Epideictic Adress
Clarity (Basic Principles of Style)
how well our audience is able to decode and attribute meaning to our message - avoid slang, ambiguity, & too much figurative language - good clarity increases logos
Claim (Toulmin Model)
idea you are seeking to convey - claim of fact, value, policy
Internal Preview
introducing the critical points that will be discussed in the particular paragraph
Information Speech Arrangement Patterns
Chronological, Spatial, Casual, Topical
Common Ground (Rhetorical Appeals)
hostile audience, something everyone can agree on about even if they disagree on other things
Occam's Razor
"one should not increase, beyond what is necessary, the number of entities required to explain anything" - the simplest explanation is the best explanation
Pathos
*emotional appeal by playing to the audiences interest and values *anything that connects the message to the listeners in a way that influences those listener's attitudes and disposition towards the message itself
Logos
*logical or rational appeal of the message itself, including its content, structure, and style *the power of the message itself, contributes to the effectiveness of persuasion
Anticipation
- "Oh no, I have to give a speech" - Result of imagining the speech - can be reduced by taking a communication approach (rather than a performance)
illusion of transparency
- "see right through" know what your feeling inside - stand farther away from audience leading to small external indicators of internal states are not visible
Multiple Listeners
- 2+ people - dyadic communication: communication between two persons who interact face to face as senders and receivers - disadvantage: eyes of listeners triggers anxiety, fight or flight reaction - advantage: can reach multiple listeners at once
Epideictic Goals
- Commemorate something - Establish connection between listeners and event - Construct narrative - Conveys importance of paying tribute
Epideictic Strategies
- Emotional language - Focus on the topic of speech instead of self - Making connections between the event and topic as quickly as possible - Most importantly, commemorative speeches are typically short - take cues from the audience to get a better sense of this and whether it has gone on for too long
Visualization (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)
- addresses objections/concerns - imagine the solution fixing the problem
Passive Audience
- aka captive audience - found in places where people are required to listen to a speech or listen out of politeness (ex: listening to airplane safety speech) - speaker responsibility: get interest, appeal to needs and interests to make them want to listen
Favorable Audience
- aka sympathetic audience - one that is informed about your topic and has a positive view - danger: no persuasive movement - favorable in theory: agrees but hasn't done anything to support. strategies: motivate, remove obstacles. - favorable in practice: agrees and use actions to support. strategies: do more, spread the word - strategies: persuasive action: use hard evidence, visuals & examples + lay testimony (to be relatable) and narratives, use 1st person ("we"), vivid language, dramatic tone, bandwagon appeal.
Concerted Audience
- audience has knowledge of topic and is already impressed with the central idea/argument/topic - speaker responsibility: foster conviction, to be convincing must answer any objections and have the audience place themselves in relation to the speaker's proposal (visualize)
Avoiding Plagiarism
- cite sources & don't steal work
Topic Selection
- consider communicative purpose: inform --> neutral & objective; persuade --> topic that you can take a stand on; entertain: topic that inspires feelings - consider situation: including time - consider audience
Style
- considering language you will use to convey your message including word choice, sentence structure, and possible presentation aids - choosing the best words and phrases to get your point across - virtues: clarity, correctness, vividness, appropriateness
Neutral Audience
- does not yet have a position on your topic - danger: stasis, stay where they are - uninformed: unfamiliar with topic. strategies: inform to persuade. - undecided: has information but not enough to make decision. strategies: introduce new perspectives. - uninterested: bored, don't think topic is relevant, not enough time to think about it, or is someone else's problem. strategies: induce caring. - strategies: include hard evidence + visuals and examples, use 2nd person ("you"), colorful language, enthusiastic tone, backyard appeal (show how close the problem actually is to the listeners).
Presentation Aid Purposes
- enhance clarity of message - assist listeners in retaining important aspects your message - enhance interest of your listeners
Spotlight Effect
- everyone in the audience is staring at the speaker intently and scrutinizing the speakers' every move - reality is we have only a portion of any of our listeners attention, they can't catch everything little thing we do
Transactional Model of Communication
- expands upon the linear model of communication by recognizing and incorporating the notion that we serve as a sender and receiver of messages simultaneously - cyclical model of the communication process - includes: sender, receiver, message, feedback, channel, environment, noise, encoding/decoding
Expectation of Perfection
- expecting perfection from yourself - pressure comes from performance orientation (we think the speaker has all the work of of satisfying the audience aka "critics") - but listeners don't expect perfection
Purpose of Oral Citations
- give proper citation to the author of the material - enhance credibility as a speaker - provide a way for the audience to check the info themselves
Building Credibility
- good character: has appropriate emotional response to situations, doesn't attack others - good sense/sagacity: sound judgement, cite relevant and important info - goodwill: unselfish, speaker cares about and respects audience, honest motives - dynamism: strong, confident delivery. shows that speaker has practiced and cares.
Organized Audience
- highest level of audience interest - already convinced of the merits of a particular position or cause - speaker responsibility: direct behaviors, inspire action and direct the behavior of the listeners, let the audience know what must be done
Hostile Audience
- informed about topic but has a negative view on position - strategies: powerful opportunity, aim for small shift in opinion, use hard evidence (stats, expert testimony), avoid accusation, use 3rd person ("one"), neutral language, tone of reason, expose listeners to different points of view, establish common ground - danger: polarization
Casual Audience
- least interested - potential audience rather than actual audience - speakers responsibility: get attention
Control Distractions (Four C's of Delivery)
- limit distractions (any verbal or nonverbal behavior that attracts the audiences attention to that behavior rather than the message. - noise: don't wear anything that makes noise, turn off ringer, avoid tapping. - repetitive behaviors: avoid utterance ("um"), repetitive voice inflections. - unusual: dress appropriately, keep good posture. - environmental: visit room before speaking. can ignore distraction if short & mild, can pause for distraction if brief & loud/strong (so speakers don't miss what you are saying), or can acknowledge distraction if it would be more distracting to ignore.
Selected Audience
- listeners have selected/chose to listen to speech - speaker responsibility: make an impression, by highlighting something unique and impressive about their position/idea/product
Clarity (Four C's of Delivery)
- loud, clear, and articulate (for the entire audience to hear & comprehend) - nonverbal clarity: speaking at a moderate pace with appropriate use of pauses, tone and facial expressions match words - verbal clarity: careful choice of the words you use to express your ideas. avoid slang, technical terms, or acronyms without an explanation. avoid being vague or inaccurate.
Losing Credibility
- lying by commission: giving false evidence, lying to audiene - lying by omission: leaving out facts about rebuttals & important info - manipulation: deliberate misrepresentation of evidence, to convince audience, rather than w a reasoned argument. - coercion: using force/threats to make someone do something - demagoguery: tries to win audience by appealing to their prejudices and bad emotions (like anger and fear)
Adaptation
- occurs after spike of confrontation - reduce anxiety - results in slowing heart rate, anxiety and reduction of symptoms
Need (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)
- present problem - make uncomfortable or feel bad - establish a need - something could be better
Invention
- selecting and performing investigative research upon a given topic - identifying the best argument or topic on which to speak
Thesis Statement Components
- signpost: let the listeners know where the speaker is in the speech - general purpose: brief statement of communication intention (ex: "I will convince" "I will celebrate") - specific purpose: what you will talk about, what you hope they will take away from speech - main points
Confrontation
- speaker faces the audience and has a surge of adrenaline - physiological symptons occur: sweaty palms, jitters - its normal! - responds with fight or flight adrenaline rush - lasts only 60-90sec
Types of Informational Speeches
- speeches about objects - speeches about processes - speeches about events - speeches about concepts
Contact (Four C's of Delivery)
- typically refers to eye contact - look at feedback zone (facial area & arms) - engages the audience - making sure listeners can make contact with you
Uninterrupted Speaking Time
-"Having the floor" for a certain period of time
Quintilian Rhetoric
-"the art of speaking well" -5 duties of speakers: defend the truth, protect the innocent, prevent criminal behavior, inspire the military, inspire the public
Cicero and the Practice of Rhetoric
Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, Delivery. (in order)
Introduction (structure)
1. Get Attention 2. Reveal Topic 3. Establish Credibility 4. Preview Main Points (thesis) persuasive & entertainment speeches don't need thesis
Active Listening Process
1. Sensing 2. Attending 3. Understanding 4. Responding (in order)
Conclusion (structure)
1. Signal End 2. Reiterate Main Point 3. Dramatic Statement: crescendo (building up to a big finish, providing a solution, dramatic fact/quote), diminish (leaving with something to think about, rhetorical question), circular (end how you started in attention getter), or call to action if persuasive
Aristotle Rhetoric
4 functions rhetoric: 1. uphold truth and justice 2. teach an audience 3. analyze both sides of a question 4. defend oneself Ethos, Logos, Pathos
Information Literacy
5 qualities: - ability to figure out the type of info you need - finding that info - evaluate it (on accuracy, bias, and relevance) - use info to create new knowledge & properly use it - understand issues around info (plagiarism)
Sources of Anxiety
Anticipation, Confrontation, Adaptation
Audience Interest Levels
Casual, Passive, Selected, Concerted, Organized (in order from least interested to most)
Basic Principles of Style / Four Virtues of Language
Clarity, Correctness, Vividness, Appropriateness
Public Speaking Situation Criteria
Communicative intention, uninterrupted speaking time, multiple listeners
Four C's of Delivery
Contact, Clarity, Control distraction, Confidence
Speaking to Facilitate Understanding
Decoding - Either avoid technical terms or clearly define them - Avoid confusing/multimeaning words Meaning - avoid trigger words (words that cause emotional reactions), can anger audience - understand listener's fields of experience - confidence in message, clear message
Bitzer Rhetoric
Good rhetoric: 1. Exists as response to situation 2. Invites discourse, capable of participating in & altering situation 3. Functions as a fitting response to situation Rhetoric is a response to a situation. The meaning is in the situation, not the speaker
Speaking to Facilitate Attending
Focus - people pay attention to things that are: unusual, related to one's own concerns, learned in the past as being important, and repeated - don't be monotone & appropriate pauses - eye contact with listeners Keying - use familiar words & phrases. Ex: signposts (signal the timing of a certain section of a speech) - avoid noisy, repetitive, or unusual behavior - wear appropriate clothes
Speaking to Facilitate Sensing
Hearing - be loud and clear - slow enough to understand Seeing - visible to listeners - give nonverbal cues (hands & gestures)
Irrational Fears
Illusion of transparency, spotlight effect, expectation of perfection
Speaking to Facilitate Responding
Inner responses - listen to yourself as you speak to gage an internal response Feedback - scan room for cues (can use feedback & shows that you care) Redirected sender response - request response, ask audience a question, but risk of responses - rhetorical response (ask question, but not looking for answer), polling response (show of hands), open-ended response (question w answer, start discussion)
Understanding
Internal process of decoding and attributing meaning to the message - we construct the meaning of the message though our own schema (mental framework for organizing new info) & field of experience (a person's beliefs, values, & experience) - involves decoding, meaning
Vatz Rhetoric
Meaning is created by the speaker, not the situation. Situation have no meaning until speaker gives it one.
Attending
Mental aspect of receiving the message - requires we focus our attention on the message - not selective listening (only hear what you want to hear) - keying: attending to the important parts of message *every message contains: symbols (verbal) & signs (nonverbal), content (literal meaning), affect (how speaker feels about & during message), relational (how speaker relates to listeners) *"keying" into correct parts of the message - involves: focus, keying
PRPSA
Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety - between 34-170, average is 115 - 98-131 is moderate speech anxiety - higher the score, the more anxiety - lower the score the less anxiety - my score: 91
Sensing
Physical aspect of receiving the message, involves hearing and seeing
Ethos
Power that comes form the credibility of the speaker -good sense: intellectual knowledge about material they are presenting -good moral character: honest and trustworthy -goodwill: social: speaker represents and cares about the listeners
Speaker Motive
Reason/motive for expressing message - altruistic/selfless the motive = more ethical, while self-interested = less ethical - Ethical: pure altruism - Middle: self expression - Unethical: malice
Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Repeat, Accent, Complement, Substitute, Regulate, Contradict
3 Standards of Ethics for speakers
Speaker Motive, Message Means, Outcome on Receiver
Basic Format of Celebratory Toast
Step 1: Greeting which identifies the audience in their social roles Step 2: Introduction self (speaker) in relation to the occasion Step 3: Express sentiment / arouse feeling Step 4: Call for camaraderie-sense of togetherness
Immediacy Factor
how the presence of a live speaker makes the listeners feel closer to the massage thus increasing the messages impact on the listeners. makes the message feel more real & important.
Connective Statements
Transitions, signposts, internal previews and summaries
Communicative Intention
Whenever our goal is to inform, persuade (influence), or entertain, we have communicative intention
Slippery Slope Fallacy
a logical fallacy that assumes that once an action begins it will lead,undeterred, to an eventual and inevitable conclusion - assume that as first step occurs the rest will also happen, need evidence for each step
Inductive Reasoning
a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time are combined to obtain a conclusion, bottom up
Qualifier (Toulmin Model)
a statement that establishes the boundaries in which the argument is true - modifies claim
Message Means
about the message itself -bad rhetorical devices & manipulation decrease ethicality of message - some argue that persuasion is potentially unethical - Most ethical: pure factual information - Middle: persuasion - Unethical: deception
Message
actual content you send to an audience both intentional and unintentional
Vividness (Basic Principles of Style)
aims at producing delight or admiration in the audience - use colorful words - appeals to pathos
Inartistic Proof
all the evidence, data, and documents that exist outside of the speaker and the audience, but nevertheless can aid persuasion
Ad Verecundium Fallacy
an appeal for persuasion based on higher authority or tradition - ex: "because I am your mother"
Either-or Fallacy
an argument in which you present two options and declare that one of them must be correct while the other must be incorrect - could be many other options
Noise
anything that interferes with encoding, transmission, or reception of a message
Characteristics of Language
arbitrary, abstract, ambiguous
Reasoning by Cause
arguments that claim one event or factor produces an effect - tips: make sure cause is relevant to effect, consider if there are other possible causes, determine if the cause is really capable of producing the effect
Claim of Value
asserts something is good/bad, beneficial/harmful
Claim of Fact
asserts something is true/untrue, exists/does not exist
Claim of Policy
asserts something should/should not be done
Post hoc, Ergo propter hoc Fallacy
assumes that because one event happened after another, the preceding event caused the event that followed
Action (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)
call for action
Persuade
change listener's commitment to message. Influence / motivate. Propose argument.
Toulmin Model of Argument
claim, data, warrant, qualifier
Increase Public Speaking Confidence
communicative orientation: - achieve your communicative goals and objectives - Cooperation between senders and receivers - Communicative objectives (the points you want to make in speech) View as an opportunity to: - share information - influence others - express something important to you - reach more than one person at a time Visualization -picture yourself successfully presenting the speech Relabeling -"nervous", "afraid" --> "excited", "fired up" Deep Breathing Habituation - practice public speaking
Transitions
connective statements that signal you are finished with one point and moving onto another
Artistic Proof
constructed by the speaker for the occasion: ethos, logos, pathos
Derived Credibility
credibility that is produced by everything the speaker says and does throughout the speech
Punishment Appeal
demonstrates how one or more listeners needs are not being met
Reward Appeal
demonstrates to the listeners how they could have one or more of their needs met
Arbitrary
describes how symbols used to represent things that are intrinsically connected to those things - can change meaning based on the group of people over time - illustrates its flexibility, as language changes according to our need to explain the world around us
Abstract
describes how words are not concrete or tangible items; they are only representations
Preparation Outline
detailed outline that uses full sentences next to symbols in an effort to help you organize the speech
Arrangement
devising an effective structure or arrangement for the speech
Confidence (Four C's of Delivery)
establish your credibility before the speech has even begun - real confidence: confidence in message, not speaking abilities, focus on quality of message - fake confidence: never say you are a bad speaker, use strong posture & silence
Grounds/Data (Toulmin Model)
evidence in the Toulmin model -ex: facts, stats, testimony, observation
Fact (Supporting Material)
evidence in the form of something known to exist or have happened
Warrant (Toulmin Model)
explains why the grounds support the claim - makes connection clear to the audience - forms the reasoning
Bandwagon (Rhetorical Appeals)
favorable audience, everybody's doing it
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
five-step organizational pattern that combines psychological elements with speech and persuasion to move an audience into action - Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, Action (in order)
Self Esteem
focuses on accomplishments and others recognition of these accomplishments, our worthiness (feel good about ourselves)
Attention (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)
get attention in a way that relates to topic, establish credibility
Ambiguous
language does not have precise, concrete meanings - something can have a variety of meanings
Memory
learning your material well enough to be able to move on to be able to deliver the speech without extensive use of notes. Ability to recall important information during the speech.
Deductive Reasoning
logical process that reasons from known premises to an inevitable conclusion, top down
Target Audiences
main segment of audience of which your craft appeals
Entertain
make the audience feel something
Formal Speech
memorized speech (prepared word for word no notes), - benefits: control over language, prepared in advance - drawbacks: can't adjust message to audience feedback, lack of flexibility, forgetting part of speech / freezing up manuscript speech (entire speech used as notes) - benefits: can note gestures, no worry of forgetting, speech can be well organized - drawbacks: having script can distract from natural speech giving
Basic/Physiological Needs
most basic needs that are necessary in order for a person to survive - ex: water, air, food, sleep
Self-Actualization
needs are concerned with personal growth and self-fulfillment - ex: beauty, creative outlets, knowledge
Backyard (Rhetorical Appeals)
neutral audience, put in terms of literal or figurative proximity to listeners to make the issue feel relevant
Regulate
nonverbal action that help govern the course of a speech or interaction. - positives: communicate what is wanted, cue a response, indicate end of speech, or to guide q&a section - ex: pauses, hand gestures
Repeat
nonverbal behavior repeat their verbal counterparts - positive: reiterate your message without saying it again -ex: pointing to someone as you reference them
Contradict
nonverbal behavior that contradicts what is being said - negative: hurts transmission of message
Accent
nonverbal behaviors that amplify/accent the message - positive: make message more powerful, increase understanding of point - ex: pound on podium when point is made
Speaking Outline
notes the speaker uses to aid in the delivery of the speech, aka keyword outline because it uses keywords rather than sentences
Impromptu Speech
speech done with little to no preparation - benefits: a lot of flexibility, shows personality, no preparation needed, natural, lower expectations from audience - drawbacks: most stressful speech, little control, can be unorganized, can be difficult to include evidence
Statistics (Supporting Material)
numeral facts/sets of facts
Satisfaction (Monroe's Motivated Sequence)
offer a solution to the problem/need
Oral Attribution
oral citations
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
our needs form to a hierarchal structure that the needs at the bottom need to be satisfied first - basic/physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization (in order from bottom to top)
General Audience
people who have little in common for interests/knowledge on different topics
Subject-Specific Audience
people who share common interests/knowledge of a specific subject
Receiver
person or persons who receive the encoded message sent by the sender
Substitute
physical actions that take the place of verbal messages - positive: can keep audience's attention
Outcome on Receiver
potential effect on the message on the receiver or receivers - benefit listeners = ethical, messages that lead listeners to think or do something that will cause them harm = unethical - Ethical: benefit - Middle: no Effect - Unethical: harm
Encoding
process of attaching symbols to ideas and feelings so that others may understand them
Decoding
process of taking a message that has been sent and using one's own experiences and knowledge to give it meaning
Inform
provide information to listeners, typically to teach and learn
Introduction (function)
purpose of an introduction is to secure the audiences' attention, interest, & goodwill
Responding
reacting to the message - pseudo listening (listener covers up internal state of boredom by pretending to listen) - feedback: outer response - redirected sender response (message that reflects understanding of original speakers message) - Involves inner responses, feedback, redirected sender responses
Love/Belonging
refers to both giving and receiving love, and the need for belonging is to feel a part of a social group - ex: relationships & community
Feedback
responses and reactions to the message transmitted by the sender; it itself a new message sent back to the original sender
Summaries
reviewing key points just made in the body paragraph
Safety
safety and security are associated with desire to feel free from harm (physically and emotionally)
Environment
scenery or temperature
Conclusion (function)
signal the end of the speech and reinforce the listeners commitment to the central idea
Correctness (Basic Principles of Style)
speaking consistent language's norms - vocab, syntax, grammar
Extemporaneous Speech
speech delivered with notes but not the entire speech in front of the speaker - benefits: more natural & fluid delivery, promotes more eye contact, have notes if lose place, prepared ideas & organization, can adapt to audience feedback - drawbacks: not having a good outline or organized notes can distract
Testimony (Supporting Material)
statements based on a persons experience or personal knowledge - lay testimony: statements from a non-expert who also happens to have personal experience or knowledge
Thesis Statement
summarizes the purpose and main points of the speech - preview you give your audience in introduction of your speech
Terminal Credibility
the credibility with which you end the speech, reputation of character going forward (initial credibility next time you speak)
Delivery
the manner with which a speaker physically and vocally presents the speech
Channel
the mode through which the message is conveyed to another party
Sender
the person who desires to deliver a message to another person or group of people
Reasoning by Example
the process of inferring general conclusions and making general claims from specific cases - tips: ensure the example is relevant, try to provide more than one example, make sure examples are typical of the issue, make sure the example doesn't contradict point
Presentation Aid Types
traditional (not electronic) - model - graph (bar & pie) - chart - transparencies - object - pictures technological - video - audio recording - PowerPoint visual, audio, or audio-visual
Spatial Arrangement
uses direction or location as the organizing principle - particularly useful for highlighting, contrast, or differences
Topical Arrangement
uses natural divisions or categorization as the organizing principle - particularly useful for explaining the parts that compromise a concept or how certain components form a concept
Casual Arrangement
uses the connection between cause and effect as organizing principle - particularly useful for explaining a phenomenon
Chronological Arrangement
uses time as the organizing principle - particularly useful for highlighting evolution, change, or process
Straw Man Fallacy
when a speaker ignores the actual position of an opponent and substitutes it with a distorted and exaggerated position
Red Herring Fallacy
when a speaker introduces an irrelevant issue or piece of evidence to divert attention from the subject of the speech
Begging-the-question Fallacy
when a speaker presumes certain things are facts when they have not yet been proven to be truthful - "ex: everyone knows.."
Complement
when nonverbal message is the same as the verbal message - positive: very effective - ex: laugh at a joke in speech
Ad hominem Fallacy
when speakers attack the person making the argument and not the argument itself
Ad Populum Fallacy
when we attempt to persuade people by arguing our position is reasonable because so many other people are doing it or agree with is - if relies too heavily on the bandwagon instead of real evidence
Reasoning by analogy
when you compare two similar cases in order to argue that what is true in one case is also true in another - tips: points must be similar, points need to be crucial to case, explain connections, all analogies have differences, figurative analogies can't be used as proof (only for explanation)
Non Sequitur Fallacy
when you make an unwarranted move from one idea to the next - no evidence or when evidence doesn't relate to claim
Naturalistic enthymemes
where audiences assume (unless there is some evidence to the contrary) that a camera captures a realistic version of what they themselves would see
Appropriateness (Basic Principles of Style)
whether elements of style are appropriate to topic - sentence structure, word choice, grammar are appropriate to the topic, situation, audience - for ethos
Signposts
words or phrases that let listeners know where the speaker is in the speech
