Enlightenment Primary Sources

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Denis Diderot

What implications do Locke's theory of knowledge and educational theory have for his conception of human nature?

Human nature allows people to learn and causes people to be a product of their environments. Locke did not think that humans are born either good or bad. He thought that they are taught to be good or bad through their experiences in life, and through their environments.

What are the seven core ideals of the Enlightenment?

1) Human autonomy is the means and end of Enlightenment. 2) The importance of reason. 3) Enlightenment is universal. 4) Progress. 5) Secularism. 6) The centrality of economics to politics. 7) The ideal of popular government.

Religion + reason

= Deism

Political ideology definition

A fairly coherent and comprehensive set of ideas that explains and evaluates social conditions, provides a vision of the ideal society, and provides a program for social and political action.

The Enlightenment definition

A movement of intellectual change that swept throughout Europe and North America during the 18th century.

In Kant's view, what factors delayed the progress of human enlightenment?

According to Kant, he stated that many governments used their own power to shape lifestyles of their citizens and to shape their citizens thoughts. Another factor that Kant said delayed human enlightenment was an individual's immaturity, and not having the ability to think on his own. He believed that since people have had guidance their whole life, they are dependent on others, and are hesitant to think on their own. This is because they don't know how to think on their own. Self-caused immaturity and lack of courage also.

A German philosopher who believed the enlightenment was a new way of thinking

Immanuel Kant

How did Diderot use the concept of the law of nature to undermine Christian sexual morality?

According to him, (1) Europeans introduced venereal disease that sickened Tahitians. Diderot said (2) Christian missionaries introduced shame and guilt on the Tahitian people, teaching them to be ashamed to be the human beings they are. (3) this is against natural law and violates the natural dignity of human beings, so of what value is this Christian morality? It is no value at all and is destructive to the natural dignity of man.

First modern economist

Adam Smith

wrote the wealth of nations

Adam Smith

What arguments did Voltaire offer in favor of religious toleration?

Although Voltaire did not agree with Christianity, he still had respect for them. However, he strongly thought that religious intolerance was what caused many wars and problems in society. All men and women equal, regardless of religion and should be treated the same. He also notes that humans make mistakes and that we should be able to forgive them. He said tolerance and reason are required to build an enlightened society.

French political philosopher

Baron de Montesquieu

Who believed that there were 3 types of governments?

Baron de Montesquieu

How did Baron d'Holback's critique of religion affirm basic Enlightenment ideals?

Baron's critique of religion affirms the basic Enlightenment ideals of freedom and reason. He stated that God was created by the ignorance of humans. He implies that humanity fabricated religion in order to have some form of stability in life. His ideas reflect the Enlightenment because his thoughts were breaking away from the traditional views on life. Holback's view of religion greatly shows freedom of an individual.

What were Caesare Beccaria's arguments against the use of torture in judicial proceedings? In your opinion, can torture ever be justified?

Beccaria thought that using torture in judicial proceedings was wrong. He believed that it wasn't necessary and inhumane. The information could not be correct because they might say anything so the pain would stop. I don't think torture could be justified. People make mistakes, but that doesn't mean that we need to torture people to punish them. You would basically be doing what you think is wrong to someone who committed a crime which is hypocritical.

Wrote essay "On Crimes and Punishments"

Cesare Beccaria

In what way may Claude Helvetius be regarded as a disciple of John Locke, and how did he expand the significance of Locke's ideas?

Claude Helvetius is regarded as a disciple of Locke because he adds on to Locke's theory of education that children learn through their experiences. Helvetius determines that the intelligence of man is only produced through the circumstances in which they are placed in. This leads him to conclude that in order to form a happy society, reform needs to occur in both government and education to alter a person's surroundings.

Show how in this excerpt Condorcet demonstrated the humanitarianism of the enlightenment.

Condorcet demonstrates humanitarianism because people realized that slavery was wrong. It was going against human morals and the slaves weren't being treated like people. Humanitarianism is to better human life, and raise human morals, which is what certain people, like Condorcet wanted. He referred the slaves as his brothers, condemning the violation of their natural rights.

How did Condorcet show that slaves' rights are destroyed?

Condorcet shows that slave's rights are destroyed. He states that the slave's lives were taken away from themselves because they were sold, bought, their time was controlled, and their jobs also were. They couldn't make their own decisions, and their rights were taken away; they were treated like they weren't people. Condorcet showed how the slaves rights are destroyed through the theft of the natural rights, the bodily person and the dehumanization of the slaves in a commercial relationship that reduced the slaves to property, all in violation of the ideals of the enlightenment and against the humanism that supported it.

Most of the philosophes did what?

Criticized European culture. Did so by using satire (humor that makes a point). Philosophes believed that European culture was not superior to the native cultures of other people, nor did they believe that European culture, especially Christianity, had anything of value for indigenous peoples around the world.

What ideals of the Enlightenment philosophes are reflected in beccaria's arguments?

Cruel torture is a violation of the natural rights of man, as is the death penalty and torture attacks on any violation of human dignity or the natural rights on man. Torture can also give incorrect information.

What does Deism deny?

Denies supernatural events, refuses to accept anything that does not comport with reason or that is unproved. Thomas Paine said "My Mind is my church." -- best statement of Deist belief!

How does Locke's view of the origin of knowledge compare to that of Rene Descartes? Which view do you favor, or can you suggest another alternative?

Descartes was determined that knowledge was manifested by an individual's ability to think for himself. Locke's view also emphasized the ability for human beings to acquire knowledge from direct experience from their surroundings. Both scholars emphasized that a human being can acquire knowledge through his own right to think. However, Descartes believed children can understand things like math and logical relationships. Locke believed that children cannot understand these concepts, but they will once they are older. I agree with Locke's view on knowledge because I believe that children don't understand things. Children learn how to think once they are taught and learn things throughout their lives.

How did Diderot use the Tahitians to criticize the sexual morals of Europeans?

Diderot used the less constrained and naturalistic behavior of the Tahitians to criticize the overly rigid, Christian morality and prudish behavior of the Europeans and their culture pg. 430, criticizing European concepts of ownership, the abuses of colonialism, European consumerism, excessive work and the relative harshness and unhappiness in European life.

List the abuses in British jails that John Howard disclosed.

Disease, lack of sanitation, lack of food, starvation, hard labor, lack of medical care, no potable water, crowded(filthy) conditions, mentally ill houses in prisons, no treatment, moral depravity (crime, violence).

Hobbes

English political philosopher who advocated for the enlightened monarch but also championed individual liberties.

What is the Enlightenment equation?

Enlightenment = reason + individualism, Science in Service to Man

Why was freedom of the press of such significance to the enlightened philosophes?

Freedom of the press was significant to the enlightened philosophes because it allowed them to publish works that can spread their ideas to each other. This would contribute to the spread of liberty and the reformation of government.

Deism=

God exists, but only as creator, universe runs as a machine.

Why do some thinkers view Rousseau as a champion of democracy, whereas others see him a spiritual precursor of totalitarianism?

He argued for democracy, but not for liberty. He stated that anyone who doesn't agree with general will should be forced to follow it. He clearly says that political parties would ruin a political system based on the general will. He is arguing tyranny for everywhere. Pro-democracy - advocates the greater good over the community, the liberty of the people. Pro dictatorship - hates political parties' opposition to the state and factors almost absolute authority by the sovereign ruler (as long as he follows general will in the social contract).

How does Montesquieu characterize Spanish and Portuguese inquisitors?

He characterizes the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitors as religious buffoons who presume guilt and utilize non-sensual "evidence" of a superstitious nature, while accepting testimony from people of higher social class as true and correct. He says that the holy religion brought by the angels trusts truth alone for its defense and does not need these violent means for its preservation. If it was worthy, no violence would be necessary.

What was Voltaire known for?

His wit

Who believed that a strong monarch is required to rule in the interests of all, to control and regulate where people cannot in order that everybody enjoy their liberty without interfering with others

Hobbes

What did Immanuel Kant mean by the terms enlightenment and freedom?

Immanuel Kant used the terms enlightenment and freedom to identify each other. He determined that the enlightenment means to be free of any barriers that individuals can put on themselves. He stated that to be enlightened means to be free without having guidance from the church, or from anyone else. He emphasizes that to truly be enlightened, people must use their own reason freely.

British philosopher

John Locke

Compare the views of John Locke with those of Thomas Hobbes regarding the character of human nature, Political authority, and the right to rebellion.

John Locke and Thomas Hobbes have different views regarding the character of human nature. Locke believed that people are mainly good, but Hobbes believed that humans are dangerous and are bad. Hobbes believed that there should be a king-like dictator to protect the people from each other. However, Locke believed that people do not need to have a king, but it is the government's job to protect the natural rights of life, liberty and property. He also believed that the power in a government should be the people's choice. For rebellion, Hobbes believed that a government should have control and prevent rebellion. Locke believed that if the government threatened the natural rights of human beings, the people have the right to overthrow the government, and they can govern themselves.

According to John Locke, knowledge originates in experience and has two sources- the sense and reflection. What does this mean, and what makes this view of knowledge so revolutionary?

John Locke declared that knowledge originates from experience through human senses and reflection. By senses, he meant that the sensations human beings experience in their lives allow them to understand things around them. People use their senses to interpret their surroundings. By reflection, Locke meant that it the human mind allows you to interpret your surroundings and experiences by reflecting it to other experiences. He continued to believe that through reflection, humans can derive conclusions from looking at facts. Locke's view was so revolutionary due to the theological ideas that were present at the time. Locke argued that humans are not born with ideas implanted by a divine source. He believed that a child doesn't have any knowledge but will gain knowledge as they age.

To what extent were John Locke's political ideals reflected in the Encyclopedia?

John Locke's fundamental political ideals that people should be free to think, feel and live as they please were reflected in the Encyclopedia. Locke asserted that it was the government's responsibility to preserve people's natural rights. The Encyclopedia also emphasized it was the government's right to preserve the liberty of the people in order to maintain a successful nation. Lastly, both emphasized the government's need to acknowledge people's free will and their right to govern themselves.

How does Johnathan Swift account for the origins of war?

Jonathan swift said that war is often caused by ambition, corruption, difference of opinion, religious differences, an imbalance of power, greed, jealousy, alliance; almost any reason except a ration reason! Swift implies that the outcome for people in this context is never good. War is really fought by the common people for the sole benefit of the aristocracy and the elites.

Who thought the enlightenment was a personal process (a release from immaturity)

Kant

Who thought the enlightenment was an act of personal courage?

Kant

Claude Helvetius agrees with

Locke and adds that nurture is more important than nature, that "genius is common, the circumstances that produce it are rare." Environment and circumstance allow for the genius to emerge.

Rousseau=

Man is born good, corrupted by society. Individuals give up their political and individual power to the community as part of the general will. General will is never wrong and is always best. Community is more important that the individual, no divisions, factions or political parties allowed.

Swiss born philosopher

Rousseau

Who believed that people start out good and become corrupted by society?

Rousseau

Who wrote the Social Contract?

Rousseau

What is swifts view of law, lawyers, and judges?

Swift's view of law, lawyers, and judges is very negative. Swift believed that law caused the ruin of people. Lawyers do not use reason to arrive at truth, but "proving by words multiplied for the purposes that white is black and black is white ... according to as they are paid." Judges are lawyers just grown old and lazy, biased against truth. Precedent is used to ensure that decisions made against reason stand forever. The law (man made law) is a tool to keep men down, dehumanize individuals and strip humanity of the natural rights accorded under natural law, the supreme everlasting law.

John Locke believed in

Tabula Rasa (blank slate), we are what our experience makes us. Knowledge is acquired through experience and use of reason. Senses provide sensory input, the brain reflects on the information and makes associations, then reflects more, over and over until knowledge is gained. Metacognition (self-awareness) is required to fully engage the process in discovering knowledge.

What did Jean Jacques Rousseau mean by the "general will"? What function did it serve in his political theory?

The general will is a plainly visible truth that is easily observed using reason and common sense. The general will is always right and is always best for the community. Since the general will is good for all, it is also good for individuals, who are transformed into enlightened people by bowing to the general will. It is the guiding principle upon which the state is run, and it is that to which the civil population is dedicated.

What are the political implications of Kan'ts views?

The political implications of Kant's view would be that the church's and government's main goal is to shape their citizen's minds for their own benefit. In Kant's essay, he mentions how people have too much guidance in life, and they are taught how to do everything. Kant would consider this as a form of restriction that prevents citizens from achieving their goals. Kant believes people should be in charge, not the government.

Why was the publication of the Encyclopedia a vital step in the philosophes' hopes for reform?

The publication of the Encyclopedia is a vital step in the philosophes hopes for reform because it advocated freedom and liberty. It also advocates the history of mankind as a learning tool to stop humanity from making mistakes. The Encyclopedia also says that the government should be at the people's best interest. Through the publication of the Encyclopedia, the French philosophes hoped to spread wisdom to the people.

What do the Yahoos signify for Swift?

The yahoos according to swift, are vicious, disgusting human beings with no rational sense employed in menial service at the behest of superiors. This is how he views the common population of England and by extension the bulk of humanity. Swift always claimed that human beings were not the paragons of virtue and reason they claimed to be. His view of humanity is darker and the need for humanity to improve is evident.

Who wrote Leviathan?

Thomas Hobbes

What christian beliefs did Thomas Paine reject? Why?

Thomas Paine does not believe in the Virgin Mary or Jesus Christ being resurrected/ being the son of God. He thinks this because there is no evidence that could prove that this religion is correct. Paine instead used logic, reason, and science to determine that religion can't be correct in every aspect he would not believe it unless there was proof.

Who wrote Candide?

Voltaire

What did Voltaire mean by the term fanaticism? What examples did he provide? How was it to cured?

Voltaire believes fanaticism is a "disease" that certain people have. This caused by the craving for something they feel strongly about, without regarding reason and logic a respectful Christian has. For example, he speaks of the St. Bartholomew massacre where thousands of people were killed because they did not want to renounce their religion. He also provides an example of corrupt judges who prosecute men because they don't have the same opinion. The solution that could cure "fanaticism" is the philosophical spirit that prevents the disease from spreading.

What does Candide reveal about Voltaire's general outlook?

Voltaire believes that human existence is importable, that the quality of human life can be improved and that acceptance of things as unchangeable is ludicrous. The way to promote change is through honest inquiry and criticism, purposeful and honest work and the deliberate pursuit of virtue (that which is good) on a continual basis.

Why did Voltaire ridicule Christian theological disputation?

Voltaire mocked Christian theological disputation because the Christian religion contains many contradictions. Voltaire states that he doesn't understand the religion and thinks others don't understand it either. He says the problem that Christianity has caused many rebellions due to intolerance against other Christians.

Compare Locke's theory to natural rights with the principals states in the American Declaration of Independence

When writing the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson took many concepts about rights and liberty from John Locke's theory. The Declaration of Independence emphasizes the natural human rights to life, liberty and property, like Locke's theory. The Declaration of Independence criminalizes anyone who prevents people from having their natural rights.

What did Locke believe that all people were born with

life, liberty, property

Locke =

man born as blank slate (Tabula Rasa), not good or bad. Government exists to protect natural rights (Life, liberty, property) only. Key to freedom is ownership of property. Smallest government possible is the best. People have the right to overthrow the government if it does not do its job.

Hobbes =

man is bad, needs absolute monarch to control

Social Contract =

political association of individuals in a society.

Atheism was rare among the philosophes -- Baron D'holbach

was the best example of atheism, denying existence of God as unproven and against human progress. Most Enlightenment philosophes did not agree with him!