ENVIRO EXAM

how does the salt concentration increase, become more dense and less buoyant?

evaporation and cooling

mass extinction

event in which many types of living things become extinct in a short and same period of time

fossils

evidence for how long life has been there, and how it has changed over time

genetic variation + differential reproduction =?

evolutionary change at the genetic level

Type I survivorship curve

excellent survivorship over lifespan

hypertrophic

excessive nutrients, usually due to human activity

what caused the extinction of the American passenger pigeon?

over hunting and habitat destruction

what are the four factors that must be in place for evolution by natural selection?

overproduction, heritable variability, competition, and differential reproduction

secondary pollutants

pollutants transformed in the presence of sunlight, water, oxygen or other compounds

what did the Dustbowl of 1930s result in?

the passage of Soil Conservation Act (1935) and establishment of Soil Conservation Service to manage soil use

Homeostasis

the tendency of a system to maintain steady or constant internal conditions

residence time

the time a pollutant stays in the atmosphere

why might conservation of threatened species by protecting habitats not be effective in the future?

global climate change

what do circulation systems produce?

global climate patterns

Atmospheric convection currents

global patterns of air movement that are initiated by the unequal heating of Earth

population

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

global weirding

pattern of different areas of the Earth getting colder, warmer, drier and wetter (extreme weather)

who usually has a larger eco footprint

people from wealthy nations

phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

what does increased acidification affect?

physiology, behavior

have reduction of emissions in the US occurred even as energy consumption and population have increased? what is this due to?

yes. -Catalytic converters on cars: Reduces NOx emissions -Scrubbers on smoke stacks-Capture pollutants before entering atmosphere -Baghouse filters, Electrostatic precipitators -Remove particulates

what is "use it or lose it?"

used structures will become stronger, while unused become vestigial

Oceans

~97.5% of Earth's water is salt water

The Vinland, Greenland settlement was discovered by who during Medieval warm period. what did they take advantage of?

vikings. ice free seas

HIV/AIDS:

viral disease can be communicated by blood and other body fluids.

water vapor capacity

warm air has a higher capacity for water vapor than cold air

what are remaining spaces take up by?

water and air

do effects of renewable sources need to be taken into account if they are eventually used as a significant source of energy?

yes

does wind remove kinetic energy from the atmosphere

yes

have US water policies historically worked against conservation? how do the East and West compare?

yes, East- Riparian use rights- Could use as much water as wanted as long as it didn't interfere with others or affect water quality West- Prior appropriation rights-First come, first served, but water must be consumed-use it or lose it

is aquaculture the fastest growing type of food production and what continent is this most prominent?

yes, Asia

Is fitness relative?

yes, and each era's fittest were replaced as environmental circumstances changed

does Earth's climate change often in short or long cycles? what is this caused by?

yes. Movement of continents, uplift of continental blocks Milankovich cycles-Wobbles in the Earth's orbit, axis, variation of tilt Volcanism Changes in solar energy output Asteroid impact Dinosaur gas?

evasion of predator

outrunning or evading a predator, Ex. gazelle, rabbit

agricultural revolution

(10,000 years ago)- hunter-gatherer to agricultural lifestyle, more food available for more children

geoengineering

Deliberate modification of the earth's environment on a global scale

Toxicants

Non-biological substances

Infectious disease

Second leading cause of death worldwide

taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms

common ancestry

all species are related by this

Eutrophic

nutrient rich

how does soil affect agriculture?

regional differences in soil

Data either supports or does not support your hypothesis

true

competition

"Struggle for existence" constrains absolute growth of populations, as environmental resources are limited. Varied individuals of a population must compete for resources

appeal to authority

"expert" agrees with position or claim

How many organisms are on Earth?

1.4 million species have been catalogued, but the actual number was around 8.7 million, possibly many more

greenland glacier

1.5 mi. thick

Safe Drinking Water Act

(1974, 1986, 1996) sets the national standards for safe drinking water. Responsible for establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for 77 different elements or substances in both surface water and groundwater.

what can changing environmental conditions lead to?

(Invasive species, disease) has led to decline, but genetic variation has helped some populations adapt

industrial revolution

(Mid 1700's)- rural to urban lifestyle, powered by fossil fuels

population growth rate=?

(birth rate - death rate) + (immigration - emigration)

biome

- A regional complex or similar plant communities -Defined by plant type and vegetation structure -Determined by climate, primarily temperature and precipitation -Classified as tropical, temperate, subarctic, and arctic -Ten terrestrial biomes

Temperate Rainforest

- Coniferous forest with extremely wet conditions - Many endemic species - Threatened by logging

biomolecules: nucleic acids

- DNA and RNA - Composed of series of nucleotides, each of which contains a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

characteristics of herbivore skull

- Dentition-Grinding molars prominent - Eye socket-peripheral vision - Mandible-Flat-Less strength - Zygomatic arch small-Size indicates size (strength) of jaw muscles - Sagittal crest small-Where jaw muscles attach-Size of jaw muscles

characteristics of carnivore skull

- Dentition-Tearing canines, molars, cutting incisors prominent, Carnassial-Shearing teeth - Mandible-Curved, concentrates strength in front of jaw - Eye socket-Binocular vision - Zygomatic arch large Sagittal crest large

predator characteristics

- Intelligent and highly alert - Well developed central nervous system - Well developed senses - Fast moving - Well developed muscles - Efficient circulatory system - Binocular vision

Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

- Key role in every environmental system - Source: Water moves from soil, bodies of water, and plants to the atmosphere via evaporation and transpiration - Water returns to the Earth via precipitation - Sink: Water enters aquifers via infiltration - Human activity affects the water cycle by increasing evaporation, decreasing infiltration, and withdrawing groundwater faster than it can be recharged

density dependent factors

- Limiting resources (influence an individual's probability of survival and reproduction) - Effects of density-dependent factors increases as populations grow ▪For terrestrial plants: water and soil nutrients. ▪For animals: food, water, and nesting sites-Resources. ▪Resistance factors-Also control population size and growth Disease, Competition, Predation

biomolecules: proteins

- Long chains of nitrogen-containing organic compounds- Amino acids - Major component of cells-Muscles, skin, hair, tendons - Transport oxygen - Act as hormones - Immune function - Many are enzymes

characteristics of k-adapted species

- Long life - Slower growth of individual - Late maturity - Few, large offspring - High parental care - Adapted to stable environment - Predators - Niche specialists

biomolecules: lipids

- Long term energy storage -Provide cellular structures - Do not readily dissolve in water - Fats and oils-Energy storage - Waxes-Structure - Phospholipids-Cell membranes - Steroids-Hormone production

r-selected species

- Population of a species grows quickly as resources become available, often followed by overshoots and die-offs. - High rate of population increase, well adapted to exploit unpredictable environments - "r" denotes the intrinsic growth rate. - Ex: mosquitoes, dandelions.

characteristics of r-adapted species

- Short life - Rapid growth of individual - Early maturity - Many, small offspring - Little parental care - Adapted to unstable environment - Prey - Niche generalists - sometimes have sudden population growth with high peaks, may overshoot carrying capacity, drop below it, and increase and overshoot it again until they settle close to carrying capacity. Some populations will continue to overshoot and crash

biomolecules: carbohydrates

- Simple sugars and large molecules made up of simple sugars bonded together - Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms - Source of short term energy - Provide structure to cells-Starch, chitin - Play major role in physiological processes-immune system, fertilization, blood clotting

Carbon cycle

- Sources: Carbon moving from atmosphere to living organisms via photosynthesis and respiration, through ocean/atmosphere exchange - Sinks: Sedimentary rock, fossil fuels. Released by natural processes (continental shift, weathering, volcanos) and by extraction an burning of fossil fuels - Human activity has affected the carbon cycle by burning fossil fuels, deforestation

k-selected species

- Species that grows slowly until it reaches carrying capacity. - Abundance determined by carrying capacity- "K". - Ex: elephants, whales, and humans. - Low reproductive rates, very responsive to environmental conditions - Decrease or increase slowly as resource availability changes - Slow increases and decreases in response to the environment

prey characteristics (animals)

- Swift escape - Early predator detection mechanisms - Hiding or seeking refuge - Peripheral vision

prey characteristics (plants)

- Thorns - Defensive chemicals

nitrogen cycle

- To become biologically available, nitrogen gas (N2 ) must be "fixed"-Converted to a form that can be taken up by plants -Lightning and nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia (NH3) -Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium ions (NH4+) to nitrite and nitrate ions -Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back to N2 - Humans alter the nitrogen cycle through industrial fixation of nitrogen, which accelerated its flux into other reservoirs

phosphorous cycle

- Virtually no atmospheric component - Largest reservoir is sedimentary rocks, which makes little available for uptake - Natural cycle flux is extremely slow - Humans alter the phosphorous cycle through mining and use of phosphorous rich fertilizers, which contributes to eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems

Clean Water Act of 1972

-"protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water." The goal is to return all U.S. surface waters to "fishable and swimmable" conditions -Water quality standards that defined acceptable limits of various pollutants in U.S. waterways. Set zero discharge for 126 priority toxic pollutants -For Point Sources, Discharge Permits and Best Practicable Control Technology are required. -Focus now on protection, monitoring of watershed rather than individual bodies of water -Remaining problems: Sediment, nutrient, pathogen pollution from non-point sources

ocean acidification (evil twin of sea level rise)

-1/3 of all CO2 produced from fossil fuel burning has ended up in the ocean -C02 reacts with seawater, increases acidity -Since industrial revolution, pH has dropped about .1 unit, from 8.179-8.069 -Estimated to drop .3-.5 units by 2100-7.824. 150% more acidic than pre-industrial levels of 8.2

hole in the ozone layer

-1973-Lovelock discovered almost all CFC's ever produced were still in the atmosphere. -Uncertainty about consequences of ozone depletion-Models developed -Expected gradual decline predicted did not happen-large hole appeared in early 80's -1985-Stratospheric ozone levels discovered to have declined by nearly half over previous decade -Concerns over effects of increased UV exposure

unequivocal warming

-1998-Warmest year globally in 20th century -2014-Earth's warmest year since 1880 (Beginning of NOAA data recording): +.69ºC anomaly ...except for 2015, 16, 17, 18, 2019- +.95ºC above 20th cent ave -2010-2019-Hottest decade ever recorded. Last 5 yrs-Hottest on record

fossil fuels: coal

-27% Of worldwide energy consumption -Energy derived from photosynthesis of prehistoric wetland plants -High energy-to-weight ratio -Emissions of CO2/unit of energy are worst of any fossil fuel because it is almost completely carbon -Burning coal releases huge amounts of pollutants -Once thought in place recoverable reserves-200 yr supply. New studies-77 yrs based on current recovery technology

nuclear power

-4% of world energy consumption (2018) -Energy comes from chain reaction-Bombard isotope with neutrons. Splits into lighter atoms, releasing more neutrons creates more fission -Huge amount of energy released-used to drive steam production of electricity -Produces no greenhouse gases -Waste disposal, safety, terrorism serious concerns

cons of CAFO

-45% of global grain production goes to feed livestock, poultry -Large amounts of waste produced, can become pollutant -Increased use of antibiotics -Major source of greenhouse gases

what are the water uses by sector?

-Agriculture: Highest use due to wasteful irrigation methods; expected to grow with increasing food demands -Domestic: Water used for drinking, cooking, washing, cleaning -Industry: Generating electricity, cooling machinery, refining metals, paper making, biofuel production

pros of aquaculture?

-Alleviates pressure on overexploited fisheries -Consumes less fossil fuels, safer than commercial fishing -Energy efficient

pros of CAFO

-Animals housed, fed for rapid growth in feedlots -Economic efficiency, increased production makes meat affordable -Reduces grazing impacts on rangeland

so, what is the most highly evolved organism?

-Anthropocentric view-We consider intellect, culture, emotions at higher "levels" -Many "lower" organisms have highly complex abilities that we lack: Echolocation, photosynthesis, venom, flight, etc., etc., etc. -We now know many "lower" organisms are capable of traits like grief, showing affection, learning, using tools, etc., etc., etc. -We are another remarkable leaf on the remarkably diverse tree of life

scientific consensus

-Based on the work of thousands of scientists testing, modifying, and rejecting hypotheses for at least 30 yrs. -Direct observations consistent with predictions -Knowledge of established physical properties -Computer models that are corroborated by observed data -Uncertainties about rates, volumes, levels, but no studies question reality of global warming and human connection -IPCC-Established in 1988. 1995-human effect discernible. Global change is a certainty

how to be a sustainable eater

-Become a locavore -Eat low on food chain -Rely on low input organic foods -Preservation of shade-grown crops consumer dependent -Join CSA-Community supported agriculture

challenges- belief that science is not about consensus

-Belief that science only progresses when conventional wisdom challenged-Galileo, Alfred Wegener -New ideas are important to science-"organized skepticism", but must undergo scrutiny of supporting evidence, testing, peer review -Burden of proof is on person with new ideas-disagreement for the sake of disagreement without evidence unproductive -Kary Mullis

how does one maximize water use efficiency?

-Better matching crops with climate -Drip irrigation

freshwater shortages

-By 2025, 2/3 of worlds pop may be living in water stressed countries -Caused by natural deficits, cost, conflicts, overconsumption, lack of access to clean water

preventing emissions from reaching atmosphere: carbon capture and storage

-CO2 sequestration-Large scale permanent artificial capture of industrially produced CO2 -Applied to large point sources-Fossil fuel, biomass energy facilities, natural gas processing -Capturing C02 at point of generation, piped to storage location -Must take into account future CO2 levels -3 options-Geological, ocean, mineral. All would increase cost of producing electricity 20-100% -Major material handling effort to undertake -Only addresses half of annual CO2 emissions in atmosphere

IPCC Report, March 31, 2014-A call for action

-Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability-Effects of climate change occurring on every continent, world is unprepared for risks from changing climate -Opportunities to respond, but harder with high levels of warming. Adaptation key to decreasing risks -Observed impacts-Agriculture, human health, ecosystems, water supplies, economies -More and more impacts, faster, sooner than anticipated in 2007. 2007-Risk level went to "high". 2014-New risk level added- "Very high"

permafrost changes

-Continuous in arctic, becomes discontinuous as you move south. ¼ of Northern hemisphere land contains permafrost -Temps have increased almost all areas over last 20-30 years -Thawing soil leading to destabilization of infrastructure, release of methane, impact on migrating arctic species

energy and the economy

-DOE, 2016: Proportionately, solar power employment accounts for largest share of workers in electric generation capacity, due to building of new solar generation capacity Electric power generation workforce: -Solar: 43% -Fossil fuel: 22%. Of that, -Petroleum: 46% -Natural gas: 29% Building new renewable energy cheaper than running existing coal plants

ocean storage

-Dissolution-injecting CO2 at depth of 1000m or more, contained by water pressure -Converted to bicarbonates -Store as solid clathrate hydrates already existing Concerns: -Ocean in direct contact with atmosphere, eventually equilibrate-non-permanent -Environmental effects-ocean acidification, effects on deep sea life

acid rain program (1990)

-Emissions trading system -Encouraged use of low-sulfur fuel -S02 emissions fell 67%, as did ave sulfate loads in US precipitation -Set up emissions trading program for SO2, NOx from producers -Each year allowable limits were reduced, encouraging polluters to burn low sulfur coal, put pollution control measures in place -Both SO2 and NOx emissions fell, as did sulfate load in precipitation

energy inefficiency in meat consumption

-Energy conversion efficiencies: Beef production requires more feed than pig, eggs, chicken, or milk -Area of land and water required for production highest for beef

stratospheric ozone

-Exists roughly 45-60 kilometers above the Earth. -Ozone has the ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation and protect life on Earth. -Hole in ozone layer appears each year in Antarctic springtime

Clean Air Act 1963-1990

-Funds research into pollution control -Sets standards for air quality -Imposes limits on emissions -Enables citizen lawsuits -Monitored, regulated, controlled by EPA

evidence supporting climate change

-Global temp has increase in last century -Arctic sea ice thinner and covers less area than century ago -Alpine glaciers retreating -Sea levels rising last century -Droughts more frequent, storms stronger, more damaging -Direct observations of ecosystem changes -Predictions made by theory have been correct; models support theory -No natural cause of climate change can be attributed to the current one

overgrazing

-Grasslands grazed faster than they can regrow -Removal of too much plant cover -Trampling, compaction of soils by livestock -Non-native weeds replacing species unpalatable or poisonous to livestock may outcompete native vegetation

benefits of genetic engineering

-Greater yield: Resistant to pests, wider tolerance for environmental conditions -Greater food quality: Vitamins, vaccines e.g., "golden rice" -Reductions in pesticide use: Bt corn, roundup ready crops -Reduction of world hunger by increased food production―needed as population grows -Increased profits: use less pesticides

cons of aquaculture?

-Habitat loss in areas converted to aquaculture -Release of wastewater pollutants, -Escape and interference with wild populations

current climate

-Has remained relatively stable since it began 10,000 ya -We have adapted to this particular climate -Many aspects of human interactions with our environment depend on what we expect to happen, climate-wise -Human induced climate change unique

global temperature changes over last century

-Have risen in two phases-1910's-1940's, '70's to present -Warming trend has accelerated from .05 deg C/decade over past 150 years to .18 deg C over past 25 years -Strongest warming-High northern latitudes, higher at night than day -Global temp anomalies, 2015, compared with average 1901-2000 (risen a lot, from a graph) -Ave global surface air temps, 1880-2015 (is represented in a graph)

Tropical Rainforest

-Heavy Rainfall, uniform temps -Nutrient Poor soil -Diverse multi-layered plant community -Very high species diversity -90% of nutrients are in bodies of living organisms -Rapid decomposition

device efficiency: residence

-Homes today use ½ fuel as house built in 1974 due to better insulation, sealing cracks, double paned windows -ENERGY STAR certified appliances, building -Geothermal heat pumps-Use relatively constant temperature of the earth as a heat sink-Colonnades residence hall -Green roof-More expensive to build initially, but.... Absorb rainwater Provide insulation Habitat for wildlife Help lower urban air temps Reduce heating and cooling costs

Chaparral/Mediterranean Scrubland

-Hot dry summer and cool moist winter -Drought adapted plants and animals -Periodic fires -High biodiversity -Human interference affects rare and endangered species

what theories based on fundamental elements are undisputed?

-How greenhouse gases act -Physics of absorption and radiation of heat understood since mid 19th century -How much CO2 we have added to the atmosphere

Toxins in the environment

-Hundreds of synthetic chemicals manufactured, used in our daily lives -Many non-synthetic toxins present in the food we eat-Plant toxins that have evolved to prevent herbivory -Toxins take many routes travelling through the environment -Risks must be weighed against rewards: Ex: DDT use in countries where malaria is prevalent

what are prey defenses shaped by?

-Hunting tactics, capture capabilities of predators - Environment of prey - Limitations imposed by prey animals physical, behavioral characteristics. newts and snakes

climate models, future predictions

-IPCC in 2007 described warming as unequivocal -Model predicted rise-between 1.0-3.7 deg C increase by 2100, depending on scenario -Not evenly distributed-Will vary from region to region. Polar regions will experience the most warming -Increased frequency of heat waves

Prevention of infectious disease

-Immunization -Improved public sanitation -Public education -Access to health care and medication

seafood production

-Important protein source, especially in developing countries -¾ of worlds edible ocean fish, crustaceans, mollusks declining -Destructive fishing methods -Sustainable Fisheries act-1996 -Establishment of Individual Transferrable quotas (ITQ's) has helped control overfishing by large fishing companies

when is soil considered degraded?

-Impoverished or eroded -Water runs off, or is contaminated -Vegetation diminished -Biomass production decreased -Wildlife diversity diminished (nature reserves) -Lower crop yields -Fewer livestock supported

how to reduce CO2 emissions and what are some options?

-Improve energy efficiency -Use emission-free energy sources -Prevent emissions from reaching atmosphere Options: Mitigation strategies-Actions that will reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted Adaptation-Actions that cushion against impacts of climate change Geoengineering- Deliberate modifications of the earth's environment to affect the climate

device efficiency: light bubls

-Incandescent: Convert less than 5% energy use to visible light -CFL: 5 x more efficient than incandescent, save 2000x its weight in greenhouse gases; Contain mercury, but use will reduce mercury emissions from coal fired power plants -LED: Most expensive, but less wattage needed, less wasted energy, longer life

CDR: accelerating natural processes- ocean iron fertilization

-Increase growth of plankton by adding iron to ocean. Plankton take up CO2, die, sink to bottom of ocean where CO2 is sequestered -Cons: Possible harmful algal blooms, deep water oxygen depletion, ecosystem alterations, effects of mining iron -Potential-If phytoplankton converted all nitrate and phosphate across entire circumpolar current into organic carbon-compensation for .8-1.4 GiT C/year

carbon footprint and individual action

-Increasing home energy efficiency: Insulation, energy efficient appliances, lowering thermostat in winter, raising in summer, LED light bulbs, stop faucet leaks, shorter, cooler showers. -Avoiding "vampire lights"-Turning off appliances-standby mode -Transportation: Travel less, use mass transportation, bike, walk, more fuel efficient car, check inflation of tires, air filters -Recycle, compost, eat local food grown in season -Let your voice be heard politically, media-wise, business-wise

SRM: space parasol

-Introducing a structure into orbit that would block portion of sunlight -Less solar radiation reaching earth -16 trillion small mirrored disks-would take years to launch enough before they had an effect -Would cost trillions of dollars to launch into space -Sunshade that blocks 2% of sunlight would halt global warming

Loyal pathogen

Cytomegalovirus has been co-evolving in primate ancestors for millions of years

industrial (conventional) agriculture

-Large-scale mechanization -Use of machinery for cultivation, harvesting, transporting, processing -Boost of yields through intensifying irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide use -Monoculture crops: Increased efficiency, production, but reduction of biodiversity, loss of genetic diversity, increased erosion, narrowing of human diet choices

small family farms

-Less quantity than intensive agriculture, but production costs lower, get higher prices for products -Preserves rural culture -Sustainable farming methods

Sub-arctic Boreal Forest

-Lie between 50-60 degrees N latitude -Dominant trees are conifers, but some deciduous -Slow growing -Often occur where moisture is limited -Trees adapted to reduce moisture loss

industrialized fishing methods

-Longline, driftnets, bottom trawling have increased the amount of fish taken -Capture of target and non-target species, including sea turtles, birds, seals, sea lions, and otters. -Bottom trawling: Devastates the sea floor, destroying habitat for coral, sponges, starfish, and other invertebrates. -Size of net mesh has made smaller species more dominant over larger species-Smaller rays have increased in numbers, barndoor skate almost extinct

biofuels: biodiesel

-Made from any organic material-animal, plant oils, recycled grease -Safe to handle and transport -Can be used in any diesel engine mixed with regular diesel (15%) -Concerns-less oil for human consumption, increase in tropical deforestation for palm oil plantations

fossil fuels: natural gas

-Made of methane -Contains more H and less C than oil or coal-Emits less CO2 than either during combustion, one of "cleanest" forms of fossil fuel -24% of world's energy consumption (2018) -Proven world reserves-60 yrs

more methane info

-Main anthropogenic sources-landfills, coal mines, natural gas distribution -Improving operating systems-less leaks -Trapped to use for energy from landfills -Biogas -Modification of agricultural practices to reduce standing water -Modify diets of ruminants

Indoor Pollutants and solutions

-Mainly VOC's from materials in homes-Plastics, furniture, paints, carpets -Dust mites, animal dander-Contribute to allergies, asthma -Airborne spores of fungi, molds -Bacteria-Cause infectious disease -Building related sicknesses-Illnesses related to indoor pollution Solutions: -Use low toxicity materials -Monitor air quality -Keep rooms clean -Provide adequate ventilation, keep ducts clean -Keep materials in garage, outdoors -Get a NASA approved houseplant!

device efficiency: transportation

-Mass transit-More efficient, less waste -Raising average fuel efficiency of US cars and light trucks by 1 mpg would cut oil consumption by about 295,000 billion metric tons -Hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and full electric -2017 Prius-45mpg -Tesla S class-Consumer Reports top car 2013, 2014, 2015 -Problems with cost, range, fire hazard -New technology-Toshiba, 2017: High density battery developed with range of 320km after 6 min charge, 3x distance available with current Lithium ion batteries

climate models

-Mathematical models of past, present and future climates -Simulate interactions of atmosphere, oceans, land surfaces, ice -Balance incoming energy with outgoing-imbalance results in change of ave temp of earth -Temperature anomalies: Temperature changes over time more important than absolute temp. How temps have changed relative to common base period -Records standardized by subtracting average temp over a fixed period (usually 1950-1980) at all stations

what is a carbon footprint, how is it determined, what is the average carbon foot print of an American and what is it globally?

-Measure of CO2 emitted through the use of fossil fuels and other activities in daily lives -Determined by calculating individual's direct emissions from air, car travel, heating, electricity and indirect from fossil fuels required to produce food, clothing, other consumer products -Average footprint of an American-20 tons/year. Globally-little less than 4 tons/year

hydropower

-Mechanical energy of moving water -No direct emissions of greenhouse gases -Indirect-Decay of flooded vegetation in reservoirs behind dams, release of carbon stored in soil: Large dams and reservoirs responsible for 20% of global methane emissions -Based on assumption that water is a renewable resource -Also provides irrigation services, flood control, storing energy for use with intermittent sources -Indirect source of greenhouse gas emissions -May be useful in storing energy during excess production from intermittent sources -Environmental and social drawbacks-Displacement of people, destruction of archaeological sites, siltation, loss of water to evaporation, ecosystem damage

global sea level rise and warming

-Melting of land ice + extraction of groundwater: half of rise. Thermal expansion: half of rise since 1993 -Global sea level rise 10-20 cm in past century. Expected to rise 26-32cm by end of century. IPCC uses 1M sea level rise -Increased coastal flooding events-53% of US pop lives on the 19% of land near coast-Displacement of shore based populations -Models predict warming of about .2 deg C/decade with GG and aerosol concentration held constant -Coastal flooding, beach erosion, greater impacts from storm surges, displacement of shore based populations

future solutions for energy sustainability

-Mining the sky: High Altitude wind power-Strong winds blow steadily at high altitudes. Flying generators, ladder mill -Solar energy: Inflatable solar concentrators, solar collectors in outer space

organic matter (5%)

Detritus, soil fauna and flora: Invertebrates, fungi, protists, bacteria

fixing a hole (similar to climate change)

-Montreal Protocol (1987): World's nations agree to cut CFC production in half by 1998. Most substances covered have now been phased out -Significant action only occurred when international agreements, participation with CFC producers occurred -Believed that ozone layer expected to recover by 2070

more nitrous oxide info

-More potent greenhouse gas than CO2-Reducing even small amounts would have a proportionately larger effect than reducing same amount of CO2 -Industrial gas-food propellant -Agricultural product-livestock and fertilizer 2/3 of emissions -Reduction of emissions-possibly genetically modifying livestock alter digestive process -Changing feed to lower nitrogen sources -Alternatives to industrial uses found

flooding

-Natural occurrence, develop very quickly in response to extremely intensive rainfall -Spreads nutrient-rich sediments over floodplains

why has food productive increased?

-New and efficient use of cropland -Increased use of irrigation -Improved crop varieties -More readily available fertilizer -Distribution systems to transport food

Temperate Deciduous Forests

-Occur between 30-50 degrees latitude -Broad leafed trees that lose their leaves in winter -Have a diverse understory -Most of NA was deciduous forests -Mixed deciduous/coniferous forest

Deserts

-Occur where precipitation is rare -Plants and animals highly adapted to low moisture and heat conditions -Many present in continental interiors -May be cold or hot -Vulnerable to overgrazing, human damage

ozone depletion

-Ozone depleting compounds-Major sources of chlorine in the stratosphere are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). -CFCs were used in refrigeration and air conditioning, as propellants in aerosol cans, and as "blowing agents" to inject air into foam products like Styrofoam TM -In stratosphere, UV radiation has enough energy to break the bond connecting chlorine to the CFC molecule, producing Cl atoms. -The Cl atoms act as catalysts and can break apart the ozone molecules. -Ozone is converted to O2 without absorbing UV light

US environmental law and policy has...

-Pioneered innovative environmental policy -Served as models for other nations, international bodies -A large influence on what happens in other nations

humans directing evolution

-Polar bears are a relatively new species that arose from extinct species of brown bear. Isolation in arctic led to specialized adaptations, speciation -Today, the evolutionary forces of a changing arctic climate are working against the polar bear's unique specializations, favoring brown bear once again

geothermal

-Power extracted from heat stored in earth-High pressure, high temp steam fields that exist around edges of continental plates -Geothermal wells-drilling deep in earth -Non-variable source of energy -Steam used to generate electricity, direct heating -Minimal land and water requirements -Can carry greenhouse gases from earth, but small fraction of those emitted by fossil fuel burning plants -Can cause land instability

rivers and streams

-Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate runs off surface, into natural watercourses traveling towards oceans, lakes, or another river. -Confined to a channel, made up of stream-bed between banks. -Fish, invertebrates, amphibians, shorebirds adapted to environmental conditions -Flow changes topography of a region -Floodplain-Area near river course that is flooded periodically, floodplains of rivers store excess water, enrich soil with silt

other greenhouse gases

-Present in lower concentrations -Not emitted at highly concentrated locations -Not growing as fast as CO2 -Have shorter atmospheric lifetime than CO2 -May be stronger greenhouse gases -May be possible to reduce emissions more significantly than C02

Tropical Dry Forest

-Present in regions with distinct wet and dry seasons: India, Africa, South America, N. Australia -Temps remain hot year-round -Many trees are drought-deciduous -High level of human interference-Conversion to agriculture

what has government subsidies that support agriculture led to?

-Private cattle grazing on public lands -Overuse of land, production of more food than needed, unsustainable farming methods

Bioregions

GIS aids in identifying features that unite common ecosystems that often extend across state, national boundaries: Watersheds, forests

wind power

-Produce energy by wind driving turbines. 35% efficiency, theoretical 60% efficiency. Limited geographically -Abundant, non-polluting, minimal environmental disruption -Intermittency problems-Expensive storage during peak times to offset non-windy times -Environmental, social drawbacks: Possible dangers to bats, birds, but negligible compared to damage by other human impacts, sources of energy. Aesthetic opposition. Interference with reindeer migration -Rooftop wind power-mini turbines for off the grid power -Roadside turbines powered by moving traffic -Wind powered car carrier ship

Temperate Grassland

-Rainfall supports growth of grass but not trees -Adapted to periodic fire and droughts -Organic rich soils -Threatened by overgrazing, conversion to agriculture

what is carbon air capture and what are the pros and cons?

-Removing carbon from air by CO2 scrubbing-Capture from dispersed sources -Artificial trees-Sodium hydroxide solution trickled across "leaves" absorbs CO2 into solution, transferred to carbon storage -Solar Fuels- Artificial photosynthesis: Turning solar energy directly into liquid fuels Pros: -Completely decoupled from energy infrastructure -Energy required for process can be from cheaply generated renewables-long distance transport of power unnecessary -Positively affect ocean acidification Cons: Costly, Energy consumed by filters, synthesizing hydroxide, disposing of waste could take more energy than fuel produced

energy future

-Researchers calculated in 2011: Currently available wind, water, and solar technologies could supply 100% of world's energy by 2030 -Massive effort, expense, intermittency problems -Smart Grid-Combine on-site generation, demand management, intelligent control, shared generation with renewable resources Potential for large scale storage of energy: -Nanoparticle electrode -Bloom Energy Bloom box-Fuel cells to provide off-grid power, generates electricity by oxidizing natural gas -Nov 2017: Elon Musk builds world's largest battery in 100 days

resident vs transient orcas

-Resident orcas have different prey, hunting behaviors than transient orcas -Do not interbreed, have different appearances, or mix

what are the cons of pesticides?

-Resistance: pest populations over time evolve resistance, resulting in "Pesticide treadmill": Cycle of pesticide development followed by increased pest resistance, leading to the development of a new pesticide. -Toxic chemicals become pollutants -Kills non-target species

fossil fuels: oil

-Result from decay of plankton and other organic matter at bottom of oceans. Water pressure condensed-formation of sedimentary rock. At high temperatures, oil and gas are formed -Oil-Made of twice as many water molecules as C atoms. Burning oil emits less CO2 than coal. -Used for transportation and heating. 34% of world's energy consumption (2018) -Proven reserves-last 40 yrs with projected continued growth -Potential sources not accounted for in proven reserves-oil shale, tar sands

intensive farming practices that make land vulnerable

-Row crops leave soil exposed -Weed free-fields -Removal of windbreaks -No crop-rotation or resting periods -Monocultures

Waterborne substances

-Runoff in watersheds concentrates contaminants from large land areas into small bodies of water -Traces of chemicals excreted by humans can enter waters from wastewater treatment plants

Geosequestration

-Sequestration in the earth -Liquid CO2 pumped underground into oil fields, gas fields, saline formations, un-mineable coal seams, porous rocks -May enhance oil and gas recovery -IPCC estimates CO2 could be trapped for millions of years, likely to retain 99% over 1000 years -2009-Scientists have mapped 6000 square miles of rock formations in US than could be used to store 500yrs worth of CO2 emissions

photovoltaic cells

-Silicon crystal layers convert solar radiation to direct current electricity, which is then converted to alternating current . ~ 15% efficiency -Cells connected together to form modules. Arrays of modules necessary to supply significant amount of energy -International Energy Agency, 2017: PV fastest growing energy source 2016, grew by 50%, could reach 1,000GW globally by 2022

loss of arctic sea ice

-Since 1979, decreasing 3-4%/decade. Minimum sea ice extent record lows in 2000's -Thickness decreased by 1 M over past 30-40 yrs; Less "old" ice -Shipping lanes increasingly open, more environmental impacts -Affects animals adapted to sea ice -Loss of sea ice doesn't result in significant sea level rise -½ of models show near complete to complete sea ice loss by 2100 2017-Max new record low, third straight year for record low due to warm autumn, winter 2020-Second lowest min on record, due to Siberian heat wave

impacts of genetically modified foods

-Small farmers may not be able to afford GM seeds -Cultivation tends to increase resistance, more pesticide use -May escape and become pests, hybridize with wild varieties -Regulation of GMO's-Currently, US has no regulation on labeling GMO containing products. 60% of all processed foods in N. America contain transgenic products Ex. Super salmon-GMO received FDA approval 2012

what can extinctions be driven by?

-Species interactions -Climate change -Glaciation -Changes in sea level -Local changes in ecosystems

oil pollution

-Spills from tankers, oil platforms -Damage to fisheries, economies, ecosystems -Half of petroleum entering worlds oceans originate from natural seeps -Non-point sources: Vessel leaks, runoff

mineral sequestration

-Storing CO2 gas in a solid form -Magnesium silicate rocks dissolved with acid. Acidic solution reacts with CO2 to produce magnesium carbonate -Most stable and climactically inert form -Most expensive-Reaction slow, requires energy intensive treatment steps -Resulting product may be useful-Green concrete uses magnesium silicates instead of carbon-rich limestone. As cement hardens, it absorbs CO2 from air to make solid carbonates

what is SRM-Introducing aerosols into stratosphere, and what are the pros and cons?

-Stratoshield -Sea salt climate engineering-Unmanned boats spraying salt water into air to increase albedo of clouds Pros: natural process, works quickly, low cost, effective Problems-Short lived, delivery and distribution unpredictable Cons: Droughts, ozone depletion, whitening of sky, cloud formation affected, ecosystem effects, uneven benefit

"its all a government plot"

-Structure of IPCC includes scientific and governmental review, but input of diplomats to final report is distinct from scientific report -Scientists review the chapters on assessment reports -Diplomats review the summary for policymakers. Any changes in wording is monitored by scientists. -Diplomats have a say in how it is worded, but scientists have control on what is said -Report carries weight of world government approval+ authority of hundreds of scientists

Tundra

-Temps freezing most of year -Russia, Scandinavia, Canada -No trees, permafrost present -Important food resource for migrating birds, caribou -May be Arctic or Alpine -Low diversity -Global warming may be affecting ecosystem

how is water quality assessed?

-Testing for fecal coliform bacteria -Measuring DO and BOD-Biochemical oxygen demand: The amount of oxygen used by a body of water over a period of time at a specific temp -Chemical analysis to determine presence/concentration of organic and inorganic chemicals, pH, temperature -Quantifying living organism indicator species, both vertebrate and invertebrate -Measuring sediment content/turbidity

solar power

-Thermal -Passive-Orienting or using materials that have favorable thermal mass -Active-Pump a heat absorbing material through a collector. Used for hot water, home heating Can be stored for later use in insulated water tanks, bins containing a heat storing ma

North Atlantic Ocean Gyre and Heat transport

-Transformation of warm subtropical waters into colder subpolar and polar waters

Tropical Savanna

-Tropical grassland interspersed with trees -Found in Africa, S. America, Australia -Rainy season and dry season -Plants are adapted to drought, heat, and fires -Populated by migratory grazers

organizations that shape international policy

-United Nations -World Bank -World Trade Organization -Nongovernmental Organizations: -Nature Conservancy -Greenpeace -Conservation International

Biofuels-Second generation

-Use of non-food crops or inedible waste products-Wheat, corn stalks, wood, orange peels, sawdust, waste from meat packing plants -Other energy crops-Cattails, switchgrass, Miscanthus, hybrid poplar can be grown on land unsuitable for food crop production -Algae-Potential source of biodiesel, CO2 capture Net energy loss in production of biofuels has shown improvements based on modern production techniques, increased efficiency

greenhouse effect

-When radiation from the Sun hits the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the earth, almost ⅓ is reflected away back into space -½ Incoming solar radiation reaches earths surface as light or heat (infrared) energy -Earth absorbs 70% of solar radiation it receives, reflects rest back into space -Energy absorbed is re-emitted as infrared radiation

World circumstances helped lead to pandemic

-World War I: Infected soldiers brought to Europe; close contact in trenches, hospitals. Ease of transmission led to increased virulence -Young people in their 20's most at risk because lack of antibodies that older people, children had been exposed to with different strains -2% mortality rate, but infected 1/3 world's population, 50 million died (20 million deaths WW I)

Clade

Group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor

IPCC Special Report, Oct 2018

-World already warmed 1ºC since 1850's, could reach 1.5ºC before mid 21st cent. On track for 3-4ºC -Limiting to 1.5ºC requires immediate action-reducing emissions to net zero by mid-century -More frequent heat waves, more damaging storms, higher oceans -Disproportionate effects on those people less able to adapt -Current pledges by world governments -Not enough to limit rise to 1.5ºC

UN Climate Change Conference Paris, 2015

-World leaders of 20 countries pledged to reduce their national carbon output -'Mission Innovation': Commit to double public investment in basic energy research over next five years. -28 of world's wealthiest investors joined the energy coalition to pool money for initiative. -183 nations submitted national action plans to achieve a goal of limiting global warming to 2deg C. -181 nations announced pledges to combat man-made carbon dioxide pollution -190 world leaders launched an alliance to harness solar energy. -19 governments and 28 leading world investors announced billions of dollars in investments to research and develop cheaper clean energy technology -Biden has committed to re-joining Paris agreement

energy portfolio

-produced from primary energy sources-Coal, natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, hydropower, renewable sources -Each fuel defined by amount of greenhouse gas emissions/unit of energy

atmosphere

0.001% of total water supply, most rapid turnover rate. Mechanism for distributing fresh water over landmasses, replenishing terrestrial reservoirs

what is the rate of extinction caused by natural selection?

1-5 species per year

what five factors determine the formation of soil?

1.Parent material: what soil is made from. 2.Climate: type 3.Topography: surface and slope 4.Organisms: plants and animals. 5.Time: amount of time soil has spent developing (May take 100's-1000's of years to form)

Cretaceous Period

100 million years ago. Very hot, 17 degrees warmer than present

Plastic characteristics

12 million barrels oil/year used in manufacture, production requires toxic chem., littered bags kill marine animals, not biodegradable (less space in landfills though), 13% recycled, time consuming, costly, takes 98% less energy to recycle one pound of plastic than one of paper

Paper characterisitcs

14 million trees/year, production generates 70% more air and 50% more water pollutants than plastic, degradable (but can't breakdown completely in modern landfills), 10-15% recycled (takes more energy and chemical processes)

Costanza et. al estimated dollar value of world's ecosystem services, 2014, how much was it?

143 trillion dollars, Greater than the GDP of all nations combined

Little Ice Age

16th to mid 19th centuries, -Colder winters in N. Europe, N. Am. Following medieval warm period -Widespread famine, disease, loss of life -Crop practices in Europe altered to adapt to shortened, less reliable growing season -Paintings, cultural events from this period reflect weather conditions -French revolution-Driven by unwillingness to change agricultural practices in response to climate change

what year did Charles David Keeling begin measuring CO2?

1958

what happened in 1992 in Rio?

1992 Earth Summit in Rio-International gathering of wealthy countries, indigenous peoples, developing countries to address sustainable development and common needs

fresh water

2.5% is fresh water, mostly locked in glaciers and ice

what is obesity and what is it linked to?

20% above ideal body weight, -Too much poor quality food issue in richer countries -Linked to heart disease, diabetes, some cancers -Also linked to food insecurity and poverty -Spreading to developing countries

last major ice age

20,000 years ago. Glaciers covered parts of Europe and N America

Ebola

2013-2016 W. African outbreak. First time spreads to other countries

what times greater are natural sources than sources due to human activity? what was it balanced in the past by? what are the natural and anthropogenic sources?

20x greater. balanced in past by natural sinks. Natural sources: Volcanos, Carbon cycle, forest fires, ocean release Anthropogenic sources: Burning fossil fuels, deforestation

Antarctic glacier

3 mi. thick

Pliocene period

3 million years ago. No ice sheets in N. Hemisphere. CO2 conc. estimated to be 360-400ppm in atmosphere

what is the present ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere as of 2016? about what ppm is it increasing?

402 ppm, 1.4 ppm per year

PETM (Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum)

55 million years ago. Forests covered earth from pole to pole. Due to massive release of greenhouse gases

what percent of species studied in 1598 exhibited shifts in distribution or phenologies over 20-140 year timeframe?

60%

how much are we overshooting Earth's carrying capacity by?

68%

what percent do oceans make up of Earth's surface?

70% of Earth's surface; more diversity than all land masses combined

Snowball Earth

700 million years ago, complete glaciation

what percent of the fish today are consumed in the united states that are imported from great distances?

85%, (Fish are less fresh and fossil fuels are required for transportation and refrigeration)

how does climate change affect health

Increased risk of heat stroke, asthma, allergies; expansion of vector borne diseases

hadley cells

A convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30° N and 30° S.

red herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

compound

A molecule that contains more than one element, held together by chemical bonds (H2O)

Lamarckian inheritance

A testable theory of how diversity arose

adaptation

A trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment

producers

Autotrophs that capture solar energy by photosynthesis: Green plants, cyanobacteria, green algae

Albedo

Ability of a surface to reflect light

Lactose tolerance (observable evidence of evolution)

Ability to digest milk as an adult arose as a mutation in populations that domesticated cows. Reliance on milk caused changes to human genome

food security

Ability to obtain sufficient safe, nutritious food on day-to-day basis

nitrogen enrichment

Abiotic components can disrupt ecological systems. Loss of oysters a critical change in the biotic community. Important economically, but also for ecological stability

how many people depend on underground aquifers for drinking water?

About half of US population with 95% being rural residents that depend on underground aquifers for drinking water

Stratosphere

Above the troposphere, extends ~ 16 to 50 km (10−31 miles). Less dense, dynamically stable. Ozone layer present

sources and effects of toxic chemicals: inorganic

Acids, Bases: Source: By-products of industrial processes, acid deposition. Harmful effects: Ecosystem destabilization Toxic Metals (Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Sn, Cd, As,). Naturally occurring and through industrial sources

negative radiative forcing

Aerosols, land use changes, stratospheric ozone. Cool surface of the earth

Costa Rica's PSA program

After Costa Rica lost over ¾ of its forest, 1996 law passed to pay landholders to conserve forest on private land, re-plant cleared areas, allow forests to regenerate naturally, or establish sustainable forestry systems. Today forest cover is over 52% Recognized ecosystem services provided by forests: -Watershed protection -Increase in Biodiversity -Carbon sequestration -Scenic benefits Funded by: -Water suppliers, utilities -Ecotourism industry -Donations and loans from international industries -Tax on fossil fuels

treatments for human wastewater (secondary treatment def)

Air pumped in to help bacteria digest 85-95% of remaining organic material. Clarified water treated to kill bacteria, released as effluent

what are the direct measures of climate?

Air temperature: Accurate measurements since 1700's Ocean: Since 2000, Argo floats automatically measure, record, and report via satellites ocean temps, salinity Boreholes: Record temperature of Earth's rock layer Satellites: Since 1979, measure entire planet in a few orbits. Measure radiance of certain wavelengths to estimate temperature

ecosystem services examples

Air, water purification, soil formation, nutrient cycling, climate regulation, waste recycling, pollination

what country is iron deficiency (anemia) most severe in?

India

environment

All of the living and non-living things around us, including humans

Keystone species

Alligator, pacific salmon

saltwater intrusion

Along coastlines where overuse of freshwater reservoirs draws the water table low enough to allow saltwater to intrude

what has altered carrying capacities of environments?

Alteration of natural environments due to habitat loss, resource extraction, and population pressure

mutations

Alterations in DNA sequence during replication -Substitution: Inserting an incorrect letter. A typo -Deletions and insertions of blocks of letters -Duplications of text: Copy and paste errors -Blocks of letters rearranged: Inversions, breakage and rejoining

applications of solar power

Amorphous silicon collectors:Non-crystalline semi-counductors made into thin sheets -Buildings -Transport-Boats, cars, planes -Stand alone devices-parking meters, telephones, temporary traffic signs, attic fans -Rural electrification -In development-Roadways

hypothesis

An educated guess, usually based on prior knowledge/experience

organism

An individual living thing

scientific name / latin name

An organism's genus and species designation -Always italicized. -Genus names are always capitalized, but species names are not: Homo sapiens (italicized) . -Have specific meaning, often descriptive

developmental similarities

Ancestral characters often preserved in an organism's development, Ex. -Gill arches-Appear in every animal with a head -Notochord-Appears in all vertebrates-Slipped disks -Inguinal hernia-Thanks, sharks -Hiccups-From our tadpole past

Deadly dozen

Avian influenza Babesiosis Cholera Ebola Parasites Plague Lyme disease Toxic algal blooms Rift valley fever Sleeping sickness Tuberculosis Yellow fever

what is the sustainable us of inorganic fertilizers?

Avoiding over-application by combining with drip irrigation, injecting with no-till systems, applying only when needed, planting vegetation to reduce runoff

Declining global biodiversity can be explained by reference to the five HIPCO Factors...

H Habitat Loss I Invasive Species P Pollution C Climate Change O Overharvesting

Repeatability

Another researcher should b able to replicate your results using your methods

Disease

Any impairment of body functions with characteristic set of symptoms and signs

matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

environmental justice

Applying standards of fairness and equality to all with regards to environmental policy and practice. Native Americans affected by uranium mining, Keystone pipeline. People of Appalachia exposed to the effects of coal mining. Latino farm workers exposed to air, agricultural pollution.Lead tainted water in Flint, MI

Lineages that are poorly studied

Archaea, bacteria. Insects, higher plants dominate

Physical hazards

Arise from processes that occur naturally in the environment

Biological hazards

Associated with disease, result from ecological interactions among organisms

Chemical hazards

Associated with excessive exposure to: Naturally occurring chemicals that are sometimes processed and used- Lead, arsenic, hydrocarbons, asbestos Chemicals from anthropogenic sources-Pesticides, solvents, disinfectants, pharmaceuticals

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons. Denoted by mass number

ecosystem engineer example

Beavers, by building dams, they create ponds and swamps

Why does evolution matter?

Because it addresses matters of life and death

ferrel cells

Between Hadley and polar cells. Causes air to descend at 30∞ north and south

how do biological pests affect crop fields?

Biological pests reduce crop yields, spoil as much as half of crops harvested annually.

Vitamin A deficiency

Blindness

science

Both the body of knowledge and process used to obtain knowledge by observing natural phenomena

is bottled water better than tap?

Bottled water is not safer, not better tasting, is more expensive and has a significant environmental impact. Many bottled waters come from municipal water supplies

benthic zone

Bottom area from shore to deepest point; Detritivores in an ocean, lake, or stream

Teratogens

Chemicals that interfere with normal development of embryos or fetuses -Alcohol, some medications Ex: Thalidomide: Drug marketed in 50's-60's to prevent morning sickness. Thousands of babies were born with deformities before banned in 1961

limnetic zone

Open water where sunlight penetrates. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish in a lake or pond

species that recovered from near extinction

CA condor, Hawaiian Nēnē' goose

dawn of industrial age, 1750

CO2 concentration 280ppm. Dramatic increase from this period on

what causes the dissolved oxygen of CO2 to increase? what spans food chains and coral reefs?

Calcium carbonate skeletons of marine animal. calcifying organisms

cryptic coloration

Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot, Ex. stonefish, gecko, octopus

zoonotic

Capable of spreading between infected animals and humans

Saving what remains

Captive breeding, Send in the clones, Forensics

Extinct animals in the past 100 yrs

Carolina Parakeet-1918, Tasmanian wolf-1936, Western black rhino-2006-Officially declared extinct Nov 6, 2013, Baiji-River dolphin-2002

Airborne Substances

Carried worldwide by atmospheric currents, affect ecosystems far from site of release -Pesticide drift: Pesticides carried far from agricultural fields

Mutagens

Cause genetic mutations by damaging or altering DNA , leading to cancer or other disorders -Physical, chemical, biological Ex: X-rays, ionizing radiation -May lead to cancer, other disorders -If a mutation occurs in sex cells, it may be passed to offspring

treatments for human wastewater (municipal treatment: sewage treatment plants def)

Centralized plants in areas with large populations, receive wastewater via network of sewer pipes

descent with modification

Characteristics of species can be modified from generation to generation

decreasing demand through conservation, efficient use (water rights)

Charging higher proportion of real costs to users of public water

what can degradation be caused by?

Chemical -Nutrient depletion -Salt accumulation -Acidification -Pollution Physical -Compaction by heavy machinery -Trampling by cattle -Water accumulation from poor drainage

Four types of environmental hazards

Chemical Biological Physical Cultural

Carcinogens

Chemicals or types of radiation that cause cancer through inflicting damage to cells, causing malignant cell growth Tobacco smoke, asbestos, radon -Sometimes difficult to identify because of lag time between exposure to agent and onset; only a portion of those exposed develop cancer

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. -Developed by UN in 1973 to control international trade of threatened plants and animals. -1990 global ban on ivory trade enacted under CITES.

Endocrine disruptors

Chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body. Ex: Bisphenol A: Estrogen mimic, linked to fish and amphibian reproductive heath issues. May affect humans. Ex: Phthalates: Present in cosmetics, toys, perfumes. Linked to breast cancer, birth defects, reduced sperm counts

what occurs naturally in groundwater?

Chemicals toxic at high concentrations

air pollutants

Chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms found in the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to affect climate and harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings or to alter ecosystems

which country emits more SO2 than any other nation and also has the worst acid rain problem?

China, and it is becoming worse

Bacterial

Cholera, tetanus, tuberculosis, leprosy, venereal disease, plague, anthrax, Listeria, pathogenic E. coli, Salmonella

deep currents

Circulation driving mixing of surface and deep water. Crucial for moving heat, nutrients around globe

what act was the acid rain program established under?

Clean Air Act of 1990

Nature preserves

Closed to hunting and fishing-Goal is to protect wildlife

types and effects of air pollutants (sulfur dioxide)

Coal combustion. Acid deposition, smog production, health damage, visibility reduction

shade grown plants

Cocoa-grow on branches of a shade-tolerant tree native to warm, moist lowland forests of the tropics Coffee- cool, mountain forests of the tropics. • Conversion to full sun varieties • Preserving areas where shade grown products-consumer dependent

la niña

Cold, nutrient rich waters rise, move westward due to prevailing winds. Results in heavy rainfall in SE Asia/Australia, drought in American SW

subsistence

Collapse of aquifers, creation of sinkholes

natural or observational experiments

Collecting data without intentionally manipulating any variable, observing a natural event that acts as experimental treatment

molecule

Combination of two or more atoms. May contain a single element (O2)

Photosynthesis

Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy

Bioethanol

Corn, wheat sugarcane, molasses -Produced by enzymatic digestion, fermentation of sugars and starch, distillation and drying -Can be used in regular cars when mixed with gas (up to 15%) or in adapted cars -Energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, pesticide use, irrigation, transportation, manufacture considered to have net energy gain -Competition with food supply

conservation tillage

Reduction of amount of tillage compared to conventional farming

high population density

Competition for space food, mates, spread of infectious disease increases

Extinction

Complete loss of a species from an area Global-Gone for good Local-Gone from an area-Extirpation

what is soil and how is it important?

Complex mixture of components, soil is important Medium for plant growth Primary filter for water Habitat for living organisms Filter for pollutants

What does CAFO stand for?

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation

history of US environmental law and policy: Stage 2:

Conservation to preservation: Late 1800's Realization that resources could be depleted. First restrictive environmental legislation passed at this time to preserve and limit use -1872:Establishment of Yellowstone as first national park -1891: National Forest system created to prevent overharvesting -1901: Public concern led to creation of laws protecting non-game birds. Roosevelt in 1903 creates first national wildlife refuge at Pelican Island. Also responsible for.. •50 other bird preserves • 4 game preserves • 150 national forests • 5 national parks • 18 national monuments • US Forest Service • Put 230,000,000 acres under protection, Ex. Plume hunting late19th-early 20th century led to millions of trumpeter swans, herons, and egrets killed for millinery trade

false dichotomy

Consists of a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities

water pollution

Contamination of streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or groundwater. Any biological, physical, or chemical change in water quality that harms life or makes it unsuitable for use

groundwater pollution from human activity (biological)

Contamination of wells by Cryptosporidium, E. coli

biological control in terms of pests

Controlling pests with other living organisms, through predation, parasitism, or herbivory, Ex. Parisitoid wasps, ladybugs, spiders, microorganisms. Can sometimes become invasive

Community based conservation

Critical to biodiversity protection. Engaging local people in efforts to protect land and wildlife

What is no-till agriculture and what are the pros and cons?

Crop residue left on fields, keeping soil covered. Next crop is planted with small furrow dug, no-till drill Pros: -Less wind, water erosion -Enhanced soil quality -Reduces CO2 emissions -Increases crop yields Cons: -Often must depend relatively heavily on pesticides. -Requires synthetic fertilizers -Use of IPM, green manure, nitrogen fixing cover crops offset these

what are sustainable agricultural practices for soil conservation and what do they mean?

Crop rotation-Alternating type of crop grown from year to year. Reduces insect pests, returns nutrients to soil Contour farming- Plowing and planting across slope to slow flow of water Terracing - Shaping land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil. Can farm steep hillslopes Intercropping-Planting different crops in alternating bands. Provides more ground cover, prevents erosion. Agroforestry-Intercropping trees with vegetables Shelterbelts- Windbreak planted along edge of fields. May provide fruit, wood, wildlife habitat. Planting perennials-Hold soil better than annuals

holocene epoch

Current interglacial period beginning ~10,000 years ago

renewable water supplies

consist of surface runoff and infiltration into accessible freshwater aquifers (shallow ground water).

Conservation genetics

DNA analysis to determine genetic diversity, or if a population is part of an endangered species

Resurrecting extinct species from preserved DNA

DNA fragments from museum specimens or fossils -Tasmanian wolf Modifying genome of living spp to create genetically and physically identical member of extinct spp-Passenger pigeon "Breeding back" to return genome of extinct ancestor-Auroch. Problems: -Recovered DNA from fossils very small, scrambled portions of entire genome -Is cost, resource use worth it? -Also have to bring back appropriate spp behaviors, not just physiology -Didn't you see Jurassic Park?

what are the solutions and effects of altering the availability of freshwater?

Dams and reservoirs (Built for flood control, generation of electricity, water storage) -Relocation of villages -Evaporation and siltation behind dam -Reduction of seasonal flooding -Destruction of environment, fish migration Canals, dikes, levees -Starve floodplains -Collapse during large storms causes greater flooding Towing Icebergs-Costly Desalination (Removal of salt from ocean water or salt lakes) -Three to four times more expensive than most other sources

Protected Areas

Defined geographic areas recognized, dedicated and managed to achieve long-term conservation of nature. Biologists, government agencies, economists, community leaders, private landowners work together to set aside protected areas.

stratoshield

Delivery of precursor gases to atmosphere, mimics effects of large tropical volcano explosion, theoretically cool earth for a few years 1kg sulfur placed in stratosphere est. offset several hundred thousand kg CO2

scientific law

Describes what nature does under certain conditions: Laws of gravity, thermodynamics

cost-benefit analysis

Determines if cost of action or decision outweighs benefits. Not all costs/benefits easily identified

Minimum viable population size

Determining if a population is large enough to avoid inbreeding depression and be viable long-term

Direct counts

Determining population numbers by gaining representative sample of population

what are not considered true predators and why?

Detritovores, scavengers, and decomposers because they do not capture or kill live prey

Habitat fragmentation

Devastating to core species, more interactions with harmful species. Ex: Lemurs-Could be wiped out in 20 years due to logging on Madagascar Ex: Florida panthers numbers, genetic variability reduced due to habitat loss and fragmentation Ex: Gopher tortoise: Since 1991, "pay and bury" permits have caused loss of 94,000 gopher tortoises. Program ended in 2007

energy for future

Developing storage and integration technologies incorporating more intermittent sources

Marasmus ("To waste away")

Diet deficient in both protein and calories

Net irradiance

Difference between incoming and outgoing radiation energy in a given climate system

Infectious

Disease carried by pathogens: Virus, bacterium, parasite, or protozoan. Infect directly, or carried by a vector

aposematic coloration

Distastefulness, chemical defenses frequently coupled with conspicuous coloration. Warning to predators

uniform distribution

Distribution where populations are spaced evenly. when there is competition for space

inorganic compounds

Do not contain carbon or do contain carbon, but only carbon bound to elements other than hydrogen. Ex: Ammonia (NH3) , table salt (NaCl), water (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2 )

non-consumptive use

Does not use or temporarily removes water from aquifer or other source

Antigenic shift

Dramatic change in surface proteins due to reassortment between viral strains-Leads to severe drop in immunity, potential for pandemic. Why viruses jump from one species to another

surface ocean currents

Driven by combination of temperature, gravity, prevailing winds, Coriolis effect, locations of continents. Transports heat, salt, nutrients, organisms across oceans

information on droughts

Droughts: Dry areas will become drier -IPCC- Predicts extreme droughts increasing from 15-30% by end of century -Land area affected b extreme drought: Could increase from 1% (present) to 30% of lands surface by 2100

types and effects of air pollutants (particulate matter)

Dust, soot - lung damage, bronchitis, cancer

what event an example of overgrazing and the planting of grain crops that did not hold soil?

Dustbowl of 1930s

Air Quality Index (AQI; 0-500)

given to each pollutant to reflect its current concentrations

name five organizations that support consensus?

EPA, National Academy of Sciences, GISS, NAS, Russian/Chinese/Royal Swedish academy of sciences

Ecocentric

Earth centered, Aldo Leopold: Healthy ecosystems depend on protecting all of its components

natural capital

Earth's store of resources and ecosystem services. sustainability is only possible when we live off the "interest" rather than "capital"

Overharvesting

Long lived, slow to reproduce species vulnerable to overhunting.

Seed banks

Long-term storage facilities to preserve diverse strains of crop plants.

Coevolved system

Ecological relationships continuously modified by natural selection Ex. - Predator/prey or - parasite/host - Competitive species - Mutualistic species

what is, in addition to sea level rise, associated with glacial melt?

Ecological, hydrological implications

Benefits of biodiversity

Ecosystem stability. Pollination and seed dispersal. Photosynthesis: Carbon sequestration, oxygen production. Nutrient cycling. Air and water purification. Flood control. Soil formation, erosion control. Climate regulation Population control

ENSO

El Niño Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific, Shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temps, and ocean circulation in tropical Pacific ocean every 2-7 years

solution

Elements, compounds and molecules come together without bonding. Seawater, human blood, the atmosphere

Parasitic

Elephantiasis, Guinea worm, tapeworm

types and effects of air pollutants (volatile organic compounds)

Emitted by vehicles, solvents, chemicals - Volatilized to CO, CO2 in atmosphere

Environmental Science is interdisciplinary

Encompasses natural sciences, social sciences, environmental policy, law, political science, economics, literature, and ethics

Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

first law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

Turning a herculean task into several small monumental ones-Carbon wedge analysis: 15 wedges

Energy efficiency: Efficient vehicles, reduced use. Efficient buildings, efficient baseload fuel plants Fuel shift: Gas baseload power for coal CO2 capture and storage: Capture at baseload power plants Nuclear: Nuclear power for coal Renewable energy electric and fuels: Wind, PV for coal, wind produced hydrogen for fuel cell car for gas for hybrids, biomass fuel for fossil fuel Forests and Agriculture: Reduced deforestation, reforestation. Conservation tillage

what is true about energy and matter?

Energy flows in one direction, dissipates as heat but matter cycles through ecosystems

How to live sustainably

Environmental systems must not be damaged beyond their ability to recover. Renewable resources must not be depleted faster than they can regenerate. Nonrenewable resources must be used sparingly. Defining human wants vs. needs. Natural ecosystems are a model of sustainability- Use energy and matter in ways that ensure those resources continue to be available.

wind in terms of erosion

Equals or exceed water as an erosive force, especially in a dry climate and on flat land.

lionfish information (invasive species)

Escaped aquaria fish like the lionfish are aggressive poisonous predators that pose serious threats to native species. -First sighted in 1985 -Threaten coral reefs throughout Atlantic coast -When introduced, native fish survival can drop 80% -Where groupers are protected, they help control pops

Flagship

Especially interesting or attractive, PR to motivate public-Panda, Eagle

ecosystem services

Essential services an ecosystem provides that supports life, making economic activity possible

fossil fuels

Essentially non-renewable due to time needed to form Coal, Oil, Natural gas

examples of costal ecosystems

Estuaries-Tidal mouths of rivers, where fresh water meets salt -Vital nesting and feeding habitat for many aquatic animals, where most US fish, shellfish complete part of life cycle -Filter sediments and pollutants from rivers, streams -Important economically Salt marshes-Transitional area between land and brackish water -Highly productive -Salt tolerant flora -Major source of detritus -Protect against severe weather

mitigation further explained in terms of climate change

Examination of every aspect of a process or product must be taken into account, Life Cycle analysis-Quantifying emissions released at all stages-production, distribution, use, eventual disposal Ex: Ethanol vs gas life cycle analysis: -Similar to gas: Agricultural production, fuel production and transport, vehicle operation -Worse than gas: Environmental impact- Using corn for fuel instead of food, biodiversity loss, air pollution from clear cutting, toxic pesticides

history of US environmental law and policy: Stage 1:

Expansion Land seen as a seemingly unending supply of natural resources. Focus on extracting resources, spreading farther west General Land ordinances of 1785-1787 promoted settlement of Midwest and West Homestead act - 1862 -Free title to unsettled western land

how does climate change affect economics

Expected to widen gap between rich and poor; est. to cost 1-5% of GDP on average globally, poor nations losing proportionately more than rich

Extirpated

Extinct locally but still present in other areas

coalbed methane extraction

Extraction of methane from coal-bearing shale. Requires many closely spaced wells. Each well produces 75,000 waste water/day

opponents in terms of soil conservation say that...

Farmers should buy insurance to protect against production failure

aquaculture

Farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweeds.

Environmental toxicology

Field that examines Toxic substances that come from and are discharged into the environment

ocean wave energy

Floating buoys, barges bob up and down, convert mechanical motion to energy -Pelamis -Sectional unit, undulates as waves pass along it. Energy transmitted to shore by underwater lines.

Examples of corridors

Florida Wildlife Corridor -Plan to create statewide network of connected natural areas Y2Y-Connecting Yellowstone with Yukon Territory to facilitate genetic exchanges among wilderness spp relatively isolated in Yellowstone Both involve creating corridors between existing conservation areas, protecting private land, building overpasses/underpasses

traditional neoclassical economics

Focuses only on production and consumption among businesses and households, viewing environment as an external factor

Information on oysters

Food for other organisms, Provide habitat by forming reefs, stabilize the seabed, Reduce sediment, filter feed, and reduce pollutants and particles that obscure water, leading to eutrophication

how are Sub-Saharan Africa, India, Central America affected by hunger?

Food production has not kept pace with rapid population growth

climate (former and today's definition)

Former definition: -Weather conditions prevailing over an area over a long period of time-Study of daily temps, rainfall collected into averages Today: -Average conditions of all environmental components (temp, rainfall, pressure, particle count) over a period of time-typically 30 yrs. Must be long enough to account for day to day, year to year variability

types and effects of air pollutants (nitrogen oxides)

Fossil fuel combustion. Acid deposition, smog production, eutrophication, growth of weedy species

alpine glacier

Found at tops of mountains. Est. between 1980-2012, major glaciers lost on ave 16m in vertical height of water

what is Indoor Air Quality, what is it like in the developing world vs developed countries?

Generally contains higher concentrations of pollutants than outdoor air; ave US citizen spends 90% of time indoors Developing world -Risk highest from burning materials indoors for heat, cooking, etc. with little ventilation Developed countries -Risk highest from cigarette smoke and radon

Economic Benefits: Ecotourism-Pros and cons

Generates large amount of income for local areas: Whale watching-Hawaii, CA, and New England. Worth approx. 1 billion/yr, including lodging, meals, land transportation Galapagos-Number of visitors rose 250% from 1990-2006, with associated increase in impact on ecosystem Kenya and Tanzania-Leading country for tourism based on wildlife Antarctica-Tourism has increased dramatically. Concerns on impact of fragile ecosystem

aquifers

Geologic layers containing water

Climate Change

Global impact on biodiversity -Modifications of climate patterns have led to increased extreme weather events -Changing climate is resulting in the shifting of geographic ranges, decoupling of species relationships, and loss of habitat -Predicted that a global temp rise of 1.5-2.5 deg C could put 20-30% of worlds plants and animals at increased risk of extinction

long residence time

Global impacts over long time period

history of US environmental law and policy: Stage 4:

Global sustainable development -Improving environment requires international cooperation and coordinated efforts -The greatest environmental challenges today are global in scale: Climate change, ozone depletion, overfishing, loss of biodiversity, wildlife trade -Conventional laws arise from treaties into which nations enter

Vaccines

Goal-Developing long-lasting immune response without experiencing infection Universal flu vaccine-Using different type of antibody that attacks non-changing portion of flu virus Covid: Not mutating and becoming more lethal over time-Better for creating vaccine Vaccine that targets S protein on surface-prevent from entering human cells

environmental policy

Goal: To regulate resource use, reduce pollution to promote human welfare, and protect natural systems -Requires input from science, ethics, and economics -Addresses issues of fairness and resource use: Tragedy of the commons, free riders, and external costs -Often challenged due to perception of being restrictive, costly, and politically motivated. One solution-Sustainable commons

economic policy tools and what they mean

Green taxes -Businesses reimbursing the public for the environmental damage it does -Financial incentive to reduce pollution Subsidies -Tax breaks for certain activities or industries Ecolabelling -Advertising the use of sustainable practices Emissions testing -Market for permits of emissions, companies buy and sell permits among themselves -Cap and trade: Government caps overall amount of pollution allowed, grants permits which can be sold Market incentives -Charging for waste disposal -Taxes and fees on items that are costly to dispose of -Rebates for purchasing high efficiency appliances

positive radiative forcing

Greenhouse gases, tropospheric ozone, reduction of surface albedo, black carbon aerosols. Warm surface of the Earth

depletion of groundwater

Groundwater being withdrawn from aquifers faster than natural recharge can replace it

organic compounds

Have carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds. Ex: Hydrocarbons-Consist solely of carbon and hydrogen.

sources and effects of thermal pollution

Heat Sources: Power plants/industrial cooling, loss of riparian flora Effects: Oxygen solubility decreases as temperatures increase. -Species requiring high oxygen levels adversely affected -Produce artificial environments which attract wildlife

groundwater pollution from human activity (industrial)

Heavy metals, gasoline, chlorinated solvents, radioactive compounds from tank leaks

primary consumers

Herbivores that consume producers. Deer, mice grasshoppers, rabbits, etc.

Estuaries

High ecosystem diversity due to many different habitat types, variety of organisms that use each type

Factors Contributing to the Spread of Contagious Diseases

High population densities Settlers pushing into remote areas Human-caused environmental change Speed and frequency of modern travel Climate change Contact with water or food contaminated with human waste

accuracy

How close measured value is to actual or true value

precision

How close repeated measurements are to one another

Persistence

How long a chemical remains in the environment

uncertainty

How much the measure differs from true value

traditional agriculture

Human and animal power, simple machines

how is a j shaped curve formed in the exponential growth model?

If population is not limited by resources, growth can be very rapid due to many births, forming a J-shaped curve when population size graphed against time, Normally only occurs in nature when a population is small, competition minimal, removal or absence of predators, and ideal environmental conditions

how do we know that allopatric speciation has occurred?

If separated populations become so differentiated that they can no longer interbreed under re-establishment of physical contact

ecological economics

Human societies have carrying capacities, just like natural populations. Maintaining steady-state economies, that do not grow or shrink and mimic natural systems, is answer

how are humans involved in extinction and natural selection?

Humans cause extinctions, but we are also acting as agents of natural selection by changing the environment rapidly, and in so many ways

how are poor countries affected by hunger?

Hunger affects everyone

true predators

Hunt, capture, kill, and consume prey

what types of extreme weather have increased in frequency in the US since 1970? what is the attribution problem? what is the mechanism in how global warming leads to more extreme weather?

Hurricanes, floods, droughts, snowstorms, cold snaps, heat waves Attribution problem: May increase probability that some extremes will be more likely, but difficult to attribute a particular event to increase in greenhouse gases Mechanism how global warming leads to more extreme weather: -Warming in arctic weakens intensity of jet stream, leading to atmospheric blocking -Results: weather systems being held in one place over several days, leading to heavy rainfall, drought, snowfall, heatwaves

types of energy

Hydropower, solar, geothermal, wind, ocean tides and wave

theory

Hypotheses across many fields repeatedly tested, confirmed by multiple researchers, widely accepted, achieve level of consensus

GAP analysis

Identifies gaps between geographic areas particularly rich in biodiversity and areas that are actually managed for biodiversity preservation.

types and effects of air pollutants (carbon monoxide)

Incomplete combustion of fuel. Inhibited respiration

how does climate change affect agriculture?

Increase in plant growth at expense of nutrients; crop damage due to droughts, floods

how does climate change affect forestry

Increased growth, but also increased risk of fire, drought, disease, insect outbreaks

low population density

Individuals may not be able to find mates or only ones that are closely related. Courtship rituals, flocking, schooling, foraging, and genetic variability often dependent on population density

Sickle cell anemia (observable evidence of evolution)

Individuals with one copy of this trait less likely to contract malaria Mutation persists in populations because it provides a relative advantage

Emergent disease

Infectious diseases new to humans, or that have recently increased significantly/spreading to new regions

Viral

Influenza, polio, HIV, Ebola smallpox, West Nile, H1N1, Bird flu

lakes and ponds

Inland depressions containing water, little or no movement. Contain 100x as much water as all stream and rivers combined

what does IPCC stand for and what does it predict?

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Predicts extreme droughts increasing from 15-30% by end of century

judiciary

Interprets laws. Environmental groups, individuals, businesses can challenge laws, file suits if the laws are not being followed

Pathway inhibitors

Interrupt biochemical processes by blocking one or more steps in biochemical pathways Ex: Rat poison-Interferes with blood clotting Ex: Cyanide-Interrupts production of energy in the mitochondria Ex: Atrazine-Herbicide that blocks photosynthesis

Green Revolution (1940s)

Introduction of new technology, crop varieties, farming practices to developing world drastically increased food production Ex: High yield wheat introduced to Mexico tripled production Industrial agriculture: Pros -Higher crop yields from smaller area of land -Reduction of loss of natural habitat Cons -Use of water, fertilizers, synthetic pesticides increases pollution, topsoil loss, reduces soil quality -Requires more energy, fossil fuel use -Displacement of low-income farmers

what is the mnemonic for taxonomy order? and what is the actual name for each level?

King Philip Came Over For Good Soup (Domain) -Kingdom -Phylum -Class -Order -Family -Genus -Species

what powers the world?

Most energy used in ecosystems originates as solar energy. Green plants convert some of this energy to chemical energy, which is then converted to heat or kinetic energy by the animal that eats the plant

Kwashiorkor ("Displaced child")

Lack of high quality protein. Starchy foods like corn and polished rice low in essential nutrients

cropland

Land use to raise plants for human use: 12% of Earth's surface

rangeland

Land used for grazing livestock: 26% of Earth's surface

what is a wetland and what does it include?

Land which is submerged or saturated with water permanently or seasonally, Includes: Freshwater marshes-Shallow water. Rushes, cattails Swamps-Forested. Cypress, alligator, hellbenders Bogs-Spongy vegetation and peat. Pitcher plant, venus fly trap, blueberry, cranberry Vernal pools-Seasonal, form in early spring. Tadpoles, Amphibians, fairy shrimp •High biodiversity • High productivity •Home to endangered, endemic species • Store and control floodwaters • Recharge groundwater • Filter pollutants

Sample size

Large enough to minimize opportunity of chance to affect results

gyres

Large-scale patterns of water circulation. Surface currents rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

what are some approaches to environmental policy?

Lawsuits -Individuals suing polluters Command and control -Regulating agency prohibits certain actions, sets rules and standards Economic policy tools -Creating incentives to promote innovations, better solutions, at lower costs (All aim to internalize external costs)

Troposphere

Layer closest to Earth's surface, extends ~ 16 km (10 miles) above Earth. Where weather occurs

Lack of genetic diversity

Leads to inbreeding depression

what are the human controls of flooding and what do they mean?

Levees and Dikes: Enlarged banks along riversides to hold water in channels, ocean water from adjacent land Dams: Barrier running across a river or stream to control water flow, Ex: Three Gorges Dam China

Folic acid deficiency

Linked to neural tube defects

Sustainability

Living on Earth in a way that allows humans to use its resources without depriving future generations of those resources

short residence time

Localized impacts over short time period

surface water

Located atop Earth-Rivers, lakes, streams

sustainable agriculture

Low impact agriculture(regenerative farming) -Producing food and fiber on sustainable basis, repair damage caused by destructive practices. -Maintaining healthy soil, clean water, genetic diversity -Using lesser amounts of fossil fuels, water, pesticides, fertilizer, growth hormones -Allowing nature to provide ecosystem services

decreasing demand through conservation, efficient use (household)

Low-flow fixtures, appliances; Trapping rainwater; using native plants for landscaping

who said, "First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you, then you win" ?

Mahatma Gandhi

Qualitative Risk Assessment

Making judgment concerning the perceived relative risks of various decisions or behaviors

Protozoal

Malaria, amoebic dysentery-Giardia, Chaga's disease,

unequal food distribution

Malnutrition, starvation despite adequate worldwide food production

what are the greenhouse gases percentages and what else do we know about it?

Man made and natural: -Carbon dioxide (CO2) 9-26% contributor to greenhouse effect -Nitrous oxide (N2O) 5.9% -Methane (CH4) 4-9% -Ozone (O3) 3-7% -Chlorofluorocarbons -Most abundant-water vapor-36-70% -Allows sun's energy to pass through, but inhibits escape of heat back into space -Natural, necessary process. Average earth temp would be negative 18 degrees F without greenhouse gases (now, 57 degrees F)

examples of costal ecosystems- tropical/subtropical

Mangrove forests: -Protect coasts from erosion, surge storms, -Provide nursery for oysters, shrimp, sponges -Threatened by coastal development, aquaculture Coral Reefs- Relationship between coral animals and algae -High biodiversity; 25% of all ocean species spend at least some time in coral reefs-Food, shelter -Economically, biologically important -75% of coral reefs threatened by human activities, environmental changes-Coral bleaching

genetic engineering

Manipulating an organisms genetic material-Adding, deleting or changing segments of DNA

Animal testing

Manipulative experiments designed to establish causation

organic fertilizers

Manure, crop residues, green manure, compost. May contribute to nutrient pollution

Perceived risk vs. actual risk

Many factors influence how we perceive relative risks: Political, social Interests, personal experiences, exaggerated view of your own abilities, news media, alarmist myths and fallacies

MPA

Marine Protected Area

who said "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get"?

Mark Twain

continental glacier

Massive, thick ice sheets, Cover 10% of earth

Ecological footprint

Measure of how much a person consumes, expressed in area of biologically productive land and water require

criteria pollutants

Measurements used to monitor outdoor air quality. Six criteria pollutants

Tough conservation choices-How to decide which species to save?

Measuring the genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity present in an area Functioning ecosystems best preserved by focusing resources on evolutionary distant species Using evolutionary relationships (phylogenetic trees) to measure and identify regions/species with the greatest level of biodiversity

peppered moth (observable evidence of evolution)

Melanic form almost completely replaced peppered form during industrial revolution due to darkening of tree trunks. Reversal of trend with improvement of air quality

MRSA (observable evidence of evolution)

Methicillin resistant S. aureus. Overuse of antibiotics doesn't cause resistance, but selects for it

polyculture

Mixtures of different crops in small plots of farmland

evolution of the horse (fossils)

Modern horses the result of 58 million years of evolution, as seen in fossil record through transitional forms: -Early ancestors walked on several, spread out toes in forest -Diet shifted from foliage to grasses when they arose; larger, more durable teeth arose -Need for speed when habitat shifted to steppes, outrunning predators was critical-Lengthening of limbs, lifting of toes off ground until weight of body was balanced on 3rd toe

environmental economics

Modifying neoclassical economics to make resource use more efficient: -Limiting use of non-renewable resources -Recycling reduces need to extract new resources -More efficient use of resources -New methods can boost recovery of resources

Whale meat

Molecular analysis showed whale meat for sale in Japan came from endangered species

What ramifications likely overshadow engineering challenges?

Moral, ethical, political

legislation passed as a result of modern environmental movement and what it does

National Environmental policy act (NEPA): 1970 -Environmental Impact Statements required for every federal project Formation of EPA: 1970 -Conducts research, evaluates and monitors environmental quality Clean Air Act: 1970 -Required EPA to protect public from exposure to airborne contaminants Clean Water Act: 1972 -Controls dumping of waste in surface waters, requires permit and disclosure Endangered Species Act: 1973 -Protection for critically impaired species, including non-game species Superfund Act (CERCLA): 1980 -Funds to clean up hazardous waste sites

pesticides

Natural or synthetic substances that kill or control pest organism, Ex. Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides

Antigenic drift

Natural selection in viruses to evade antibodies, accumulating mutations so less likely to bind. Why we have to get a new flu shot each year

primary sources

New and original information from research—usually rigorously reviewed by peers in the scientific community for design, data, and analysis

Emergent Diseases

New diseases, or diseases that have been absent for 20 or more years and have re-emerged

groundwater pollution from human activity (agricultural)

Nitrates from fertilizers linked to cancer, "blue baby" syndrome

Species diversity

Number and relative frequency of species in an area. Determined by "bar coding": using established gene sequences to identify distinct species

Atomic number

Number of proton in the atom's nucleus

mass number

Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

tropical soils

Nutrient poor. Swidden agriculture by slash and burn used to replenish soil

US midwest

Nutrient rich soil due to high accumulation of organic matter

malnutrition

Nutritional imbalance caused by lack of specific dietary components

US Global Climate Change Research Program model results

Observed trends only fit models that include human inputs

Case histories

Observing and analyzing individuals directly -Give information about illness, but not probability and risk

local level erosion

Occurs more rapidly than soil is formed. Steep slopes, increased precipitation, overcultivation, and grazing increase rate

heritable variability

Offspring vary in their appearance and function; Traits are passed from generation to generation. Mechanism for this was unknown to Darwin

what is the world's largest aquifer?

Ogallala Aquifer, Water usage similar to mining for a nonrenewable resource. Water resource is being depleted rapidly

administrative agencies

Once law is enacted, its implementation and enforcement is assigned to an agency which creates regulations to achieve objectives of law, monitors compliance: EPA, FDA, FWS. Executive branch

Wildlife refuges and wilderness areas

Open to visitors, hunting, fishing, but not commercially developed

oxygen sag

Organic wastes are added to rivers, microorganisms demand oxygen for respiration used in consuming increase in food resources. DO levels decline downstream from pollution source as decomposers metabolize organic waste materials

transgenic

Organism contains DNA from another species

overproduction

Organisms are capable of making large numbers of offspring

genetically modified organism (GMO)

Organisms genetically engineered using recombinant DNA, Ex. soy, corn, milk, papaya

positive feedback loops

Output drives system further to its extreme, pushing it away from equilibrium. Ex: Melting sea ice

negative feedback loops

Output exerts stabilizing influence on system, pushing it towards equilibrium. Input and output neutralize each other's effects. Ex: Human body's response to heat

overnutrition

Over consumption of calories

Antibiotic Resistance

Overuse of antibiotics has resulted in resistant strains of some pathogens

concentrating solar power (parabolic trough)

Parabolic trough-Curved reflective surfaces that collect light and focused on a fluid filled receiver. Heating of fluid used to generate steam

Perception of risk

Parents not vaccinating have not seen peers affected by these diseases, but have seen autistic children

types and effects of air pollutants (lead, mercury)

Particulate pollutant - neurological damage

hydrologic cycle

Passage of water through its different compartments

decreasing demand through conservation, efficient use (industry, municipalities)

Patching leaks; recycling and reclamation of wastewater for irrigation; retrofitting homes with efficient plumbing

Conservation Reserve Program (1985)

Pays farmers to stop cultivating highly erodible cropland, using land for reserves planted with grasses, trees

Bioaccumulation

Persistent organic pollutants become concentrated as they move up food chain. •Light and noise pollution disrupting the behavior of sea turtles, echolocating marine mammals and fish.

sources and effects of toxic chemicals: organic

Persistent organic pollutants, DDT, PCB's, PAH's Sources: Oil, Gasoline, Pesticides, Plastics, Paints, Detergents Industrial and household waste, farms, roads, golf courses. Also flame retardants, pesticides, burning fossil fuels 1,000's of organic (and inorganic) chemicals used to produce plastics, pharmaceuticals, pigments, paints Effects: Health problems, cancer, contaminates groundwater & surface water, harms fish, wildlife

Pollination

Pesticide exposure linked to honeybee decline

Threats from toxic contaminants

Pesticides, heavy metals, acids, oil spills, and plastic

examples of ocean ecosystems

Photic zone-Where sunlight reaches-Upper 200M. Majority of ocean primary productivity occurs here-Phytoplankton Pelagic zone-Open water -Epipelagic zone-Where sunlight reaches -90% of ocean life -High levels of DO -Low nutrients Deep water ecosystems-Twilight to midnight zones -Species present must have adaptations to low temp, dissolved oxygen, light, high pressures, lack of nutrients/conspecifics: -Bioluminescence, slow metabolic rate, lack of eyes, chemoautotrophs

polar cells

convection currents formed by air that rises at 60 degrees N & S and sinks at the poles ( 90 degrees N & S)

genes

Physical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organisms, they code for inherited traits, which may or may not be expressed in a physical organism

D-Day Invasion

Planning depended on knowledge of climate and weather

sources and effects of ocean debris

Plastic waste, Styrofoam, garbage Sources: ~80% land based-Runoff from streets, cities, 20% fishing industry. Effects: - Plastic in"Garbage patches"; Nurdles, wet wipes -Danger to animals consuming plastic, becoming entangled -Act as sponges for toxic chemicals At current rate, by 2050 we could have more plastic than fish in ocean

outdoor air pollution point source and non-point source

Point source-Volcanoes, smokestacks, power plants Non-point-Many small, widely spread sources-Autos

chemical defenses

Poisons, venoms, noxious chemicals secreted or present in bodies to prevent predation Ex: Skunk, poison dart frog, horned toad, slow loris, Plants contain chemicals to deter herbivory

long range transport

Pollutants can be transported globally, along with particulates

history of US environmental law and policy: Stage 3:

Pollution concerns: Mid 1900's -Publication of Silent Spring creates public awareness of impact of pesticides and chemicals on the environment 1969-Benchmark year for environmental disasters: -Cuyahoga River catches on fire -Santa Barbara oil spill 1970: First Earth Day

mitigation: energy efficiency

Portion of unit of delivered energy that is used in the specific, desired way for which that energy is sought -Transformation from one energy source to another-lose energy and waste heat. Reducing unnecessary transformations-"First fuel" -Increase efficiency-Can extract more use same amount of primary energy input -Line losses-Energy dissipated during transmission -Point-of-use efficiency-Depends on how the device functions, the environment -Drawbacks- Increasing efficiency frequently requires paying more up front for future savings

poor amplification

Positive feedback due to reduction of albedo

genes

Regions of DNA that code for specific proteins

examples of vestigial structures/ behavior

Post-anal tail-Coccyx -Arrector pili muscles-Goosebumps -Semilunar fold in eye -Palmar grasp reflex -Wisdom teeth -Darwin's tubercle

gulf stream

Powerful western boundary of N. Atlantic gyre Originates in Gulf of Mexico, follows E coast US, Newfoundland Travels 25-75 mi/day

information on precipitation

Precipitation: Wet areas will get wetter -Due to fact that warm air can hold more moisture -Not worldwide increase-Will vary from region to region -Predicted that future changes will intensify regional changes that have already occurred -Climate models suggest extreme precipitation events will increase about 6% for every 1.8 deg. C rise in temp -Increased flooding events

the fossil record

Preserved parts of bodies, or trace fossils-Burrows, tracks, castings that provide evidence of what organisms were present at what time, how they evolved over time

secondary consumers

Prey on primary consumers. Raccoons, large fish, fox, coyote

tertiary consumers

Prey on secondary consumers. Wolf, owl, hawk

National parks

Primarily for human recreation

What is Earth's atmosphere primarily comprised of?

Primarily nitrogen. Oxygen, trace gases, water vapor. Layers of atmosphere-contrasting temps due to absorption of solar radiation

what was happening prior to the 1960s concerning fishing vessels?

Prior to 1960's no limits on reach of fishing vessels beyond the 12-mile mark, nor rules on how long a vessel could stay in any one spot or how much they could take

infiltration

Process of water percolating through soil and into fractures and permeable rocks

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

sustainable

Produce energy without emitting greenhouse gases or other pollutants

nuclear, hydro power

Produces no greenhouse gases directly

what is organic agriculture and what are the obstacles of it?

Production of crops without use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers -Use ecological principles, works with, not against nature. -Retain organic matter and nutrients in the soil. -Avoid using synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. -Maintain soil mass, biological activity, and beneficial chemical properties. -Minimize adverse effects of farming. Obstacles: -Requires 3 yrs of organic approach use before certification -Price higher, but many willing to pay. Production increasing with demand

how do you reduce groundwater contamination?

Protecting water sources, aquifer recharge zones, updating treatments and distribution systems

decreasing demand through conservation, efficient use (conservation)

Protecting wetlands preserves natural water storage, aquifer recharge. Maintaining vegetation, floodplains in watersheds lessens downstream flooding

enzymes

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions

what is irrigation what does it do?

Providing water to support agriculture, Increases growth rates, productivity: -High yields possible in times of drought -Unproductive land made fertile

effects of human activities on freshwater

Unevenly distributed globally, temporally; -Measured in fresh water/capita -Global climate change altering precipitation patterns, storm intensity, changing seasonal runoff -freshwater shortages -consumptive use -non-consumptive use

what is beyond the scope of science

Questions based on non-observable or falsifiable phenomena

how does water become diluted, less dense, and more buoyant?

Rainfall, ice melt, river outflow

agriculture

Raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption

Productivity

Rate at which autotrophs convert solar energy to biomass

Intermittency problem

Rate at which they produce electricity inconsistent, difficult to predict, limited geographically

treatments for human wastewater (septic systems def)

Receive wastewater from house or small community

what is undernutrition and what does it result from?

Receiving fewer calories than minimum dietary energy requirement Results from: -Lack of money to purchase -Political obstacles, conflict -Inefficiencies in distribution -Overproduction in developed countries -Conversion of cropland for biofuels

important natural process

Redistribution of geologic weathering products, part of both soil formation and loss

decreasing demand through conservation, efficient use (agriculture)

Reducing runoff-retaining crop residue; Changing irrigation methods; hydroponic agriculture

adaptation further explained in terms of climate change

Reducing vulnerability to future climate conditions with regards to sea levels, weather patterns, drought, precipitation, disease: -Erecting seawalls -Restricting coastal development -Adjustment of farming practices to account for drought -Modification of water management for reduced river flows, flooding from melting glaciers, saltwater intrusion -Structures for increasing rainwater storage

Biodiversity Hotspots

Regions that contain: 1. At least 1500 endemic plant species 2. At least 70% of traditional or primary vegetation has been lost- Regions under extreme threat Most urgent need of conservation action; efforts to preserve habitat would have highest return on investment. Thirty-four regions currently meet these criteria: Make up 2.3% of earths land area but contain over 50% of all known plant spp, 42% of all known terrestrial vertebrate spp as endemics

primary pollutants

Released in harmful form. CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, and most suspended particulate matter

depletion of surface waters

Removal of surface water at unsustainable rates, diversion of water via aqueducts Ex: Colorado river flow altered due to building of Hoover dam, ongoing drought, and diversion of water to large cities, Aral Sea-Diversion of water to cotton crop via aqueducts has caused it to shrink

consumptive use

Removal of water from an aquifer, body or surface water without return

what are the environmental consequences of neoclassical economics and what do they mean?

Replacing resources-Natural resources are substitutable and interchangeable, so no penalty for depletion External costs-Assumption that costs/benefits associated with an action borne only by the individuals involved in transaction. Reality: External costs often affect others, while others get private gain. Discounting-More value placed on current needs rather than future costs Growth-Economic growth essential for maintaining social order

batesian mimicry

Resembling a noxious or distasteful species

mimicry

Resembling inanimate objects, plants, predators to escape predation Ex: Leafy sea dragon, Asian swallowtail butterfly larva, hawkmoth caterpillar

Influenza virus

Responsible for billions of infections; as many as half a million deaths/yr Structure of surface protein allows it to enter host cell-replicates, escapes to infect new host Mutations during replication: Speed up replication, evade immune system-Competition and natural selection Replication brings on immune response, sometimes deadly "Cytokine storm"

Ecosystem preservation

Restore Wildlands. Ecosystem remediation -Repair of natural habitats to or close to original state Ex: Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica: Conversion of cattle ranches back to dry tropical forests

Cultural hazards

Result from place of residence, socioeconomic status, occupation. Lifestyle choices which may or may not be beyond individual control: -Smoking -Recreational use of drugs -Diet and nutrition -Workplace hazards

North Atlantic Cod (overfishing)

Results in population crashes of top predators. Heavy losses of these species in ocean food webs disrupt interdependent relationships, North Atlantic cod: Huge fisheries supported towns all along the northeastern coast of North America until the early 1990s. Due to over-fishing and using unsustainable practices, fisheries collapsed and have yet to recover—even after a 30-year ban on fishing. Other species that are disappearing: Tuna, mackerel, swordfish, sharks, rays

what are some sea adapted animals and how did they adapt?

Ringed seals -Adapted to living on stable arctic sea ice. Build snow lairs above holes for breeding. Critical food for polar bears, Inuit people. Warming causing loss of sea ice, melt. Collapse of lairs-Exposure of young to cold, predators. Reduction of foraging time results in poor body condition Polar bears -Rely on sea ice to hunt prey. Excavate snow caves to give birth to cubs. Warming and loss of sea ice. Shorter hunting seasons: Malnutrition, starvation, poor body condition, lower cub survival, cannibalism, more interactions with humans. Longer distances to travel. U.S. Geological survey-Predict 2/3 world pop gone by 2050

nitrous oxide

Risen 20% since 1750 Natural Sources: Soil denitrification, burning organic matter Human sources: Synthetic and organic fertilizers, nitrogen-fixing crops, application of manure, fossil fuel combustion, sewage management -Increases mainly due to rise of industrial farming, use of nitrogen containing fertilizer

methane

Rising 2.6 fold; atmosphere concentration highest in over 800,000 yrs, naturally occurring, produced by bacteria when anaerobically decomposing plant, animal material human related sources: -agriculture (rice cultivation) -livestock (enteric fermentation) -pipeline leakage -landfills -mining

inorganic material (50%)

Sand and gravel, silts and clays

sources and effects of sediment

Sand, silt clay, soil. Can be beneficial (nourish floodplains) or harmful (smother aquatic life). Sources: Deforestation, logging, conversion to cropland, mining, urban construction accelerate erosion rates Effects: Affects aquatic organisms and food webs; Reduces productivity/photosynthesis; Carries bacteria/pesticides; Clogs estuaries, death of coral reefs

SRM

Selective Receptor Modulator

littoral zone

Shore area with rooted plants; Insect larvae, crayfish, snails in a sea, lake, or river

what do food chains and webs show?

Show feeding relationships and energy flow, the sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers.

Dose response curve

Shows relationship between dose and proportion of animals exhibiting negative impacts

Progress of biodiversity

Shows that life has moved from simple and few to numerous and complex, with interspersed periods of extinction

controlled (manipulative) experiment

Simulate real environmental systems, some conditions are held constant, others altered

atom

Smallest particle that exhibits characteristics of an element. Composed of positively charged protons, neutrons with no charge, and negatively charged electrons

environmentalism

Social movement designed to protect the natural world and people from environmental degradation

Nutrient cycling

Soils exposed to pesticides or antifungal agents alters rates, making less available to producers

what is in a soil profile?

Soils stratified into soil horizons O: Soil surface-Covered in leaf litter, high microbiological activity A: Topsoil-Mineral particles mixed with organic material E : Eluviated (Zone of leaching)-Minerals and nutrients move through due to percolation B: Subsoil- Lower organic content, higher mineral C: Weathered parent material-Weathered rock fragments R: Rock-Parent material

introducing perturbation large enough to offset potential effects of climate change can be what?

Solar Radiation Management (SRM) or Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) Any process that occurs after initial emissions of greenhouse gases

concentrating solar power (solar power tower)

Solar power tower-Heliostats concentrate light on a central receiver containing molten salt-heats to 500-100 deg C. Used to drive steam-turbine electric generator

treatments for human wastewater (primary treatment def)

Solid material settles out of wastewater

natural resources

Substances and energy sources we take from the environment in order to survive, renewable and non-renewable

fertilizers

Substances containing nutrients for plant growth

Stable isotopes

Some isotopes are radioactive. As they decay to stable isotopes, they shed subatomic particles and high energy radiation.

Taxonomic diversity

Some lineages on tree of life extremely species rich, others are extremely species poor

how are countries with adequate food affected by hunger?

Some may not have access due to poverty, politics, armed conflict, economics

Jumping virus

Sometimes doesn't mirror phylogeny of host-Pathogen moves from one spp to another, giving rise to new disease Ex: HIV jumped from other apes to humans

sources and effects of pathogens and waterborne diseases

Source: Untreated/improperly treated human/animal waste: Typhoid, hepatitis, diarrheal diseases -Developed Countries: ~90% have adequate sewage disposal, ~95% clean drinking water. -Developing Countries ~1.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation. -Feedlots: 1,000's of animals, no provisions for capturing runoff. Effects: Disease, health problems -Tested by presence of indicator species that indicates sewage contamination-Fecal coliform

sources and effects of salts

Source: Industrial effluents, processing fossil fuels / petroleum distillation, mining, household chemicals, farming / road salt, surface runoff Effects: Cancer, nervous system damage, developmental disabilities, birth defects, pollution of groundwater, harms aquatic life, lowers crop yields, accelerate corrosion of metals, vehicles & roads

sources and effects of pharmaceuticals and hormones

Source: Pharmaceutical use by humans, animals -Conventional sewage treatment misses steroids, hormones, antibiotics, etc. Effects: Reproductive changes in aquatic organism

sources and effects of nutrient pollution

Sources: Fertilizers, sewage, manure Effects: -Eutrophication due to increase in nutrients: Algal blooms, sometimes toxic -Die-off of algae, consumption by bacteria results in oxygen sag, "dead zones"

sources and effects of biodegradable wastes

Sources: Human and animal wastes, yard waste, paper pulp, agricultural runoff, wastewater Measured as increase in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Effects: Bacterial decomposition increases as organic material is metabolized, lowering DO levels

most common genetically modified crops

Soybeans, corn, cotton. US devotes most area to genetically modified crops

how does rapid reproductive isolation happen?

Speciation occurring without physical separation, often due to a sudden genetic event, common in plants

Near-threatened

Species that are likely to become threatened in the future.

Least concern

Species that are widespread and abundant in numbers.

keystone species

Species that play a role in its community that is far more important than its relative abundance might suggest. Typically exist in low numbers. May be secondary or tertiary consumers, sources of food, ecosystem engineers, mutualistic species, or providers of other ecological services Ex: Sea otters consume sea urchins, allowing kelp forests to grow. If otters are absent, sea urchins overgraze kelp, destroying habitat for many other species

habitat

Specific environment in which an organism lives, including biotic and abiotic components

Toxicology

Study of external factors and their effects on living systems.

element

Substance composed of atoms that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler, and different components. Exist as solids, liquids or gases. Most abundant elements on Earth: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and silicon

congress

creates legislation which may become law

Integrated pest management (IPM)

Suite of techniques designed to minimize pesticide use: -Crop rotation -Intercropping -Planting pest-resistant crop varieties -Creating habitats for predators -Limited use of pesticides Ex: Farmers in Indonesia using IPM led to yield increase, less pesticide use

differential reproduction

Survival and reproduction of offspring is not random- Individuals better able to compete for resources will leave more offspring. The real survival of the fittest

Replication

Taking repeated measurements, producing the same results consistently

services provided by marine ecosystems

Temperature moderation, nutrient cycling, habitat, commercial fishing, storm protection, water purification, medicine, CO2 absorption...

The Sixth mass extinction event

The Holocene. First wave: Megafauna extinction events associated with arrival of humans in New Zealand, Australia, Pacific Islands, Madagascar, and N. America Second wave- Connected to large scale agriculture, land clearance over last 200-500 yrs. Small vertebrates most affected -1600-1850: human activities eliminated 2-3spp./decade -Past 150 years, rate increased to 1000's/decade Current extinction rates: 100-1000x natural background extinction rate

watershed

The area of land drained by a river and all of its tributaries

proponents in terms of soil conservation say that...

Unpredictable nature of farm production must be compensated for

biogeochemical cycles

The cycling of nutrients within and among ecosystems between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere

NADW (North Atlantic Deep Water)

The deep portion of the thermohaline circulation in the northern Atlantic Ocean, Water flowing from Gulf of Mexico to North Atlantic freezes or evaporates, increasing salt concentration of water. Cold, salty water sinks to the bottom of the ocean, mixing with deeper ocean waters. Movement necessary to drive deep, cold current that slowly moves past Antarctica and northward to the northern Pacific Ocean.

allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another

sympatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area

what does Barbaturex morrisoni mean?

The lizard king

natural resources examles

Water, trees, rocks, energy from sun, wind, fossil fuels, lumber, food, pharmaceuticals, crops, etc.

what are the effects of excessive irrigation and what do they mean?

Waterlogging: Soil becomes saturated with water, roots die from lack of oxygen Salinization: small amounts of salts in irrigation water become highly concentrated on soil surface through evaporation.

mortality

deaths within the population

downwelling

The movement of water from the surface to greater depths, oxygen, CO2 moved into deeper waters

population density

The number of individuals in an area at a given time

Species richness

The number of species

ecological efficiency

The proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another

global warming potential (GWP)

The relative ability of one molecule of a given greenhouse gas to contribute to warming

trophic pyramid

The representation of the distribution of biomass among trophic levels

environmental science

The scientific study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us, and how we affect our environment

what feeds at every trophic life?

decomposers and detritivores

parsimony

The simplest explanation is often the correct one

Probability

The statistical likelihood of an event actually occurring and the likelihood of that event causing harm

Epidemiology

The study of causes and patterns of disease in animal and human populations

Environmental Health

The study of environmental factors that influence human health and quality of life The study of the health of ecological systems essential to environmental quality Focus: Minimizing risks of encountering hazards, lessening the impacts of the hazards encountered

ecology

The study of the interactions among organisms and of the relationships between organisms and their environment. May be done at any level

fitness

The tendency for a trait (allele) to increase or decrease in a population. Refers to differential reproductive success, not necessarily survival of the individual. Individuals with high fitness produce many surviving offspring.

Stratospheric ozone depletion

The thinning of the layer of ozone in the stratosphere caused by reactions involving human made compounds, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The stratospheric ozone forms a protective layer that shields Earth by absorbing cell-damaging ultraviolet radiation.

half life

The time it takes one-half of the original parent atom to decay

phenological shifts

Timing of events such as egg laying , plant flowering, migration Ex. N. America-Shifts of species ranges polewards, upwards along elevational gradient expected. Decoupling of food chains occurring

Random/blind sampling

To eliminate possible bias

mechanical defense

Thorns, spines shells, quills to prevent predation, Ex: Porcupine, armadillo, turtle, hedgehog, Plants: Chestnut

Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992

Three objectives: 1. conserve biodiversity 2.sustainably use biodiversity 3.Equitably share the benefits that emerge from commercial use of genetic resources Goal to achieve, by 2010, significant reduction in current rate of biodiversity loss, was not met

instrinsic growth rate

Under ideal conditions, with unlimited resources, the maximum potential for growth (denoted as r) for a population

kinetic energy

energy of motion

distribution in space and time

gives evidence of past histories of living things (and how the planet has changed)

Genetic diversity

Total genetic information in all individuals of a species. Number and relative frequency of alleles, how variable the same genes are within a species. Mutations that create new alleles increase genetic diversity. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow may eliminate certain alleles or change their frequency, leading to an increase or decrease in overall genetic diversity

el niño

Trade winds near South America weaken, Allowing warm equatorial water from western Pacific to move eastward toward the west coast of South America, suppresses upwelling off the coast of Peru and decreases productivity, reducing fish populations near the coast. Results in more storms from CA to Midwest

erosion

Transfer of material from one place to another through action of wind or water

photochemical oxidants

Tropospheric ozone, sulfate, and nitrate

tidal station

Turbines spin as tide flows through, producing steam -Not widely used currently -Tides more predictable than wind -Density of water provides more energy

resource partitioning

Two species competing for same resource cannot coexist. This leads to species co-evolving different behavioral strategies to divide a limiting resource

survivorship curves

Type I Type II Type III

Purpose of GIS map

Using GIS to map structure of ecosystems to estimate spp population numbers. Information on soils, hydrology, spp distribution placed in electronic database

Species/area relationships

Using habitat loss projections to estimate rates of extinction

Biophilia

Valuing the connection between humans and nature

Ecosystem diversity

Variety of biotic communities in a region, along with abiotic components such as soil, water, and nutrients. Communities and ecosystems within a variety of habitats and trophic levels. Tropical regions hold extremely high concentrations and varieties of plants.

ice cores

Variety of climate proxies determined by ice cores greater than any other natural recorder: Temp, ocean volume, precipitation, chemistry and gas composition of lower atmosphere, volcanic eruptions, solar variability

Biodiversity

Variety of living organisms on earth, and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

what geographic barriers divide populations?

Volcanic activity, glaciers, changes in river flow, sea level rise, uplift of mountain ranges, shifting of plant and animal communities due to climate change

which natural sources of air pollution may be exacerbated by human activities?

Volcanoes, forest fires, lightning, plants

Medieval Warm Period

Warm period 1,000 years ago (950-1220)

biogas

Waste placed in container, provided with warmth and water. Resulting gas funneled to wells, piped to power generation plants, used for heat and energy. Resulting sludge used as fertilizer

groundwater

Water beneath surface held within pores of soil or rock, 1/5 of Earth's fresh water supply

what ppm supports desirable aquatic life, detritivores and decomposers in terms of DO

Water with Dissolved Oxygen Content content > 6 ppm supports desirable aquatic life; water with < 2 ppm DO supports mainly detritivores, decomposers

fracking

Water, sand, and chemicals pumped into ground at high pressure, which cracks sediments and releases gas Marcellus/Devonian formation-Potential 100 year supply for US

Accepting risks

We go to great lengths to avoid some dangers, while gladly accepting others

prediction

What should happen if your hypothesis is correct- If, then

Endangered

When a species is at risk of extinction

Threatened

When a species is likely to become endangered in the near future

convergent evolution

When groups of organisms evolve in different places at different times, but in similar environments. Happens by chance, selection, and time

Paradigm shift

When majority of scientists accept the old explanation no longer explains new observations well

what is a sink?

long residence time

intrinsic values

Worth is independent of material benefit; Not usually included in the price of a good or service-Priceless Ex. Use, Educational, Existence, Cultural, Option, Scientific, Aesthetic

Hasty Generalization

a broad claim that is based on insufficient evidence

symbiosis

a close biological or ecological relationship between two species

higher taxon

a group of species that are all descended from a common, ancestral species

taxon

a named group. constructed based on evolutionary relationships between different taxa

system

a network of relationships among parts, elements, or components that interact with and influence one another through the exchange of energy, matter, or information. Boundaries of natural systems sometimes hard to define, often a matter of scale

Innocent-until-proven-guilty principle

a product or service poses an unacceptable risk only if proven so in practice or by research.

upweling

a rising of seawater, magma, or other liquid, rich in nutrients

community

a set of populations interacting in a particular area

Umwelt

a shared vision of nature

null hypothesis

a statement that can be unsupported or proved wrong

Carbon Wedge

a strategy to reduce carbon emissions over the course of 50 years. Starts at 0, goal is to reach 1 gigaton of carbon emissions reduced per year

how are global wind patterns created?

by interaction of convection currents and Earth's rotation-Coriolis effect

surrogate indicator

an attribute used to stand for or indicate another attribute

thermohaline circulation

an oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water, density of water controlled by this (thermo-temperature) and (haline-salinity)

predator

any organism that exists by preying upon other organisms

recharge zones

areas where surface waters filter into an aquifer

logical fallacies

arguments that attempt to sway the reader without using reasonable evidence

immigration

arrival of individuals from outside the population

Adiabatic heating and cooling

as air rises in the atmosphere its pressure decreases and the air expands. Conversely, as air sinks, the pressure increases and the air decreases in volume.

Six Criteria Pollutants

carbon monoxide, lead, ozone (Tropospheric (Low level) ozone-Low level ozone resulting from reaction of NOx and volatile carbon-containing compounds in presence of sunlight), nitrogen dioxide (Highly reactive gas, contributes to smog and acid deposition), sulfur dioxide, particulates

Types of toxicants

carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens, allergens, neurotoxins, endocrine disruptors, Pathway inhibitors

water table

at the top of the zone of saturation

ad hominem attack

attack person/group presenting opposite view rather than addressing evidence

what does survival depend on?

availability of a suitable habitat

how are ocean zones categorized?

based on depth, sunlight, photosynthesis rates, productivity, heat, and proximity to land

large shifts in geographic distribution of species have seen in what species among many taxa?

birds, amphibians, mammals, fish

rate of natural increase=?

birth rate - death rate

natality

births within the population

mutualism

both members benefit from interacting with one another

seasonal resource partitioning

breeding at different times of year

canines

conical, pointed, for gripping and tearing

pathogens

cause disease in host. Ex. viruses, bacteria, protists

what causes desertification and what percent of Earth's surface is prone to desertification?

caused by: -Erosion -Soil compaction -Forest removal -Overgrazing -Drought, water depletion -Climate change 40% of Earth's surface is drylands prone to desertification: Where more than 10% of productivity is lost

how does population separation affect wildlife?

causes differentiation in genes due to selective pressures of new habitat. May be behavioral, food preference, niche, etc

Iodine deficiency

causes goiter, hyperthyroidism. SE Asia

evolution

change in the characterisitics of a population over time

global change

change that occurs in the chemical, biological, and physical properties of the planet

global climate change

changes in the climate (average weather) of the Earth

what follows the rules of conservation of matter?

chemical bonding

Allergens

chemicals that over activate the immune system, causing immune response (allergic reaction). Some are serious and potentially fatal: Anaphylactic reaction/shock, Ex: Nuts, penicillin, animal dander -Not universally considered toxicants because they only affect some, response does not necessarily correlate with degree of exposure

interspecific competition

competition between members of different species

intraspecific competition

competition between members of the same species

acids

compounds that readily release hydrogen ions in water

what is deposition of acidic or acid? what is it due to? what are the impacts?

def: forming pollutants from atmosphere onto Earth's surface, water, and buildings through precipitation, fog, gases, deposition of dry particles Due to: emission of SO2 and NOx from fossil fuel combustion. Once airborne, pollutants react with water and oxygen in air to produce acidic compounds Impacts -Leach nutrients from soil -Mobilize toxic metals -Acid fog kills forests, invertebrates -Runoff into waterways disrupt aquatic life -Damage crops, buildings, autos

EDGE of existence program

dentifies Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered: Threatened spp that have few or no close relatives phylogenetically -Often distinct appearances, behaviors, lifestyles, genetic makeup

emigration

departure of individuals from the population

parasites

depend on another (organism) host for nourishment, often doing host harm without resulting in immediate death

exponential growth model

describes a population that grows at a constantly increasing rate

soil degradation

deterioration of quality and productivity

sustainable development

development that balances current human well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations

phylogenetic tree

diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor; resembles a tree, -Each branch point (node) represents a common ancestor of all taxa that appear after -Shows how groups on the endpoints are related by descent from common ancestors, through time -Does not show organization of life into "primitive" and "advanced" organisms-Some groups branch off early, but if they are extant with later lineages, they are not ancestral or more primitive than later groups

morphological resource partitioning

differences in body size, shape leads to different niches

non-point sources in water pollution

diffuse areas such as an entire farming region or runoff from a parking lot that pollutes a waterway

point sources in water pollution

distinct locations that pump waste into a waterway (e.g., a drainage pipe)

perturbation

disturbance

herbivores

eat plants

ED50

effective dose that causes 50% of the animals to display harmful but nonlethal effect(s).

covalent bond

elements that form compounds by sharing of electrons (no charge)

ionic bond

elements that form compounds by transferring electrons (one element becomes pos, other neg)

levels of biodiversity

genetic, species, ecosystem

population growth models

equations used to predict population size at any moment in time

natural selection

explains how evolution occurs

population ecology

factors that regulate population

Inorganic fertilizers (synthetic)

fertilizers that are produced commercially. This is usually done by combusting natural gas, which allows nitrogen from the atmosphere to be fixed and captured in fertilizer

the scientific method

framework scientists use (observations, questions, hypothesis, predictions, test, results) no 'right' place to enter cycle

incisors

front teeth, edges for cutting

what in our atmosphere let energy pass through, but absorb or reflect heat energy re-emitted by earth?

gases

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

density independent factors

have the same effect on an individuals probability of survival and amount of reproduction at any population size, includes: Hurricanes, tornados, floods, fires, volcanic eruptions, environmental temperatures, etc.

treatments for human wastewater (sludge def)

heavier sewage materials that sink to the bottom of the septic tank, and are digested

Neurotoxins

hemicals that disrupt the nervous system; can cause permanent nerve damage, kill nerve cells -Venoms -Anesthetics -Insecticides -Heavy metals: Lead, mercury Ex: Consumption of apex predator fish increases risk of mercury exposure

how can we use models to attribute climate change to anthropogenic sources

hindcasting: Include known causes of climate change Human-caused inputs Run-See if you can reproduce observed past changes in climate Re-running models leaving out anthropogenic inputs-If results do not agree with past observed conditions, human caused factors can be identified as the causal agent

population distribution

how individuals are distributed with respect to one another

what can reconstructing temperature and rainfall patterns often be tied to? what is the evidence?

human activities, evidence found in oral histories archaeological sites, historical documents

anthropocentric

human centered, Gifford Pinchot: Managing natural resources to ensure the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the longest time

temporal resource partitioning

hunting at different times of day

Precautionary Principle

if a hazard is plausible but not proven, steps must be taken to reduce or remove the hazard.

tertiary source

include information from secondary sources; lack peer review. Popular press, government websites, books

insolation

incoming solar radiation

Polyploidy

increase in the number of each type of chromosome, Ex: Goatsbeard-T. mirus and T. miscellus are 4n self-fertile hybrids derived from older species

random distribution

individuals located in no particular pattern. occurs when resources are plentiful and there is little competition

clumped distribution

individuals seek resources that are unevenly spaced (food, water, shelter)

food webs

interconnected food chains

what drives chemical processes?

interplay between energy released and energy required

what are threats to marine ecosystems?

invasive species, overfishing

appeal to ignorance

issue is too complex for people to understand

Environmental Science presents unique challenges

issues are complex, most enviro choices are preferences and must be solved through political and social changed (not by science), no "control" planet, hard to decide what is better or worse for environment than something else

why is air pollution getting worse?

it is due to increased auto use, meaning, factories burning coal

what is 38% of Earth's surface

land, resources used for agriculture

convective circulation

less dense warm air rises and creates vertical currents- as it rises into areas of lower atmospheric pressure it expands and cools, once it cools it descends and becomes denser and replaces the rising warm air

density

less-dense air rises, denser air sinks

LD50

lethal dose that kills 50% of the individuals, determines relative toxicity of a chemical. Ricin- 500 μg/kg Injection or inhalation Nicotine- 300mg/kg IV Atropine (Belladonna)- 400, 000 mg/kg oral Aspirin- 250mg/kg oral Tetrodotoxin- 8 μg/kg IV, 25mg/kg oral C. botulinum toxin- .03 mg/kg IP

Biocentric

life centered, John Muir: Nature should be preserved in a pristine, altered state

treatments for human wastewater (seepage def)

lighter materials flow out of the tank into leach field, filtered into the soil for final digestion

carrying capacity (K)

limit of how large a population can be sustained by limiting factors (Physical, chemical, and biological attributes of the environment that restrain population growth)

biofuels

liquid fuels derived from animal and plant materials

pH scale

logarithmic, ranges from 0 (acidic) - 14 (basic)

Type III survivorship curve

low rates of early survivorship

zone of saturation

lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water

observable examples of the evolutionary process

many examples of artificial, micro and macro evolution, Ex. Dogs selectively bred for desirable traits-Once thought to have arisen in Asia, but new research puts origin of dog domestication from European wolves between 18,800-32,100ya, considered artificial selection because humans control reproductive success of individuals

monumental

massive

law of conservation of matter

matter cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change form. Matter is transformed and combined in different ways, but it doesn't disappear. Everything goes somewhere

molars

may be flat or serrated, based on lifestyle of animal, for grinding or cutting

temperature

measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules making up a substance

how are net differences measured? what radiative forcing is Earth currently experiencing?

measured relative to base period of 1750. experiencing radiative forcing of 2.3 W/m2

Canadian and arctic ice caps

miniature ice sheets

Toxins

molecules synthesized by living organisms

how many MPA's are there now? and what are "no take" zones?

more than 1,500 MPA's. Some MPAs are considered marine reserves and are "no take" zones—absolutely nothing can be disturbed by human hands in these areas. No-take refuges provide many benefits-Higher biomass, more organisms that are larger than outside preserves

how is Asia affected by hunger?

most rapid increase in crop production -accompanied by rapid population growth

to utilize energy what must be integrated?

must integrate variable load sources (wind, solar) with base load sources (nuclear, fossil fuel power plants) that provide continuous amounts of electricity

where does new genetic variation/ material come from?

mutations

what four factors is population change determined by?

natality, mortality, immigration, emigration

what did surrogate indicators of past climate change derive from? what is used?

natural recorders of climate variability. Tree rings, pollen, clam shells, coral, fossil vegetation , insects, rock hyrax urine used

Umbrella

need large amount of area, protection of these habitats protects many other spp-monarch, tiger, elephant

flaws in studies

no control, small sample size, lack of expertise in subject, no cause and effect established, ignored or missed contrary evidence (alternative explanations)

what is the result of inorganic fertilizers?

nutrient pollution, dead zones, photochemical smog, contamination of groundwater

types of water pollution

nutrient pollution: nitrates, phosphates, ammonia. biodegradable wastes: oxygen demanding wastes . pathogens and waterborne diseases. pharmaceuticals and hormones. toxic chemicals: organic. toxic chemicals: inorganic. salts. sediment. oil pollution. ocean debris: Plastic waste, Styrofoam, garbage. thermal pollution: heat.

ogliotrophic

nutrient poor

What evidence provides proof that evolution has occurred, and is still occurring?

observable examples of the evolutionary process, homologies, fossils, distribution in space and time, (each step in evolution is recorded in DNA)

global warming

one aspect of climate change, the warming of the oceans, land masses, and atmosphere of the Earth

monogamous species

one male, one female for maximum population growth

what does natural selection act on?

only what is useful at the moment, it can't preserve what is no longer needed, it can't predict what will be needed in the future

tolerance limits

organisms that have specific habitat requirements

generalists

organisms with broad niche requirements (raccoon)

specialists

organisms with narrow niche requirements (koala)

Chronic diseases

slowly impair the normal functioning of a person's body

water

polar molecule. one side is more positive and the other more negative

what do climate processes interact with?

pollutants

logistic growth

population whose growth is initially exponential, but slows as population approaches the carrying capacity

chemical energy

potential energy stored in chemical bonds

instrumental values

preferences regarding the means to desired ends

Indicator

presence or absence indicates ecosystem health-Wood stork

weather

present conditions of the atmosphere over periods of up to 2 weeks

carnassial

present in carnivores, top premolar and bottom molar, shearing blade

in which bodies is energy in most ecosystems stored?

primary consumers

what are reconstructions based on?

proxies

Acute diseases

rapidly impair the normal functioning of a person's body

treatments for human wastewater (septic tank def)

receives wastewater from a house

Triple Bottom Line

recognition of the need for organizations to improve the state of people, the planet, and profit simultaneously if they are to achieve sustainable, long-term growth

homologies

related organisms share similar traits

Type II survivorship curve

relative constant decline

population age structure

relative number of individuals of different ages within a population

emission free energy sources

renewable energy

polygynous species

sex ratio can be skewed towards females and still have max population growth

what is a source?

short residence time

what are two examples of low impact sustainable agriculture?

small family farms, shade grown plants

economy

social system that converts resources into goods and services

Herculean task

something that takes great strength

Alien species (exotic species)

species that live outside their historical range.

potential energy

stored energy

bases

substances that readily take up hydrogen ions and release hydroxide ions in solution

what does the recent discovery of epigenetics suggest?

that environment can play a role in DNA expression and inheritance, Ex: Children of holocaust survivors have different stress hormone profiles

Holocene extinction event

the 6th mass extinction occurring for the last 10,000 years, however, much faster in the last 100 years - generally agreed to be as a result of human activity

who promotes soil conservation and sustainable agriculture through Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

the UN

binocular vision

the ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image, permits field of vision to overlap, allows animal to have depth perception

radiative forcing

the amount of change in thermal energy that a given factor causes

environmental ethics

the application of ethical standards to environmental questions

ecosystem

the biotic and abiotic components of a particular area at a particular time

energy

the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter

Species evenness

the degree to which species are distributed

Biomagnification

the effects of toxins are magnified through food webs

monocular vision

the eyesight in which each eye sees a very different portion of the world around them, field of vision between two eyes does not overlap, Flat, two dimensional images, but very good peripheral vision

niche

the functional role of a species in a community, "job," use of habitat, resources, role in flow of energy, interactions with other species

how can we estimate the population's future size (Nt) after a period of time (t) has passed?

the intrinsic growth rate for a population (r) and current number of reproducing individuals (N0), Nt=N0e^rt

population size

the number of individual organisms present at a given time

growth rate

the number of offspring an individual can produce in a given time period, minus the deaths of the individual or offspring during same period

population sex ratio

the proportion of males to females in a population

s-shaped curve

the shape of the curve when a population is graphed over time using the logistic growth model

what would result in a sea level rise of 65M?

the total melt of Greenland and antarctic ice sheets

biosphere

the total of living things on earth and the areas that they inhabit

observations

the watching of some phenomenon that the scientist wishes to explain is the first step of the scientific process

what do vertebrates share?

they have the same forearm skeletal structure, but modified in different lines due to selective pressures of environment

how do growth models help ecologists?

they help to understand population changes

what will happen to species that cannot adapt to change or move?

they will become extinct

what types of scientists are skeptic?

those who have financial ties to oil, auto, electricity, and coal industries

you can reject a hypothesis, but you can never prove a hypothesis (there may always be a better explanation)

true

proxy indicators

types of indirect evidence that serve as proxies, or substitutes, for direct measurement and that shed light on past climate

When environmental science knowledge matters

understanding scientific concepts, it influences every aspect of life, future decision makers should come from scientifically literate public, enterprises essential (to economy, education, society), valuable for voting bc of scientific term knowledge

Large scale changes to the environment have what effects?

unpredictable

zone of aeration

upper soil layers that hold both air and water

heat islands

urban areas that heat up more quickly and retain heat more than do non-urban areas.

spatial resource partitioning

use of different habitats

alleles

when a given gene exists in 2 or more forms

invasive species

when alien species spread rapidly across large areas.

when is energy released?

when bonds are formed

when is energy absorbed?

when breaking chemical bonds

second law of thermodynamics

when energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes

how do thermal inversions occur? what happens?

when there is a departure from normal temperature profile. a layer of cool air forms beneath layer of warmer air, this allows pollutants to trap pollutants near the ground. Ex: Mexico, LA both sit in valleys, experience inversions and heavy air pollution Ex: The Great Smog of London, 1952: Anticyclone caused temperature inversion. Resultant fog mixed with airborne pollutants from coal burning. Est. 12,000 died as a result, led to Clean Air Act of 1956

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time, Ex. Hawaiian honeycreepers

latent heat release

when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into liquid water, energy is released

how is energy flown shown in a chain or web?

with arrows showing direction

how are predictions made of whether a population will increase or decrease?

with reproductive potential of each individual in each age class

Co-evolution

works on mutualistic relationships. Ex. Plants form mutualistic relationships with fungi Coral reefs: Mutualism between coral animals and photosynthetic algae, Bees, bats, birds etc. that transfer pollen between flowers, Often involve exchange of nutrients or some other resource (fertilization, protection) between the two species

are the main components of acid rain secondary compounds?

yes

can carrying capacities change?

yes

Natural wastewater treatment

•-Constructed wetlands- Artificial marshes that filter, decompose waste -Effluent can be used to irrigate crops, raise fish -Larger areas can act as wildlife refuges, recharge area for groundwater -Living machine-Small artificial wetlands with tanks containing plants, bacteria, aquatic organisms