Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning Ch. 6
With maximal exercise, cardiac output may increase to___ times the resting level
4
Aerobic power values of women range from __% to __% of the values of men.
73-85%
The equation used to estimate of the work of the heart:___ this is called ___ or ___
= Heart rate x Systolic blood pressure double product, rate-pressure product
High training volume results in increased levels of ____, indicating muscle damage
creatine kinase
Nervous system adaptations play a significant role in the ___ stages of aerobic endurance training. At the outset, ___is increased and ___ of the contractile mechanisms is delayed
early efficiency fatigue
Long-term aerobic endurance training may improve the athlete's running ____ more than the maximal ability to extract and use oxygen
economy
The increase in cardiac emptying is characterized by an increase in the ____, the fraction of the end-diastolic volume ejected from the heart.
ejection fraction
The volume of blood available to be pumped by the left ventricle at the end of the filling phase (diastole)
end-diastolic volume
During low- to moderate-intensity exercise, enough oxygen is available that ____ does not accumulate because the removal rate is ____ than or equal to the production rate.
lactic acid greater
Longer training sessions with higher amounts of rest between exercise bouts result in ____ improvement in aerobic capacity
less
Heart rate increases ____ with increases in intensity during aerobic exercise
linearly
Ventilatory adaptations result from ___, ___, or ___ adaptations in the specific muscles trained through exercise.
local, neural, chemical
An overtrained state can last for a brief period of time, perhaps a few days. This is called ___
overreaching
Typically caused by extreme levels of training frequency, volume, intensity, or a combination of these variables without sufficient rest or recovery
overtraining
The result of overtraining
overtraining syndrome
The capacity to use ___ is related primarily to the ability of the heart and circulatory system to transport it and the ability of body tissues to use it
oxygen
When the larger and more numerous mitochondria are combined with an increase in the quantity of ___ that can be delivered to mitochondria by the greater concentration of ___, the capacity of the muscle tissue to extract and use oxygen is enhanced.
oxygen myoglobin
The amount of oxygen consumed by the body's tissues
oxygen uptake
___ can be calculated with the Fick equation
oxygen uptake
Because of the Frank-Starling mechanism, with an increased volume, the myocardial fibers become more ____ than at rest, resulting in a more forceful ____ and an increase in force of systolic ejection and ____ cardiac emptying
stretched contraction greater
The quantity of blood ejected with each beat. Measure?
stroke volume; milliliters of blood per beat
Trained athletes have blunted responses to ____ exercise.
submaximal
At the onset of exercise, or even with the anticipation of exercise, ______ stimulation increases myocardial contractility and consequently increases stroke volume
sympathetic
Just prior to and at the beginning of an exercise session, a reflex stimulation of the _____ nervous system results in an increase in heart rate
sympathetic
ventricular contraction
systole
Values in high altitude begin to return toward normal within ____.
two weeks
Artificially increasing red blood cell mass is ____ and poses serious health risks, yet it can ___ aerobic exercise performance and may enhance tolerance to certain environmental conditions.
unethical improve
The amount of blood returning to the heart
venous return
___ generally does not limit aerobic exercise and is either unaffected or only moderately affected by training
ventilation
Certain acute effects of tobacco smoking could impair exercise performance, particularly when ____ and ____ are critical factors in the performance
ventilation aerobic capacity
The ratio of minute ventilation to oxygen uptake is termed ___. Ranges between 20 and 25 L of air per liter of oxygen consumed.
ventilation equivalent
Resistance to blood flow is increased with increasing ____ of the blood and the ____ of the vessel, but these factors remain relatively constant under most circumstances.
viscosity length
Most carbon dioxide removal is from its combination with ____ and delivery to the lungs in the form of _____
water bicarbonate
Two physiological mechanisms responsible for the regulation of stroke volume:
1) End-diastolic volume 2) Action of catecholamines
Arterial pressure fluctuates between a systolic level of ___ mmHg and a diastolic level of ___ mmHg (approx. values)
120 80
Minute ventilation can increase to __ to __ times the resting value
15-25
Maximal stroke volumes for college-aged women are approximately ___% less than men, due to a smaller average body size
25%
At elevations greater than ___ feet, acute physiological adjustments begin to occur to compensate for the reduced ____ of oxygen in the atmosphere.
3,900 partial pressure
External Influences on the Cardiorespiratory Response (4)
Altitude Hyperoxic Breathing Smoking Blood Doping
Acute cardiovascular responses to aerobic exercise (6)
Cardiac Output Stroke Volume Heart Rate Oxygen Uptake Blood Pressure Control of Local Circulation
Amount of blood pumped by the heart in liters per minute
Cardiac output
The primary function of the _____ system during aerobic exercise is to deliver oxygen and other nutrients to the muscles.
Cardiovascular
Equation that expresses the relationship of cardiac output, oxygen uptake, and arteriovenous oxygen difference
Fick equation
The principle related to the concept that the force of contraction is a function of the length of the fibers of the muscle wall. With increased volume, the myocardial fibers become more stretched than at rest, resulting in a more forceful contraction and an increase in force of systolic ejection and greater cardiac emptying.
Frank-Starling mechanism
Because hemoglobin is a significant acid-base buffer, ____ ions combine with hemoglobin. This process helps to maintain the __ of the blood. ____ ions diffuse from the red blood cells out to the plasma while ___ ions diffuse into the blood cells to replace them.
H+ pH bicarbonate chloride
Heart's rate of pumping. Measure?
HR; beats/min
There may be a gradual conversion within the two major Type II fiber subgroups—of Type IIx fibers to Type __ fibers. This adaptation is significant, in that Type IIa fibers possess a greater ___ capacity than Type IIx fibers and have functional characteristics more similar to those of Type __ fibers
IIa oxidative I
Aerobic exercise provides for the greatest impact on both ___ uptake and ___ production, as compared to other types of exercise.
O2 CO2
Key Point: During aerobic exercise, large amounts of ___ diffuse from the capillaries into the tissues; increased levels of ____ move from the blood into the alveoli; and ____ increases to maintain appropriate alveolar concentrations of these gases
O2 CO2 minute ventilation
Significant increases in ____ delivered to the tissue, ____ returned to the lungs, and ____ provide for appropriate levels of alveolar gas concentrations during aerobic exercise
O2 CO2 minute ventilation
The greatest amount of oxygen that can be used at the cellular level for the entire body
Maximal oxygen uptake
The organelles in cells that are responsible for aerobically producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via oxidation of glycogen
Mitochondria
a protein that transports oxygen within the cell
Myoglobin
Cardiac output represented by what symbol?
Q
Cardiac output (Q) equation
Q= SV x HR
Estimated at 3.5 ml of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (ml · kg-1 · min-1); this value is defined as 1 metabolic equivalent (MET).
Resting oxygen uptake
Cardiac Output is determined by what two things?
Stroke Volume, Heart rate (HR)
The amount of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath
Tidal volume (TV)
___ fibers have a higher preexisting initial aerobic and oxidative capacity
Type I
Fick equation:
VO2 = Q x aVO2 difference
Equation used to calculate oxygen uptake
VO2= HR x SV x aVO2 difference
____ and ____ of blood vessels are the primary mechanisms for regulating regional blood flow.
Vasoconstriction vasodilation
With inspiration, air also occupies areas of the respiratory passages: the nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. This area is not useful for gas exchange and is called ___
anatomical dead space
In systemic circulation, pressure is highest in the ___ and ___ and rapidly falls off within the ___ circulation
aorta, arteries venous
The difference in the oxygen content between arterial and venous blood. Symbol?
artiovenous oxygen difference aVO2
Altitude adaptations: the maintenance of the ___ balance of body fluids by renal excretion of HCO3- and through hyperventilation
acid-base
During aerobic exercise, blood flow to ____ is considerably increased by the dilation of local arterioles; and at the same time, blood flow to other ____ is reduced by constriction of the arteriole
active muscles organ systems
Smoking effects: increased ___ resistance due to nicotine related bronchiole constriction or increased ___ secretion and ____ in the bronchial tree due to the irritation of smoke.
airway fluid swelling
With inspiration, air enters the ___, the functional unit of the pulmonary system where gas exchange occurs.
alveoli
The practice of artificially increasing red blood cell mass as a means to improve athletic performance
blood doping
___ is a function of resistance in the blood vessel
blood flow
Key Point: Aerobic endurance training results in reduced ____, increased _____, increased _____ capacity, lower blood ____ concentrations, increased ____ and ____ densities, and improved ____ activity
body fat maximal O2 uptake respiratory lactate mitochondrial, capillary enzyme
The increase in ventilation is primarily the result of increased ___ frequency
breathing
Altitude adaptations: increased ____
capillarization
The initial step in this reversible bicarbonate reaction is the combination of carbon dioxide in solution with water in the red blood cells to form ____. The enzyme ____ significantly speeds up this process. Once carbonic acid is formed, it is broken down to ____ and ____ ions.
carbonic acid carbonic anhydrase H+, bicarbonate
Key Point: Acute aerobic exercise results in increased (6) and a decrease in (1) .
cardiac output, stroke volume, heart rate, oxygen uptake, systolic blood pressure, and blood flow to active muscles; diastolic blood pressure
Excessive training might lead to a predominance of ____ activity in the body and cause muscle metabolism not to be able to keep up with the needed amount of ____ synthesis
catabolic protein
Hormones of the sympathetic nervous system that produce a more forceful ventricular contraction and greater systolic emptying of the heart
catecholamines
smoking effects: the paralysis of the___ on the surfaces of the respiratory tract by nicotine, which limits the ability to remove excess fluids and foreign particles, causing debris to accumulate in the respiratory passageways and adding to the difficulty of _____
cilia breathing
Maximal oxygen uptake has been found to correlate well with the degree of physical ____ and is recognized as the most widely accepted measure of ____ fitness
conditioning cardiorespiratory
Exercise-induced maximum heart rates ___ from overtraining, as have heart rates at absolute submaximal exercise intensities.
decrease
What Are the Markers of Aerobic Overtraining? ___performance ___ percentage of body fat ___ maximal oxygen uptake ___ blood pressure ___ muscle soreness ___muscle glycogen ___ resting heart rate
decreased decreased decreased altered increased decreased altered
What Are the Markers of Aerobic Overtraining? (continued) ___ ratio of free testosterone to cortisol ___ ratio of total testosterone to sex hormone-binding globulin ___ sympathetic tone (nocturnal and resting catecholamines) ___ sympathetic stress response
decreased decreased decreased increased
Maximal aerobic power ____ with age in adults.
decreases
Muscle glycogen_____ with prolonged periods of overtraining.
decreases
Key point: Overtraining can lead to dramatic performance ____ in athletes of all training levels and is caused by mistakes in the design of the ____.
decreases training program
With aerobic exercise, increased minute ventilation occurs as a result of increases in the ___ of breathing, ___ of breathing, or both.
depth, frequency
If inactivity, rather than proper recovery, follows exercise, an athlete loses training adaptations. This is called ___
detraining
The amount of resistance to blood flow is primarily a function of the ___ of the systemic blood vessels
diameter
ventricular relaxation
diastole
Used to estimate the pressure exerted against the arterial walls when no blood is being forcefully ejected through the vessels
diastolic BP
____ provides an indication of peripheral resistance and can decrease with aerobic exercise due to vasodilation
diastolic BP
Altitude adaptations: increased ____ capacity of oxygen through the pulmonary membranes
diffusing
The ___ capacities of oxygen and carbon dioxide increase dramatically with exercise, which facilitates their exchange
diffusing
The increase in capillary density decreases the ___ distance for oxygen and metabolic substrates.
diffusion
The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a cell membrane and is a function of the concentration of each gas and the resulting partial pressure exerted by the molecular motion of each gas
diffusion
The upper limit of an individual's____ potential dictates the absolute magnitude of the training adaptation.
genetic
4 Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
genetic potential age and sex overtraining detraining
At the early stage of high altitude acclimatization, the increase in cardiac output at rest and during submaximal exercise is due primarily to increases in ____.
heart rate
Most oxygen in blood is carried by ____
hemoglobin
Altitude adaptations: increased formation of ____ (generally 5-15% increase, although higher values have been reported) and ____ (30-50% increase),
hemoglobin red blood cells
Endocrine: Aerobic exercise leads to increases in ___ circulation and changes at the ___ level.
hormonal receptor
Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures
hyperoxic breathing
It is suggested that ____ increases the amount of oxygen carried by the blood and therefore increases the supply of oxygen to working muscles
hyperoxic breathing
increase in pulmonary ventilation
hyperventilation
Stroke volume begins to ____ at the onset of exercise and continues to rise until the individual's oxygen consumption is at approximately ___ to ___% of maximal oxygen uptake. At that point, stroke volume begins to ___.
increase 50-60% plateau
Two adjustments that occur early in the acclimatization process that are particularly important:
increase in pulmonary ventilation and cardiac output
Increased training intensity can produce _____ resting diastolic blood pressures without affecting resting systolic pressure.
increased
What Are the Markers of Aerobic Overtraining? (continued) ___ submaximal exercise heart rate ___ lactate ___ creatine kinase ___ cortisol concentration ___ total testosterone concentration ___ ratio of total testosterone to cortisol
increased decreased increased altered decreased decreased
As resistance is reduced, blood flow is ____, and as resistance increases, blood flow is ___.
increased reduced
As blood vessels throughout the body become constricted, total peripheral resistance ____; with dilation, peripheral resistance ____.
increases decreases
The oxygen demand of working muscles ____ during an acute bout of aerobic exercise and is ___ related to the mass of exercising muscle, metabolic efficiency, and exercise intensity
increases directly
With aerobic exercise, the amount of blood returning to the heart _____, and thus end-diastolic volume significantly _____
increases increases
The ___ of training is one of the most important factors in improving and maintaining aerobic power.
intensity
In mature adults, the extent to which tendons, ligaments, and cartilage grow and become stronger is proportional to the ___ of the exercise stimulus, especially from ___ activities.
intensity weight-bearing
Using ___ training techniques is one method of providing a greater osteogenic stimulus while still providing the benefits associated with aerobic exercise
interval
The most significant change in cardiovascular function with long-term (6-12 months) aerobic endurance training is the increase in ___, resulting primarily from improved ____.
maximal cardiac output stroke volume
Aerobic endurance training results in several changes in cardiovascular function, including increased ___, ____ , and reduced ___ at rest and during submaximal exercise. In addition, ___ increases as a result of aerobic endurance training.
maximal cardiac output, stroke volume heart rate capillarization
A means of estimating ____ is to subtract one's age from 220. The variance, or standard deviation, around this estimate is ±__ to __ beats/min
maximal heart rate 10-12
One of the most commonly measured adaptations to aerobic endurance training is an increase in ____ associated with an increase in maximal cardiac output.
maximal oxygen uptake
Average blood pressure throughout the cardiac cycle. Equation:
mean arterial pressure = [(Systolic blood pressure - Diastolic blood pressure) ÷ 3] + Diastolic blood pressure
Aerobic____ plays a vital role in human performance and is basic to all sports, if for no other reason than recovery
metabolism
The volume of air breathed per minute
minute ventilation
At the cellular level, muscular adaptations to aerobic exercise include an increase in the size and number of ___ and increased ___ content.
mitochondria myoglobin
One of the fundamental adaptive responses to aerobic endurance training is an increase in the aerobic capacity of the trained ____. This adaptation allows the athlete to perform a given absolute intensity of exercise with greater ___ after aerobic endurance training
musculature ease
The aerobic exercise level at which lactic acid (converted to blood lactate at this point) begins to show an increase is termed the ____.
onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)
Alveoli in which poor blood flow, poor ventilation, or other problems with the alveolar surface impair gas exchange
physiological dead space
Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures during rest periods or following exercise may ___ affect exercise performance, although the procedure remains ____.
positively controversial
During high-intensity aerobic exercise, the ___ of oxygen and carbon dioxide cause the movement of gases across cell membranes.
pressure gradients
Chronic cardiovascular adaptations: Aerobic endurance training requires proper (4) if physiological adaptations are to take place.
progression, variation, specificity, overload
In the progression from rest to steady-state aerobic exercise, cardiac output initially increases ___, then more ____, and subsequently reaches a ____.
rapidly gradually plateau
Metabolic changes include increased ____ capacity, lower blood ____ concentrations at a given submaximal exercise intensity, increased ____ and ____ densities, and improved ____ activity
respiratory lactate mitochondrial, capillary enzyme
High-intensity aerobic endurance training augments the absolute ___ rates of many hormones in response to maximal exercise.
secretion
The general physiological response to training is _____ in men and women.
similar
Ventilatory adaptations are highly ___ to activities that involve the type of exercise used in training. Training adaptations include increased ___ and breathing ___ with maximal exercise.
specific tidal volume frequency
Estimates the pressure exerted against the arterial walls as blood is forcefully ejected during ventricular contraction
systolic BP
Endocrine: Overtraining may result in a decreased ____ ratio, decreased secretion of ___, and changes in ____ levels
testosterone-to-cortisol GH catecholamine
The resistance of the entire systemic circulation
total peripheral resistance
When training intensity and volume balance of anabolic and catabolic activities in muscle, the optimal exercise prescription depends on the ____ of the athlete and the ____ in the exercise protocol.
training level variation
