunrise and after sunset. Nutria are strict vegetarians, consuming their food both on land and water, where they shove aquatic plants to their mouths with their forepaws. These animals consume approximately 25 percent of their weight daily. Nutria predominately feed on the base of plant stems and dig for roots and rhizomes in the winter. They often construct circular platforms of compacted, coarse emergent vegetation, which they use for feeding, birthing, resting and grooming. Nutria may also construct burrows in levees, dikes and embankments. Roof rat- The black rat (Rattus rattus) is a common long-tailed rodent of the genus Rattus (rats) in the subfamily Murinae (murine rodents). The species originated in tropical Asia and spread through the Near East in Roman times before reaching Europe by the 1st century and spreading with Europeans across the world. • [edit] Taxonomy Black rat skull The black rat was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original name of Rattus rattus.[2] It is the type species of the genus Rattus. Alternate names include ship rat, roof rat, house rat, Alexandrine rat, and old English rat. [edit] Description A typical adult black rat is 12.75-18.25 in (32.4-46.4 cm) long, including a 6.5-10 in (17-25 cm) tail, and weighs 4-12 oz (110-340 g).[3] Despite its name, the black rat exhibits several colour forms. It is usually black to light brown in colour with a lighter underside. In the 1920s in England, several variations were bred and shown alongside domesticated brown rats. This included an unusual green tinted variety.[4] [edit] Origin of Rattus rattus Rattus rattus bone remains that date back to the Norman Period have been discovered in Britain. Evidence also suggests that R. rattus existed in prehistoric Europe as well as Levant (eastern Europe) during post-glacial periods.[5] The specific origin of the black rat is uncertain due to the rat's disappearance and reintroduction. Evidence such as DNA and bone fragments also suggests that rats did not originally come from Europe, but migrated from southeast Asia.[6] Rats are resilient vectors for many diseases because of their ability to hold so many infectious bacteria in their blood. Rats played a primary role in spreading bacteria, such as Yersinia pestis, which is responsible for the Justinianic plague and Bubonic plague.[6] According to epidemiological models, Yersinia pestis originated outside of Europe which indicates that Western and central Europe have never had any natural rodent plagues. The modern Roman rat arose from an ancestor that originated in Malaysia.[6] The number of chromosomes these Malaysian rats and the Mediterranean Black Rats differ by four chromosomes.[6] Therefore, it seems that speciation could have occurred when the rats colonized southwest India, which was a primary country where Romans obtained their spices. Because Rattus rattus is a passive traveler, they could have easily traveled to Europe during the trading between Rome and the southwestern Asian countries. Evidence also suggests that, in 321-331 BC, Egyptian birds were preying on Mediterranean rats, though this is not enough to prove that Egypt was the source of the rats.[6] A black rat in the Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, Germany. [edit] Diet Black rats are considered omnivores and eat a wide range of foods, including seeds, fruit, stems, leaves, fungi, and a variety of invertebrates and vertebrates. They are generalists, and thus not very specific in their food preferences, which is indicated by their tendency to feed on any meal provided for cows, swine, chickens, cats, and dogs.[7] They are similar to the tree squirrel in their preference of fruits and nuts. They eat about 15 grams per day and drink about 15 ml per day.[8] Their diet is high in water content.[7] They are a threat to many natural habitats because they feed on native birds and insects. They are also a threat to many farmers since they feed on a variety of agricultural-based crops, such as cereals, sugar cane, coconuts, cocoa, oranges, and coffee beans.[9] [edit] Distribution and habitat Global range of the black rat The black rat originated in India and Southeast Asia, and spread to the Near East and Egypt, and then throughout the Roman Empire, reaching England as early as the 1st century.[10] Europeans subsequently spread it throughout the world. The black rat is, again largely confined to warmer areas, having been supplanted by the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) in cooler regions and urban areas. In addition to being larger and more aggressive, the change from wooden structures and thatched roofs to bricked and tiled buildings favored the burrowing brown rats over the arboreal black rats. In addition, brown rats eat a wider variety of foods, and are more resistant to weather extremes.[11] Black rat populations can explode under certain circumstances, perhaps having to do with the timing of the fruiting of the bamboo plant, and cause devastation to the plantings of subsistence farmers; this phenomenon, Mautam, is happening currently in parts of India.[12] Black rats are thought to have arrived in Australia with the First Fleet, and subsequently spread to many coastal regions in the country.[13] In New Zealand, black rats have an unusual distribution and importance, in that they are utterly pervasive through native forests, scrublands, and urban parklands. This is typical only of oceanic islands that lack native mammals, especially other rodents. Throughout most of the world, black rats are found only in disturbed habitats near people, mainly near the coast. Black rats are the most frequent predator of small forest birds, invertebrates, and perhaps lizards in New Zealand forests, and are key ecosystem changers. Controlling their abundance on usefully large areas of the New Zealand mainland is a crucial current challenge for conservation managers. Black rats adapt to a wide range of habitats. In urban areas they are found around warehouses residential, buildings, and other human settlements. They are also found in agricultural areas, such as in barns and crop fields. In urban areas they prefer to live in dry upper levels of buildings, so they are commonly found in wall cavities and false ceilings. In the wild, black rats live in cliffs, rocks, the ground, and trees.[9] They are great climbers and prefer to live in trees, such as pines and palm trees. Their nests are typically spherical and made of shredded material, including sticks, leaves, other vegetation, and cloth. In the absence of trees, they can burrow into the ground.[8] Black rats are also found around fences, ponds, riverbanks, streams, and reservoirs.[7] The black rat, along with the brown rat, is one of the most widespread rats and animal species in the world. Comparison of the physique of a black rat (Rattus rattus) with a brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) [edit] Home range Home range refers to the area in which an animal travels and spends most of its time. It is thought that male and female rats have similar sized home ranges during the winter, but male rats increase the size of their home range during the breeding season. Along with differing between rats of different gender, home range also differs depending on the type of forest in which the black rat inhabits. For example, home ranges in the beech forests of South Island, New Zealand appear to be much larger than the non-beech forests of North Island. Due to the limited number of rats that are studied in home range studies, the estimated sizes of rat home ranges in different rat demographic groups are inconclusive. [edit] Behavior It is nocturnal and omnivorous, with a preference for grains and fruit. Compared to the brown rat, it is a poor swimmer, but more agile and a better climber, tending even to flee upwards. In a suitable environment it will breed throughout the year, with a female producing three to six litters of up to ten young. Females may regulate their production of offspring during times when food is scarce, producing as few as only one litter a year. R. rattus lives for about 2-3 years. Social groups of up to sixty can be formed. [edit] Nesting behavior Through the usage of tracking devices such as radio transmitters, rats have been found to occupy dens located in trees, as well as on the ground. In Puteki, a kauri forest, rats have been found to form dens together. Rats appear to den and forage in separate areas in their home range depending on the availability of food resources.[14] Research shows that in New South Wales, the black rat prefers to inhabit lower leaf litter of forest habitat. There is also an apparent correlation between the canopy height and logs and the presence of black rats. This correlation may be a result of the distribution of the abundance of prey as well as available refuges for rats to avoid predators. As found in North Head, New South Wales, there is positive correlation between rat abundance, leaf litter cover, canopy height, and litter depth. All other habitat variables showed little to no correlation.[15] [edit] Foraging behavior As generalists, Black rats express great flexibility in their foraging behavior. They are predatory animals and adapt to different micro-habitats. They often meet and forage together in close proximity within and between sexes.[14] Rats tend to forage after sunset. If the food cannot be eaten quickly, they will search for a place to carry and hoard to eat at a later time.[7] Although black rats eat a broad range of foods, they are highly selective feeders; only a restricted number of the foods they eat are dominant foods.[16] When black rat populations are presented with a wide diversity of foods, they eat only a small sample of each of the available foods. This allows them to monitor the quality of foods that are present year round, such as leaves, as well as seasonal foods, such as herbs and insects. This method of operating on a set of foraging standards ultimately determines the final composition of their meals. Also, by sampling the available food in an area, the rats maintain a dynamic food supply, balance their nutrient intake, and avoid intoxication by secondary compounds.[16] [edit] Ecology Black rats (or their ectoparasites) are able to carry a number of pathogens,[17] of which bubonic plague (via the rat flea), typhus, Weil's disease, toxoplasmosis and trichinosis are the best known. It has been hypothesized that the displacement of black rats by brown rats led to the decline of the Black Death.[18] This theory has, however, been deprecated, as the dates of these displacements do not match the increases and decreases in plague outbreaks.[19] [edit] Cultivation This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) Very few people currently keep black rats as pets. Most pet rats (or fancy rats) are domesticated brown rats. [edit] Predators and parasites The black rat serves as prey to cats and owls in domestic settings. In less urban settings, rats are preyed upon by weasels, foxes, and coyotes. These predators have little effect on the control of the black rat population because black rats are agile and fast climbers. In addition to agility, the black rat also makes use of its keen sense of hearing to detect danger and quickly evade mammalian and avian predators.[7] Rats serve as outstanding vectors for transmittance of diseases because they have the ability to carry bacteria and viruses in their systems. A few parasites that are common to rats include Streptococcus pnuemoniae, Corynebacterium kutsheri, Bacillus piliformis, Pasteurella pneumotropica, and Streptobacillus moniliformis, to name a few. All of these parasites are disease causing agents in humans. In some cases, these diseases are incurable.[20] [edit] R. rattus as an invasive species [edit] Damage caused by R. rattus After Rattus rattus was introduced to the northern islands of New Zealand, it has influenced them by feeding on the seedlings in the area. Even after eradication of R. rattus the negative effects may take decades to reverse. When consuming these seabirds and seabird eggs, these rats reduce the pH of the soil. This harms plant species by reducing nutrient availability in soil, thus decreasing the probability of seed germination. For example, research conducted by Hoffman et al. indicates a large impact on sixteen indigenous plant species directly preyed on by R. rattus. These plants displayed a negative correlation in germination and growth in the presence of black rats.[21] Rats prefer to forage in forest habitats. In the Ogasawara islands, they prey on the indigenous snails and seedlings. Snails that inhabit the leaf litter of these islands showed a significant decline in population upon the introduction of Rattus rattus. The black rat shows preference for snails with larger shells (greater than 10mm). This is the reason for the great decline in population of snail with larger shells upon the introduction of black rats to the Ogasawara islands of Japan. This interaction is a result of the lack of prey refuges, which causes these snails to be less adapted to avoiding the black rat.[22] [edit] Complex pest The black rat has been considered a complex pest, which is a pest that influences the environment in both harmful and beneficial ways. In many cases, after the black rat is introduced into a new area, the population size of some native species declines or goes extinct altogether. This is often due to the fact that the black rat is a good generalist with a wide dietary niche and a preference for complex habitats; this causes strong competition for resources among small animals. This has led to the black rat completely displacing many native species in Madagascar, the Galapagos, and the Florida Keys. In a study by Stokes et al., habitats suitable for the native bush rat, Rattus fuscipes, of Australia are often invaded by the black rat and are eventually occupied by only the black rat. When the abundances of these two rat species were compared in different micro-habitats, both were found to be affected by micro-habitat disturbances, but the black rat was most abundant in areas of high disturbance; this indicates it has a better dispersal ability.[23] Despite the black rats tendency to displace native species, it can also aid in increasing species population numbers and maintaining species diversity. The bush rat, a common vector for spore dispersal of mycorrhiza commonly known as truffles, has been extirpated from many micro-habitats of Australia. In the absence of a vector for spore dispersal of these truffles, the diversity of truffle species will decline. In a study conducted by Vernes et al. in New South Wales, Australia it was found that although the bush rat consumes a diversity of truffle species, the black rat consumes as much of the diverse fungi as the natives and is an effective vector for spore dispersal. Since the black rat now occupies the many of the micro-habitats that were previously inhabited by the bush rat, the black rat plays an important ecological role in the dispersal of fungal spores. By eradicating the black rat populations in Australia, the diversity of fungi would decline, potentially doing more harm than good.[23] [edit] Control methods Large-scale rat control programs have been taken to maintain a steady level of the invasive predators in order to conserve the native species in New Zealand such as kokako and mohua.[24] Pesticides, such as pindone and 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate), are commonly distributed via aerial spray by helicopter as a method of mass control on islands infested with invasive rat populations. Bait, such as brodifaco

Exotic Mammals cont.

Norway rat- The brown rat, common rat, sewer rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Brown Norway rat, Norwegian rat, or wharf rat (Rattus norvegicus) is one of the best known and most common rats. One of the largest muroids, it is a brown or grey rodent with a body up to 25 cm (10 in) long, and a similar tail length; the male weighs on average 350 g (12 oz) and the female 250 g (9 oz). Thought to have originated in northern China, this rodent has now spread to all continents, except Antarctica, and is the dominant rat in Europe and much of North America—making it the most successful mammal on the planet after humans.[2] Indeed, with rare exceptions the brown rat lives wherever humans live, particularly in urban areas. Selective breeding of Rattus norvegicus has produced the laboratory rat, an important model organism in biological research, as well as pet rats. • [edit] Naming and etymology Originally called the "Hanover rat" by people wishing to link problems in 18th century England with the House of Hanover,[3] it is not known for certain why the brown rat is named Rattus norvegicus (Norwegian rat) as it did not originate from Norway. However, the English naturalist John Berkenhout, author of the 1769 book Outlines of the Natural History of Great Britain, is most likely responsible for popularizing the misnomer. Berkenhout gave the brown rat the binomial name Rattus norvegicus believing that it had migrated to England from Norwegian ships in 1728, although no brown rat had entered Norway at that time. By the early to middle part of the 19th century, British academics were aware that the brown rat was not native to Norway, hypothesizing (incorrectly) that it may have come from Ireland, Gibraltar or across the English Channel with William the Conqueror.[4] As early as 1850, however, a more correct understanding of the rat's origins was beginning to develop.[5] The British novelist Charles Dickens acknowledged the misnomer in the 2 June 1888 edition of his weekly journal, All the Year Round, writing: "Now there is a mystery about the native country of the best known species of rat, the common brown rat. It is frequently called, in books and otherwise, the 'Norway rat,' and it is said to have been imported into this country in a ship-load of timber from Norway. Against this hypothesis stands the fact that when the brown rat had become common in this country, it was unknown in Norway, although there was a small animal like a rat, but really a lemming, which made its home there."[6] Academics began to understand the origins and corrected etymology of the brown rat towards the end of the 19th century, as seen in the 1895 text Natural History by American scholar Alfred Henry Miles: "The brown rat is the species common in England, and best known throughout the world. It is said to have travelled from Persia to England less than two hundred years ago and to have spread from thence to other countries visited by English ships."[7] Though the assumptions surrounding this species' origins were not yet entirely accurate, by the 20th century it was established among naturalists that the brown rat did not originate in Norway, rather that the species came from central Asia and (likely) China.[8] Despite this, this species' common name of "Norway rat" is still in use today. [edit] Description Comparison of the physique of a black rat (Rattus rattus) with a brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) The fur is coarse and usually brown or dark grey, while the underparts are lighter grey or brown. The length can be up to 25 cm (10 in), with the tail a further 25 cm (10 in), the same length as the body. Adult body weight averages 550 g (19 oz) in males and about 350 g (12 oz) in females, but a very large individual can reach 900 g (32 oz). Rats weighing over 1 kg (2.2 lb) are exceptional, and stories of rats as big as cats are exaggerations, or misidentifications of other rodents such as the coypu and muskrat. Brown rats have acute hearing, are sensitive to ultrasound, and possess a very highly developed olfactory sense. Their average heart rate is 300 to 400 beats per minute, with a respiratory rate of around 100 per minute. The vision of a pigmented rat is poor, around 20/600, while a non-pigmented (albino) with no melanin in its eyes has both around 20/1200 vision and a terrible scattering of light within its vision. Brown rats are dichromates who perceive colours rather like a human with red-green colorblindness, and their colour saturation may be quite faint. Their blue perception, however, also has UV receptors, allowing them to see ultraviolet lights that some species cannot.[9] [edit] Biology and behavior Brown rat skull The brown rat is usually active at night and is a good swimmer, both on the surface and underwater, but unlike the related Black Rat (Rattus rattus) they are poor climbers. Brown rats dig well, and often excavate extensive burrow systems. A 2007 study found brown rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only found in humans and some primates,[10] but further analysis suggested that they may have been following simple operant conditioning principles.[11] [edit] Communication Brown rats are capable of producing ultrasonic vocalizations. As pups, young rats use different types of ultrasonic cries to elicit and direct maternal search behavior,[12] as well as to regulate their mother's movements in the nest.[13] Although pups will produce ultrasounds around any other rats at 7 days old, by 14 days old they significantly reduce ultrasound production around male rats as a defensive response.[14] Adult rats will emit ultrasonic vocalizations in response to predators or perceived danger;[15] the frequency and duration of such cries depending on the sex and reproductive status of the rat.[16][17] The female rat will also emit ultrasonic vocalizations during mating.[18] [edit] Chirping Rats may also emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic, socially induced vocalization during rough and tumble play, before receiving morphine, or mating, and when tickled. The vocalization is described as a distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter, and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding.[19] Like most rat vocalizations, the "chirping" is too high in pitch for humans to hear without special equipment. Bat detectors are often used by pet owners for this purpose. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, there appears to be a decline in the tendency to chirp.[20] Rat chirp also can be utilized for mosquito control.[citation needed] Other ultrasonic vocalisations, including a lower-frequency 'boom' or 'whoom' noise can be produced by bucks in a calm state, when grooming or settling down to sleep.[citation needed] [edit] Audible communication Brown rats also produce communicative noises capable of being heard by humans. The most commonly heard in domestic rats is bruxing, or tooth-grinding, which is most usually triggered by happiness, but can also be 'self-comforting' in stressful situations, such as a visit to the vet. The noise is best described as either a quick clicking or 'burring' sound, varying from animal to animal. In addition, they commonly squeak along a range of tones from high, abrupt pain squeaks to soft, persistent 'singing' sounds during confrontations. [edit] Diet The brown rat is a true omnivore and will consume almost anything, but cereals form a substantial part of its diet. Brown rat eating sunflower seeds Martin Schein, founder of the Animal Behavior Society in 1964, studied the diet of brown rats and came to the conclusion that the most-liked foods of brown rats were (in order) scrambled eggs, macaroni and cheese, and cooked corn kernels. According to Schein, the least-liked foods were raw beets, peaches, and raw celery.[21] Foraging behavior is often population-specific, and varies by environment and food source.[2] Brown rats living near a hatchery in West Virginia catch fingerling fish.[22] Some colonies along the banks of the Po river in Italy will dive for mollusks,[23][24] a practice demonstrating social learning among members of this species.[25] Rats on the island of Norderoog in the North Sea stalk and kill sparrows and ducks.[26] [edit] Reproduction and life cycle The brown rat can breed throughout the year if conditions are suitable, a female producing up to five litters a year. The gestation period is only 21 days and litters can number up to fourteen, although seven is common. They reach sexual maturity in about 5 weeks. The maximum life span is up to three years, although most barely manage one. A yearly mortality rate of 95% is estimated, with predators and interspecies conflict as major causes. When lactating, female rats display a 24 hour rhythm of maternal behavior, and will usually spend more time attending to smaller litters than large ones.[27] Brown rats live in large hierarchical groups, either in burrows or subsurface places such as sewers and cellars. When food is in short supply, the rats lower in social order are the first to die. If a large fraction of a rat population is exterminated, the remaining rats will increase their reproductive rate, and quickly restore the old population level.[citation needed] [edit] Social behavior It is common for rats to groom each other and sleep together.[28] As with dogs, rats create a social hierarchy, and each rat has its own place in the pack. Rats are said to establish an order of hierarchy and so one rat will be dominant over another one.[29] Groups of rats tend to "play fight", which can involve any combination of jumping, chasing, tumbling, and boxing. Play fighting involves rats going for each other's necks, while serious fighting involves strikes at the others' back ends.[30] [edit] Burrowing Rats are known to burrow extensively, both in the wild and in captivity, if given access to a suitable substrate.[31] Rats generally begin a new burrow adjacent to an object or structure, as this provides a sturdy "roof" for the section of the burrow nearest to the ground's surface.[32] Burrows usually develop to eventually include multiple levels of tunnels, as well as a secondary entrance.[31] Older male rats will generally not burrow, while young males and females will burrow vigorously.[31][33] Burrows provide rats with shelter and food storage as well as safe, thermoregulated nest sites.[31] Rats use their burrows to escape from perceived threats in the surrounding environment—for example, rats will retreat to their burrows following a sudden, loud noise or while fleeing an intruder.[34] Burrowing can therefore be described as a "pre-encounter defensive behavior", as opposed to a "post-encounter defensive behavior", such as flight, freezing, or avoidance of a threatening stimulus. [edit] Distribution and habitat Likely originating from the plains of Asia, Northern China and Mongolia, the brown rat spread to other parts of the world sometime in the Middle Ages.[35][36][37] The question of when brown rats became commensal with humans remains unsettled, but as a species they have spread and established themselves along routes of human migration and now live almost everywhere humans do.[38] The brown rat may have been present in Europe as early as 1553, a conclusion drawn from an illustration and description by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his book Historiae animalium, published 1551-1558.[39] Though Gesner's description could apply to the black rat, his mention of a large percentage of albino specimens—not uncommon among wild populations of brown rats—adds credibility to this conclusion.[40] Reliable reports dating to the 18th century document the presence of the brown rat in England in 1730, France in 1735, Germany in 1750, and Spain in 1800,[40] becoming widespread during the Industrial Revolution.[41] It did not reach North America until around 1750-1755.[39][42] As it spread from Asia, the brown rat generally displaced the black rat in areas where humans lived. In addition to being larger and more aggressive, the change from wooden structures and thatched roofs to bricked and tiled buildings favored the burrowing brown rats over the arboreal black rats. In addition, brown rats eat a wider variety of foods, and are more resistant to weather extremes.[43] In the absence of humans, brown rats prefer damp environments such as river banks.[41] However, the great majority are now linked to man-made environments, such as sewage systems. Brown rat in a flower box in the East Village of New York City. It is often said that there are as many rats in cities as people, but this varies from area to area depending on climate, living conditions, etc. Brown rats in cities tend not to wander extensively, often staying within 20 m (66 ft) of their nest if a suitable concentrated food supply is available, but they will range more widely where food availability is lower. In New York City there is great debate over the size of the rat population with estimates from almost 100 million rats to as few as 250,000.[44] Experts suggest New York is a particularly attractive place for rats because of its aging infrastructure, high moisture and poverty rates.[44] In addition to sewers, rats are very comfortable living in alleyways and residential buildings, as there is usually a large and continuous food source in those areas.[45] In the United Kingdom some figures show that the rat population has been rising, with estimations that 81 million rats reside in the UK.[46] Those figures would mean that there are 1.3 rats per person in the country. High rat populations in the UK are often attributed to the mild climate, which allow them higher survival rates during the winter months. The only brown rat-free zones in the world are the Arctic, the Antarctic, some especially isolated islands, the province of Alberta in Canada,[47] and certain conservation areas in New Zealand[48][49] Antarctica is almost completely covered by ice and has no permanent human inhabitants, making it uninhabitable by rats. The Arctic has extremely cold winters that rats cannot survive outdoors, and the human population density is extremely low making it difficult for rats to travel from one habitation to another. When the occasional rat infestation is noticed and eliminated, the rats are unable to re-infest it from an adjacent one. Isolated islands are also able to eliminate rat populations because of low human population density and geographic distance from other rat populations. [edit] Alaska Rat Island in Alaska was infested with brown rats after a Japanese shipwreck in 1780. They had a devastating effect on the native bird life. An eradication program was started in 2007 and the island was declared rat free in June 2009. [edit] Alberta, Canada Alberta, Canada, is unusual in that rat infestation was eliminated by aggressive government action. Although it is a major agricultural area, it is far from any seaport and only a portion of its eastern boundary with Saskatchewan provides a favorable entry route for rats. They cannot survive in the boreal forest to the north, the Rocky Mountains to the west, nor the semi-arid High Plains of Montana to the south. The first brown rat did not reach Alberta until 1950, and in 1951 the province launched a rat-control program that included shooting and poisoning rats, and bulldozing, burning down, and blowing up rat-infested buildings. The effort was backed by legislation that required every person and every municipality to destroy and prevent the establishment of designated pests. If they failed, the provincial government could carry out the necessary measures and charge the costs to the landowner or municipality.[50] In the first year of the program, 64 tonnes (71 short tons) of arsenic trioxide were spread throughout 8,000 buildings on farms along the Saskatchewan border. In 1953 the much less toxic and more effective poison, Warfarin, was introduced. By 1960 the number of rat infestations in Alberta dropped to below 200 per year.[51] Currently, only zoos, universities, and research institutes are allowed to own caged rats in Alberta, and possession of an unlicensed rat (including pet rats) is punishable by a $5,000 fine or 60 days in jail. The adjacent and similarly landlocked province of Saskatchewan initiated a rat control program in 1972, and has managed to reduce the number of rats in the province substantially, although they have not been eliminated.[52] [edit] New Zealand First arriving before 1800 (perhaps on James Cook's vessels),[53] brown rats have posed a serious threat to many of New Zealand's native animals. Rat eradication programmes within New Zealand have led to rat-free zones on offshore islands and even on fenced "ecological islands" on the mainland. Before an eradication effort was launched in 2001, the sub-Antarctic Campbell Island had the highest population density of brown rats in the world.[54] [edit] Diseases Similar to other rodents, brown rats may carry a number of pathogens[55] which can result in disease, including Weil's disease, rat bite fever, cryptosporidiosis, Viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF), Q fever and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. In the United Kingdom, brown rats are an important reservoir for Coxiella burnetii, the bacteria that cause Q fever, with seroprevalence for the bacteria found to be as high as 53% in some wild populations.[56] This species can also serve as a reservoir for Toxoplasma gondii, the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, though the disease usually spreads from rats to humans when domestic cats feed on infected brown rats.[57] The parasite has a long history with the brown rat, and there are indications that the parasite has evolved to alter an infected rat's perception to cat predation, making it more susceptible to predation and increasing the likelihood of transmission.[58] Surveys and specimens of brown rat populations throughout the world have shown that this species is often associated with outbreaks of trichinosis,[59][60] but the extent to which the brown rat is responsible in transmitting Trichinella larvae to humans and other synanthropic animals is at least somewhat debatable.[61] Trichinella pseudospiralis, a parasite previously not considered to be a potential pathogen in humans or domestic animals, has been found to be pathogenic in humans and carried by brown rats.[62] Brown rats are sometimes mistakenly thought to be a major reservoir of bubonic plague, a possible cause of The Black Death. However, the bacterium responsible, Yersinia pestis, is commonly endemic in only a few rodent species and is usually transmitted zoonotically by rat fleas—common carrier rodents today include ground squirrels and wood rats. However, brown rats may suffer from plague, as can many non-rodent species including dogs, cats, and humans.[63] The original carrier for the plague-infected fleas thought to be responsible for the Black Death was the black rat, and it has been hypothesized that the displacement of black rats by brown rats led to the decline of bubonic plague.[64] This theory has, however, been deprecated, as the dates of these displacements do not match the increases and decreases in plague outbreaks.[65] [edit] In captivity [edit] Uses in science Main article: Laboratory rat Selective breeding of albino brown rats rescued from being killed in a now-outlawed sport called rat-baiting has produced the albino laboratory rat.[66] Like mice, these rats are frequently subjects of medical, psychological and other biological experiments and constitute an important model organism. This is because they grow quickly to sexual maturity and are easy to keep and to breed in captivity. When modern biologists refer to "rats", they almost always mean Rattus norvegicus. [edit] As pets Main article: Fancy rat The brown rat is kept as a pet in many parts of the world. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States are just a few of the countries that have formed fancy rat associations similar in nature to the American Kennel Club, establishing standards, orchestrating events, and promoting responsible pet ownership. There are many different types of domesticated brown rats. These include variations in coat patterns as well as the style of the coat, such as Hairless or Rex, and more recently developed variations in body size and structure including dwarf and tailless fancy rats. Red Fox Vulpes vulpes Red foxes live around the world in many diverse habitats including forests, grasslands, mountains, and deserts. They also adapt well to human environments such as farms, suburban areas, and even large communities. The red fox's resourcefulness has earned it a legendary reputation for intelligence and cunning. Red foxes are solitary hunters who feed on rodents, rabbits, birds, and other small game—but their diet can be as flexible as their home habitat. Foxes will eat fruit and vegetables, fish, frogs, and even worms. If living among humans, foxes will opportunistically dine on garbage and pet food. Like a cat's, the fox's thick tail aids its balance, but it has other uses as well. A fox uses its tail (or "brush") as a warm cover in cold weather and as a signal flag to communicate with other foxes. Foxes also signal each other by making scent posts—urinating on trees or rocks to announce their presence. In winter, foxes meet to mate. The vixen (f

EE Amphibeans

Texas Blind Salamander (Eurycea (Typhlomolge) rathbuni) Because the Texas Blind Salamander is adapted for living in water underground, it has no eyes, only two small black dots under the skin. It has little skin pigment, is white in color, and has red external gills used to get oxygen from the water. The blind salamander is an active predator. It hunts animal food by sensing water pressure waves created by prey in the still underground waters where it lives. Reason for Concern: The Texas Blind Salamander depends on a constant supply of clean, cool water from the Edwards Aquifer. Pollution and overuse of water caused by the growth of cities threaten its survival. You can help by conserving water and preventing water pollution. Size: 5 inches long Diet: Tiny snails, shrimp, and other aquatic invertebrates. Habitat (where it lives): Water-filled caves of the Edwards Aquifer near San Marcos, Texas. Range (where found in Texas): Edwards Plateau, Hays County, Texas. Reproduction: Reproduction occurs year round. Population Numbers: Unknown Interesting Fact: Blind Salamanders move their heads from side to side as they search for food on the bottom. Houston Toad (Bufo houstonensis) The Houston Toad is 2 to 3.5 inches long and similar in appearance to Woodhous's Toad (Bufo woodhousei), but smaller. General coloration varies from light brown to gray or purplish gray, sometimes with green patches. The pale ventral surfaces often have small, dark spots. Males have a dark throat, which appears bluish when distended. Habitat The Houston Toad is a terrestrial amphibian associated with deep sandy soils within the Post Oak Savannah vegetation area of east central Texas. Since Houston Toads are poor burrowers, loose friable soils are required for burrowing. The toads burrow into the sand for protection from cold weather in the winter (hibernation) and hot, dry conditions in the summer (aestivation). Large areas of predominantly sandy soils greater than 40 inches deep are considered preferred habitat. The vegetation type of currently known Houston Toad sites can typically be described as pine or oak woodland or savannah, with native bunchgrasses and forbs (flowering plants) present in open areas. Plants that are often present in Houston Toad habitat include loblolly pine, post oak, blue jack or sand jack oak, yaupon, and little bluestem. For breeding, including egg and tadpole development, Houston Toads also require still or slow-flowing bodies of water that persist for at least 30 days. These water sources may include ephemeral (temporary) rain pools, flooded fields, and blocked drainages of upper creek reaches, wet areas associated with seeps or springs, or more permanent ponds containing shallow water. The source of ephemeral or permanent water should be located within one-half to three-quarters mile of the toad's hibernation/foraging habitat (deep sands supporting woodland or savannah). The toads do best in ponds without predatory fish. Life History The Houston Toad is a year-round resident where found, although its presence can most easily be detected during the breeding season, when males may be heard calling. Males usually call in or near shallow water or from small mounds of soil or grass surrounded by water. Males occasionally call from wooded habitat located within about a 100-yard radius of breeding ponds. The call is a high clear trill that lasts an average of 14 seconds. The call is much like that of the American Toad (Bufo americanus), but ususally slightly higher in pitch. The American Toad occurs in Texas, but north of the range of the Houston Toad.Houston Toads may call from December through June. Most breeding activity takes place in February and March, and is stimulated by warm evenings and high humidity. Toads emerge from hibernation to breed only if moisture and temperature conditions are favorable. Females, responding to calling males, move toward the water to mate. The female lays her eggs as long strings in the water, where they are fertilized by the male as they are laid. The eggs hatch within seven days and tadpoles metamorphose (turn into toadlets) between 15 and 100 days, depending on the water temperature. Young toadlets are about one-half inch long when they complete metamorphosis. They then leave the pond and spend their time feeding and growing in preparation for the next breeding season. Males generally breed when they are a year old, but females may not breed until they are two years old. Houston Toads, especially first-year toadlets and juveniles, are active year round under suitable temperature and moisture conditions. Their diet consists mainly of insects and other invertebrates. Life Span: 2 to 3 years Reproduction: Males call females to the breeding pond with a high, clear trill. Population Numbers: At least 2000 adults in Bastrop Co. plus unknown numbers in 7 other counties. Interesting Fact: The males call is a high clear trill that lasts an average of 14 seconds. Threats and Reasons for Decline Habitat loss and alteration are the most serious threats facing the Houston Toad. Alteration of ephemeral and permanent natural wetlands for urban and agricultural uses eliminates breeding sites. Draining a wetland, or converting an ephemeral wetland to a permanent pond, can eventually cause the Houston toad to decline or be eliminated entirely. Conversion to permanent water not only makes them more vulnerable to predation by snakes, fish, and other predators; but also increases competition and hybridization with closely related species. Periodic drought is also a threat, particularly long-term drought such as that experienced during the 1950's. Drought may result in the loss or reduction of breeding sites as well as enhanced mortality of toadlets and adults.Extensive clearing of native vegetation near breeding ponds and on the uplands adjacent to these ponds reduces the quality of breeding, foraging, and resting habitat, and increases the chances of predation and hybridization. Conversion of native grassland and woodland savannah to sod-forming introduced grasses, such as Bermuda grass and Bahia grass, eliminates habitat because grass growth is generally too dense for the toad to move freely. Dense sod also inhibits burrowing. High traffic roads are a barrier to Houston Toad movement, and toads are sometimes killed on roads. Other linear features such as pipelines and transmission lines can create barriers between foraging, hibernating, and breeding sites, especially if native vegetation has been removed.Continuous grazing (not rotating cattle), heavy stocking rates, and long term fire suppression have caused loss of habitat in a significant part of the toad's range. Historically, periodic fire played an important role in maintaining native bunchgrass communities in loblolly pine and post oak savannah. Due to poor grazing management practices and fire suppression since the arrival of European man, much of the former savannah grasslands of the Post Oak region has grown into brush thickets devoid of herbaceous vegetation. Houston Toads need the herbaceous layer of bunchgrasses for cover and foraging habitat. Although the toad is believed to be adapted to fire regimes, prescribed burning may result in toad mortality. Frequent and/or severe burns may be detrimental to the toad, particularly for small, fragmented populations. However, increased fuel loads due to prolonged periods of fire prevention may result in very hot wildfires. Additional research is needed to determine the effects of prescribed burning programs. The invasion of the Red Imported Fire Ant makes it harder to ensure the long-term survival of the Houston Toad. These toads occur in small, scattered populations, and may be more seriously affected by fire ants than species that are more common and widespread. Fire ants kill young toadlets (less than 7-10 days old) moving out of the breeding pond into the surrounding land habitat. Current research shows that fire ants have a devastating impact on local arthropod communities, and thus may also limit the toad's food supply. There is no specific information on the effects of various chemicals on the Houston Toad, but it is known that amphibians in general are very sensitive to many pollutants, including pesticides and other organic compounds. These chemicals may affect the toad directly, particularly in the tadpole stage, or indirectly by lowering the abundance and diversity of its food supply. Widespread use of pesticides and herbicides from about 1950 to 1975 may also have contributed to declining populations. During this period, DDT and similar non-specific chemicals accumulated in the environment, affecting a wide variety of animal life. Although threats from persistent, non-specific chemicals are not as serious today as in the past, the use of pesticides and herbicides for agricultural and residential purposes may still pose a danger for the Houston Toad.Although Houston Toad populations are inherently separated because they exist only in areas of deep sandy soil, further fragmentation of habitat due to human activity can be a problem. Widely scattered parcels of habitat may not easily be re-colonized by distant Houston Toads if extensive areas of unsuitable habitat occur between populations, or human impacts eliminate a population. Recovery Efforts Research is continuing into the life history, habitat requirements, and land management practices affecting the Houston Toad. Population surveys are being conducted in areas where toads have been found and in potential habitat areas. Efforts to provide information and educational opportunities to the general public and landowners regarding life history and habitat requirements of the toad are a vital part of the recovery process.

EE Reptiles

Atlantic Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Description: Hawksbill Sea Turtles are the most tropical of all sea turtles. They are found primarily in warmer waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans from Japan to Australia and the British Isles to southern Brazil. They are also found in the southern waters of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean. Hawksbill turtles nest primarily at night, but there are reports of daytime nesting, usually on uninhabited beaches. Although sea turtles are subject to predation throughout their life cycle, predation is particularly high during the first two years of life. The eggs are eaten by ghost crabs, raccoons, skunks, oppossums, mongooses, and dogs. Hatchlings are preyed upon by mammals, sea birds, crabs, and carnivorous fishes. Predation continues to be high until the turtles are big enough to avoid being swallowed. Sharks are a formidable predator throughout the life cycle of the Hawksbill. Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened animals. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern: The Hawksbill's brightly colored, thick scutes covering the carapace (top of the shell) are the source of "tortoise-shell" which has been used for centuries to make jewelry. Handicrafts made of tortoise-shell appear in many ancient cultures, in places like China, Ceylon, India, Oceania, and Rome. With the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) restrictions, international trade in tortoise-shell has significantly decreased, but harvest of the turtle for its shell is still a threat to its survival in some areas of the world. The meat and eggs of the Hawksbill have long been a source of food for people, although the meat is considered toxic in some areas due to the food items consumed. Human exploitation of the nesting grounds and pollution pose long term threats to its survival. In the past, Hawksbill Sea Turtles were often killed in large shrimp trawl nets. Today, Turtle Excluder Devices (TED's) pulled by shrimp boats help reduce mortality from net entanglement. Size: A small to medium sized turtle with shell lengths up to 36 inches. Diet: This carnivorous turtle has a highly variable diet consisting mostly of invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, crustaceans, sea urchins, and molluscs. Habitat (where it lives): Hawksbill turtles live in clear offshore waters of mainland and island shelves. They are more common where coral reef formations are present. Hawksbill turtles nest on sandy beaches, often in the proximity of coral reefs. Range (where found in Texas): The Gulf of Mexico - An occasional visitor to the Texas coast. Life Span: At least 30 years and up to 50 years or more. Reproduction: In captivity, adults reach sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years of age, although wild turtles may take much longer to reach maturity. Adults mate off the nesting beaches every 2 to 3 years during the nesting period, generally April through November. Female Hawksbill turtles nest alone or sometimes in small groups. As with other sea turtles, females return to lay their eggs on or near the same beach where they hatched. The females may nest several times during a season, laying as many as 200 soft, round white eggs per nest. The eggs incubate in the sand for 47 to 75 days. The incubation period is longer when the weather is cool. Hatchlings emerge from the nest mostly at night, race quickly to the surf and swim hurriedly toward the open ocean. Nesting occurs in numerous places in the tropics. In the Americas, these include the beaches of the Yucatan Peninsula, southern Cuba, Costa Rica, islands of the Caribbean such as Virgin Islands, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Turks and Caicos, and Grenada, northeastern Brazil, and Pacific coasts of Mexico and Panama. Population Numbers: Unknown Interesting Fact: Scientists believe that sea turtles navigate by using their own innate global positioning system. Hatchlings are born with the ability to navigate using the earth's magnetic field. Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle(Lepidochelys kempii) Description: Female turtles lay their eggs on a beach along the east coast of Mexico. It is the only known major nesting beach in the world for this turtle. Females nest in large groups called "arribazones". Groups of females move onto the beach to lay their eggs over a period of a few days. Each turtle digs a hole in the sand, deposits her eggs, and returns to the sea. In 50-55 days, the eggs hatch and the baby turtles (hatchlings) rush to the water and out to sea. After at least 10 years at sea, adult females return to nest at the same beach where they hatched. Male turtles never leave the water. They appear in waters near the nesting beach during the breeding season to mate with the females. Other than that, we know little about the males. Reason for Concern:Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtles are endangered because people dug up their eggs for food. Adult turtles were killed for food, and many have died from being tangled in large shrimp nets. Some turtles also die from eating trash, which they mistake for food. Size:28 inches in length and 75-100 lbs.Diet:Mostly crabs; also shrimp, snails, clams, jellyfish, sea stars, fish.Habitat (where it lives):MarineRange (where found in Texas):Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean.Life Span:Individuals surviving to adulthood may live 30 years and possibly up to 50 years.Reproduction:100 soft, white eggs.Population Numbers:Most reliable counts are of nesting adult females, with estimates less than 1000 adult females.Interesting Fact:Scientists think baby sea turtles may remember or "imprint" on the particular smell, chemical make-up, or magnetic location of the beach where they hatched. Leatherback Sea Turtle(Dermochelys coriacea) The Leatherback Sea Turtle is considered an endangered species throughout its worldwide range. It is listed in Appendix 1 of the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), a list of the most highly endangered animals worldwide. In the majority of countries, this turtle is fully protected by law, however, enforcement of this protection is difficult in many areas. Indiscriminate poaching of eggs and capture of adults at sea or in nesting areas is still widespread. Although captive breeding has been attempted, it has been largely unsuccessful.Note: Special thanks to the photographers for providing images of Texas endangered and threatened plants. All rights to these images are reserved. Educational use permitted. Reason for Concern:Disturbance of the nesting grounds is the most serious threat to the Leatherback. Although the flesh of this sea turtle is not eaten, the population has been threatened by egg- harvesting in countries such as Malaysia, Surinam, the Guianas, the west coast of Mexico, Costa Rica, and in several Caribbean islands. Leatherbacks were killed in the past for the abundant oil they yield, which was used for oil lamps and for caulking wooden boats. Ingesting plastic bags and other plastic wastes are another cause of death for Leatherbacks. The turtles confuse plastic wastes with one of their favorite foods - jellyfish. When swallowed, plastics can clog a turtle's throat, esophagus, and intestines. Size:The Leatherback is the largest of all sea turtles, with weights of 1,300 lbs. and a carapace length of up to 8 feet. This turtle is unique because of the smooth leathery skin covering its carapace. Research on captive turtles indicates that Leatherbacks grow faster than any other marine turtle. Diet: Leatherbacks feed mainly on pelagic (open ocean) soft-bodied invertebrates such as jellyfish and tunicates. Their diet may also include squid, fish, crustaceans, algae, and floating seaweed. Highest concentrations of these prey animals are often found in areas where deep water comes to the surface (upwelling areas) and where ocean currents converge.Habitat (where it lives): The Leatherback is a highly pelagic species that moves into coastal waters only during the reproductive season. Although small groups may move into coastal waters following concentrations of jellyfish, these turtles seldom travel in large groups. Leatherbacks inhabit primarily the upper reaches of the open ocean, but they also frequently descend into deep waters from 650 to 1650 feet in depth. Range (where found in Texas): The Gulf of Mexico. A rare visitor to the Texas Gulf Coast. Life Span: At least 30 years and up to 50 years or more. Reproduction: Adults are believed to reach sexual maturity between 3 and 4 years of age, although the age at which wild turtles reach maturity may be greater. Unlike most sea turtles, which nest in the spring and summer, Leatherbacks usually nest in fall and winter. They arrive at the nesting beaches in large groups, forming "arribazones", where groups of females move onto the beach to lay their eggs over a period of a few days. The eggs incubate in the sand for 50 to 78 days. The incubation period is longer when the weather is cool. Hatchlings emerge from the nest mostly at night, race quickly to the surf and swim hurriedly toward the open ocean. Predation is high during the first two years of life. The eggs are eaten by raccoons, skunks, opossums, mongooses, coatis, and dogs. Hatchlings are preyed upon by mammals, sea birds, crabs, and carnivorous fishes. Predation continues until the turtles are big enough to avoid being swallowed. Sharks are a formidable predator throughout the life-cycle of the Leatherback. Population Numbers: Unknown Interesting Fact: The Leatherback is one of the largest living reptiles, surpassed in size only by some species of crocodiles. Adults can be distinguished from all other species of sea turtles by their large size, spindle-shaped bodies, and leathery, unscaled carapaces.