Exam 2 Psychology

1) Classical Conditioning 2) Neutral stimulus (NS) and Conditioned stimulus (CS) 3) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 4) Unconditioned response (UCR) 5) Conditioned response (CR)

A dog trainer blows a whistle and then gives his dogs treats. He keeps repeating this pattern of blowing the whistle and then giving a treat every day for 2 weeks. At the end of the two weeks, his dogs are excited just to hear the whistle. This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The whistle is the ___2___. The treat is the ___3___. Enjoying the treat is the ___4___. Excitement from hearing the whistle is the ___5___

Reliability

A good intelligence test should actually measure a person's ability to learn and think, i.e. it should have validity, and the scores the test give should not change dramtically each time you take the test, i.e. it should have ___1___. Traditional intelligence tests have had trouble with these requirements, partially because they are culturally specific. WEIRD Men from WEIRD (males from white, educate, industrialized, rich, democratic societies) score better on the test because the test were written from the perspective of these men.

1) Discriminant Stimulus

A pigeon in a Skinner box has learned that if it pecks the button when the red light is on it will get an electric shock (positive punishment) and if it pecks the button when the green light is on it will get food (positive reinforcement). The color of the light serves as a(n) ___1___ for the pigeon telling it what type of operant conditioning is in effect at the moment. Stop lights at intersections serve the exact same purpose for human drivers. You Answered

1) Fixed Interval Schedule

A rat in an operant conditioning experiment has been taught to press a bar in order to turn off a painfully high pitched (for a rat - humans cannot hear it) tone. On average the rat needs to press the bar 8 times before the tone turns off, although sometimes it takes a few more presses and sometimes a few less presses. This is an example of using negative reinforcement on a(n) ___1___ of reinforcement to increase the frequency of a behavior by removing a negative stimulus (the painful tone).

Hypothesis

A testable prediction made based on a theory (a general statement of a relationship between variables) is called a(n) ___1___. It is formed by operationalizing the independent variable (what causes or predicts a change) and the dependent variable (what measures change).

1) Operant 2) Variable Interval 3) Negative Punishment

About 3 times each month sometimes more sometimes less, your landlord checks to make sure that tenants have not left trash in the public areas of the apartment complex. If a tenant has trash outside their apartment when the check comes, they are fined (have money taken away). This practice does reduce the frequency with which tenants leave trash around. This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The schedule of reinforcement is ___2___. The type of learning is ___3___.

1) Classical 2) Neutral Stimulus (NS) and Conditioned Stimulus (CS) 3) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 4) Unconditioned response (UCR) 5) Conditioned response (CR)

After eating meatloaf at Greg's Greasy Grub, you vomited for 2 days straight. Now even the smell of meatloaf makes you queasy. This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The smell of meatloaf is the ___2___. The food from Greg's Greasy Grub is the ___3___. Vomiting is the ___4___. Feeling queasy is the ___5___.

Wernicke's area

After getting hit hard on the left side of Their heads, Carl and Jeremy have acquired a loss of language ability know as an aphasia. Carl could still hear and talked (but without saying anything meaningful), but could not read or understand speech. Carl probably suffered damage to ___1___ in the left temporal lobe of his brain. Jeremy, on the other hand, could not talk or write, but understood what people said and could read. Jeremy probably suffered damage to Broca's area in the left frontal lobe of his brain.

1) Sensory memory

After images of sights we have seen fade almost instantaneously because even though the capacity of iconic memory (___1___ for vision) is very large, information in this stage of memory disappears quickly unless it is paid attention to and encoded into short term (working) memory. Similarly, information in haptic memory for touch and echoic memory for sound also fades very quickly.

1) Classical 2) Neutral Stimulus and Conditioned Stimulus 3) Unconditioned Stimulus 4) Unconditioned response 5) Conditioned response

Albert was a boy in an experiment where a fear response was learned. Initially, the boy did not fear a white rat. Then a loud scary noise was made each time the rat appeared and the boy then became fearful of the rat and other white fuzzy objects. This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The white rat is the ___2___. The loud scary noise is the ___3___. Being upset by the noise is the ___4___. Fear of white fuzzy objects is the ___5___.

1) Spontaneous Recovery

Arnold is a recovering alcoholic who always used to drink beer with his buddies when they went bowling. He has been through rehab and no longer craves alcohol while he is working or at the park or at home even if other people are drinking beer; thus his association of seeing people drink beer and alcohol in his system is extinguished. However, when he went to the bowling ally after several months of never going there, he had an overwhelming craving for a beer. Because of ___1___ - a renewal of an extinguished response after a time away from the situation, Arnold is experiencing the conditioned response of a craving when exposed to the conditioned stimulus of seeing people drink beer. (Alcohol is the unconditioned stimulus and getting drunk id the unconditioned response in this scenario.)

1) Sensitization

At first the sound of your classmate popping their gum seemed a minor irritation. However, he continued to make the annoying sound throughout the final exam period and by the end of 2 hours of gum popping you flinched and felt like you might scream if he popped it one more time. Psychologist with a behaviorist perspective say learning theory explains this increasing of a response over time ___1___ which is common as a reaction to a strong or traumatizing stimulus. This type of nonassociative learning (forms of learning that are not conditioning) can lead to phobias.

Babbling

Baby Billy is 7 months old. He does not know any words yet, but he loves to "talk" to people using a repetitive string of consonant vowel syllables, e.g. gaga, boobooboo, teetee. This stage of language development is called ___1___ and it comes after the cooing stage when babies make breathy vowels sounds but no consonants. Billy will be almost 2 year old, however, before he speaks his first very short sentences using telegraphic speech.

1) Modelling

Bandura's Social Learning Theory says that people learn behavior by imitating other people who they have watched behave in a certain manner, a process known as ___1___. Bandura demonstrated in his Bobo doll study that through this observational learning, children learn aggression by watching adults be violent. Specialized nerve cells called mirror neurons are active when a learner does a behavior or sees another person doing that behavior and these cells allow for this type of learning. You Answered

1) Semantic memory

Becky can explain to you the exact difference between a reptile and an amphibian, because after studying the classes of animals in her science class she has stored all the facts about animal classification in her long term memory (permanent storage of information) the division of explicit (declarative) memory known as ___1___ that is dedicated to storage of facts without regard to the situation when the facts were first learned. She does not remember the exact events that happened during each class period, however, because those details were not stored in the division of memory known as episodic memory that is dedicated to storage of events rather than facts.

1) Unconditioned Stimulus

Blowing into a person or animals's eyes automatically causes the person or animal to blink. The fact that blowing into the eyes evokes the unconditioned response of blinking means that blowing into the eyes can be used as a(n) ___1___ in a classical conditioning learning situation. Any neutral stimulus that is associated with blowing into the eyes can become a conditioned stimulus that will evoke a conditioned response of turning the eyes away or closing eyes.

Functional fixedness

Bran needs a hammer to fix a nail that is pulling out of fence around his backyard. He goes to his work bench and finds a large wrench, a screw driver, and a crow bar, but no hammer. Because of ___1___ which prevents Bran from considering using a tool for anything other than its most common function in his schema (mental concept of what the tool does) and his mental set of having always used a hammer to fix the fence in the past, Bran is having difficulty with problem solving. Bran cannot figure how to fix the nail by hitting it with the wrench or using the screwdriver and crow bar to rig up a machine to press the nail back into the fence. Bran needs to use divergent thinking to generate multiple solutions to his problem instead of sticking to convergent thinking which makes him look for one correct answer.

Schema

Brian expects snakes to feel slimy and wet because his concept of snake in memory includes a(n) ___1___ for snakes, or an outline of what snakes do and are, that goes: "Snakes are long and scaly; they squirm around on the ground; and they can bite you and inject poison." Carl expects snakes to feel smooth and dry because his conceptual outline for snakes is very different and includes: "Snakes have smooth dry tight fitting scales that allow them to slide along the ground and catch bugs, mice, and other pests for food."

Exemplar

Craig is super big, 6' 4" and 280 pounds of all muscle. When he tells people that he is an athlete, people guess he plays football because the representativeness heuristic leads people to assuming big muscular guys who are close to the prototype of an ideal football player are more likely to be a football player than a(n) ______1______ of another sport. In fact Craig is a swimmer.

1) Positive Reinforcement

Craig is trying to potty train his son. In order to increase the likelihood that his son will use the potty, Craig rewards the little boy a piece of candy every time the little boy successfully uses the potty. In operant conditioning terms, this is an example of ___1___ on a continuous schedule of reinforcement.

1) Long term memory

Carol has played "For Elise" on the piano so many times that she can now do it without even thinking about her playing. In fact, she cannot easily describe how she moves her fingers to hit the correct piano keys while she is playing. This fact suggests that Carol has a procedural memory (muscle memory) in the division of ___1___ called implicit memory that allows her to perform the actions; however she does not have a very good explicit (declarative memory) that would allow her to state in words exactly what those actions are.

Functional fixedness

Carol is connecting her new blue ray player to her television. She uses the instruction manual to follow precise steps that are guaranteed to work if she follows them correctly. Carol is using an algorithm to solve the problem of how to connect her blue ray player. Bill is less patient and uses a simpler, but more error prone, method of plugging the wires into whatever slot is the same color as the plug. Bill is using a heuristic to solve the problem of how to connect her blue ray player. Greg simply cannot connect the blue ray player because his concept for blue ray player has a schema that is simply something you put discs into and has no representation of something with plugs and wires. Greg is suffering from ____1_____, where he cannot think of different ways to use his device.

1) Schema

Carol is going to the grocery store. She knows that she will need to push a buggy through the store because she has stored in long term memory a(n) ___1___ for grocery shopping that says "first you park, then you get a buggy from the parking lot or near the door, the you push the buggy up and down the aisles putting food in to it, then you unload the buggy at the check out and a bagger puts it into bags. you pay and take your bags of food to the car."

Morpheme

Changing the prefix on a word from un- to re-, like changing "undo" to "redo," changes the meaning of the word because although un- is not a complete word it is a(n) ___1___ which is the smallest unit of meaning. The rules of syntax describe how people combine these units of language to create meaningful communication (the semantic level).

Fluid intelligence

Clarita, who is 14 years old, is very good at intuitively operating her smart phone (much better than her grandmother), because the logical thinking that requires little prior knowledge known as ___1___ is often very good in younger people and tends to decline with age. Clarita's grandmother, on the other hand, is better at remembering phones numbers and addresses for family members than Clarita, because this crystallized intelligence which requires specific learned information is usually just as good or even better for older people than for young people.

Divergent thinking

Donald is taking a test of creativity. Instead of getting questions with one correct answer like "How many inches are in a foot?" he is asked open ended questions with many possible answers like "How many words can you create using only the letters a, e, h, t, and r if you can reuse letters multiple times and do not have to use all 5 letters in every word?" This test requires Donald to use ___1___ rather than convergent thinking.

REM sleep

Dreaming (which happens during ___1___) seems to help cognitive development. Sleeping after studying before a test improves long term memory. Going a period of time without thinking about a problem (called incubation) can help solve the problem and lead to insight when a new way of looking at a problem leads to a sudden understanding of its solution.

Haptic

Each sense has its own sensory memory (the first memory stage) where information is transduced from the physical stimulus to a nervous system signal. Iconic memory is for sight. Echoic memory is for sound. ___1___ memory is for touch. Smell and taste also have their own, but those memories have not been given names.

1) Reconstruction

Eye witness testimony is not always accurate because human beings do not actually store in long term memory every detail of what they experience. Instead, salient details unique to one event are stored in memory and when people recall what happened the use ___1___ to fit those details into a schema that is a general outline of similar events. Therefore top-down processing encourages people to remember what they expect would happen rather than what really happened at a certain time.

schema

Eye witnesses at Bear Lake swear they saw a boat out on the lake yesterday, even though it was actually a floating animal food trough in the dark of the evening. One reason mistakes like this happen is that people do not actually store exact pictures of events in long term memory. Instead, salient details unique to one event are stored and when people recall what happened, they use reconstruction to fit those details into a(n) ___1____ that is a general outline of similar events. Therefore top-down processing encourages people to remember what they expect would happen rather than what really happened at a certain time.

recongnition heuristic

Five employees at a fast food restaurant are asked "What menu item is ordered the most often at this store?" Pedro loves the cheesy fries and feel good about them so he uses the affect heuristic to quickly answer "cheesy fries." Karlo just filled an order for a chocolate milk shale as so quickly thinks of shakes and uses the availability heuristic to quickly answer "milk shakes." Cassie thinks that burgers are the prototype for fast food and uses the representativeness heuristic to quickly answer "hamburgers." Sharon is look at the menu at the time and notices side salads first, so she uses the ____1____ to quickly answer "salads." The manager, however, gets the correct answer by using the algorithm of looking up the sales for the last month and seeing that sweet tea is ordered twice as often as any other item on the menu.

1) Classical Conditioning

Gerold has always been happy when he receives packages, any packages. His parents just recently installed a doorbell and now the postman rings the door bell whenever he is delivering a package. After a couple of weeks Gerold starts becoming happy and excited to hear the doorbell because he has learned through ___1___ to associate the previously neutral stimulus of the doorbell with the unconditioned stimulus of a package. Therefore the doorbell is now a conditioned stimulus that evokes the conditioned response of happiness.

1) Motivated forgetting

Grant's dog is obviously very sick, and Grant is afraid the dog has cancer. Grant says he is going to take the dog to the vet, but he has missed three appointments so far. He says the appointment just slips his mind, but likely he is not remembering because of ___1___. Grant does not really want to go to the vet because he is afraid to hear if his dog really does have cancer.

Pragmatics

Gretchen works at the information desk at the mall. When a customer asks her "Do you know where Starbucks is located?" she does not answer simply "Yes, I do." Because top-down processing allows her to use contextual cues called ____1____ to understand the semantics (level of meaningful communication) that customer is not really questioning Gretchen's knowledge, but actually wants directions to Starbucks.

Basic level categories

Household furnishings is a general level for the category (grouping of related concepts) of stuff people own. Therefore it is at the superordinate level. At a very specific level things like: loveseat, recliner, expensive china, cooking utensils, and grandfather clock form subordinate levels. However, people mostly think about the world using middle level groups like furniture, dishes, and clocks called ___1___.

Broca's area

Human language has several qualities that distinguish it from the communication of other animals. First, we can talk about things that are not happening here at this moment but at some other place or time, a quality called displacement in language. Second, we can use almost any symbol ( a sound, an image, even a touch) we want for language as long as the people using it agree on the meaning of the symbol, a quality called arbitrariness in language. Also human language uses rules called syntax to combine language units. Therefore human language has many small units that can be combined, a quality called discreteness in language, and it also has a quality called duality in language because the physical stimulus produced by the rules (the surface structure) may have multiple meanings based on the rules (deep structure). Perhaps the reason why humans can produce such complicated communication is that we have a specialized part in the left frontal lobe of our brain called ____1____ to manage language production and the syntactic rules.

1) operant conditioning. 2) fixed ratio 3) positive reinforcement

In order to get students to sign up for credit cards, the company will give students a free cup koozie if they complete 3 applications. This learning scenario describes ___1___. The schedule of reinforcement is ___2___. The type of learning is ___3___.

1) Shaping

In order to teach her dog to shake hands, Stacy first rewarded the dog with a treat for just lifting up its paw. Then she rewarded the dog only when it put its paw in her hand. Finally she made the dog put its paw in her hand and move it (shake) before the dog got a treat. This method of teaching a response by rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior is called ___1___. In this example of operant conditioning, the voluntary response of moving its paw is increased in the dog by giving the reinforcer of a treat. Thus Stacy is using positive reinforcement to teach her dog to shake hands. You Answered

1) Variable Ratio Schedule

In order to train her cat to stay off the kitchen counters, Gabby sprays the cat with water (something the cat hates) when Gabby catches the cat on the counter. Unfortunately, Gabby only catches the cat once every fifth time on average that it jumps up on the counter. Yet the cat still learns to stay down because this positive punishment was effective even using a(n) ___1___ of reinforcement.

The ___CONCEPT___ in this example of representations in memory is "evening" The ___IMAGE___ in this example of representations in memory is The ___ALGORITHM___ in this example of representations in memory is " the time between 5pm and 9pm " The ___HEURISTIC___ in this example of representations in memory is " anytime it is getting dark " The ___SCHEMA___ in this example of representations in memory is " the sun gets low in the sky; the sky often turns red, orange, and purple; then darkness will come, and it will get cooler outside " The ___PROTOTYPE___ in this example of representations in memory is " slightly cool but not cold and has enough clouds to make a beautiful sunset, but no so many that you cannot see the sun " The ___EXEMPLAR___ in this example of representations in memory is "tonight which is cloudy and rainy" The ___NEURAL NETWORK___ in this example of representations in memory is

In your mind, evening is related to relaxing and dinner time with a glass of wine, but not to waking up or working out. You know that each evening the sun gets low in the sky; the sky often turns red, orange, and purple; then darkness will come, and it will get cooler outside. You feel that the that the perfect evening is slightly cool but not cold and has enough clouds to make a beautiful sunset, but no so many that you cannot see the sun. Tonight, however, it is very cloudy and rainy as it get dark. You can still close your eyes and see in your mind a beautiful sunset from memory. By definition evening is the time between 5pm and 9pm, but it is quicker and easier to just look and see if it is getting dark to tell if it is evening.

1) Long term memory

Jeff is taking his test in history and must write a paragraph about the battle of Yorktown during the American Revolution. In order to write this essay, Jeff must recall information about this battle that is in the semantic memory, factual knowledge division, of ___1___ when all information a person knows is kept for permanent storage. However, Jeff has no autobiographical memory for the battle of Yorktown since eff was not even alive when that battle took place.

1) Long term memory

Jeremiah is trying to memorize a long list of vocabulary words, but he never is able to to recall the words in the middle of the list even though he does remember the first few words, which were the first words to be stored in ___1___, and the last couple of words in the list, which were probably still in Jeremiah's short term memory. This pattern of remembering the beginning and end of a list is common and called the Serial Position Effect. It is cause by proactive interference which means memory of the first few words interferes with newer information and retroactive interference which means memory of the last few words interferes with older information

Wernicke's area

Jeremy and Paul have had brain damage and acquire a loss of language ability called aphasia. Jeremy suffered damage to a part of the left temporal lobe of his brain between the auditory cortex and the visual cortex. Now he cannot understand what people say but he can still talk even though he makes no sense. Jeremy probably has suffered damage to Wernicke's Area. Paul, on the other hand, suffered damage to a part of the left frontal lobe of his brain near the motor cortex for his mouth. Now Paul cannot speak or write, but understands what other people say. Paul probably has suffered damage to Broca's Area .

Multiple intelligence

Jessica just took and intelligence test, but her results did not tell her she was smarter than some percent of other people. Instead the test told her that she had very high musical and intrapersonal intelligence and relative low linguistic and logical intelligence. Jessica most likely did not take a standard IQ test that measures general intelligence, but a test of ___1___ which looks at a person's relative strengths and weaknesses in learning and thinking.

1) Fixed Interval Schedule

John is supposed to be cleaning his room. John wants to listen to music. John's dad checks in to see if John is cleaning every 5 minutes, as long as John has not been playing around, John can keep listening to music. If John is playing when his dad checks on him, his dad will turn off the music; thus taking away something John likes in order to decrease the frequency of John playing. John is being operantly conditioned to reduce the frequency of playing around with negative punishment administered using a(n) ___1___ of reinforcement. You Answered

1) Procedural memory

Karen knows how to knit. She knits all the time. However, she finds that when she tries to explain how to knit to her cousin, she cannot really say how she actually moves her needles to make the nice even stitches that she makes while knitting. This effect demonstrates that while Karen has the process of knitting in her ___1___, a type of implicit or non-declarative memory that stores knowledge of how to perform actions, she does not have that knowledge in semantic memory, aka declarative memory.

Telegraphic speech

Katie is two years old and starting to say her first 2 word sentences like "give milk" and "doggy dirty." These first sentences are called ___1___ because the sentences leave out all inessential words like "the," "is," and "to" and use primarily nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Katie also creates words that adults never use like "thinked" and "teethes." The fact that Katie can so quickly and easily create new statements supports Noam Chomsky's cognitive perspective explanation that human beings are born with a Universal Grammar and a Language Acquisition Device. A behaviorist perspective that language is learned through conditioning just cannot explain how human's easily learn language.

Heuristic

Leo is a tall and thin. When he tells people that he is an athlete, people guess he plays basket ball because the representativeness ___1___ leads people to assuming tall thin people who are close to the prototype of a basket ball player are more likely to be one than an exemplar of a different sport. In fact Leo is a wrestler.

1) Rehearsal

Maria just got her new locker combination. Until she gets some paper and pencil to write it down she keeps saying it over and over to herself. This ___1___ keeps the new information active in short term memory until she can organize it well enough to put it into long term memory, or just write it down on paper.

1) Skinner Box

Maya is studying operant conditioning in mice. She collects much of her data using a(n) ___1___ which is a special animal cage that allows researcher to measure the effects of rewards and punishments on an animal's behavior.

Attention

Memory is sometimes compared to a computer because memory must encode information, that is get information in to it with sense organs like a keyboard gets information into a computer. Memory must also store information, that is keep it for use at a later time like a computer saves information on its hard drive. Finally information must to retrieved from memory when it is needed, like a computer file must be opened when it is needed. Unlike a computer, however, human memory can select what information gets paid ___1___ to because it has a central executive that can choose how to direct mental resources while a computer has no such ability to choose what information it wants to process.

Method of loci

Mnemonics are memory tricks that can help you remember information by connecting it to other concepts (mental representations in memory) in long term memory. Some types of these tricks are using an acronym to link the initials of what you want to remember to a particular word or phrase. Another called ___1___ links new information to a familiar location. A third one links new information to a song so that the music or rhyme can help memory. A fourth one, called the keyword method, uses images to help connect information.

1) Conditioned Reinforcer

Mrs. Martin gives her kindergarten students stars on a "Good Behavior Chart" every time they obey rules in class. On Fridays, her students can pick a prize out of the class treasure chest if they have 10 stars for the week. Although the stars were a neutral stimulus at the beginning of the school year, after several weeks of school the stars are now a conditioned stimulus associated with the unconditioned stimulus of a prize. Now the stars themselves serve as a reward for the operant conditioning of good classroom behavior because they are a(n) ___1___. This is an example of how learning theory can be applied using token economies. You Answered

1) Taste aversion

One challenge to psychologists that have a behaviorist perspective came from studies of language acquisition which show that infants and young children learn to speak much faster than behaviorism can explain. Noam Chomsky said that his fact demonstrated that people are born with a Language Acquisition Device and do not learn language through conditioning. Another challenge to behaviorism comes from studies of ___1___ in rats that show that a taste or smell quickly becomes a conditioned stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus of poisoned water or food so that rats learn to not eat (conditioned response) food and water with that smell or taste, BUT a sound is not easily associated with poisoned food or water as easily. Birds on the other hand, quickly learn to associate bad food with a sound but not with a smell. You Answered

1. Aversion Therapy

One clinical psychology treatment for addiction called ___1___ uses classical conditioning to associate a very negative response such as pain or nausea with whatever stimulus the patient is addicted to. The goal of this treatment is to eliminate the positive conditioned response to alcohol, drugs, or gambling and replace it with a strong negative one. You Answered

1) Conditioned Stimulus

One day at a fair several helium balloons burst quite loudly near baby Betsy. Now Betsy cries, a conditioned response, whenever she sees a balloon because the balloon has become a(n) ___1___ meaning the noise is likely to happen, and the loud noise was always an unconditioned stimulus that evoked the unconditioned response of fear.

1) Interference

One reason that distributed practice, or studying a little bit at a time with rest breaks, improves memory is that it reduces ___1___ in long term memory (permanent storage of information) where material learned before or after some new information prevents retrieval of that new information when it is needed.

1) Implicit memory

Pavlov's dogs learned to salivated to the sound of a bell because the association learned through classical conditioning between the bell and food was stored in ___1___, the nondeclarative division of long term memory. If the dogs could speak they may not be able to tell us that they remember an association between bells and food, but we know that they do remember it because of how they behave. If dogs could state that they know the fact that bells mean food is on the way, then we would say dogs have that fact stored in semantic memory, a part of explicit (declarative) memory.

Flow

Positive psychology has found that work that is challenging enough to meet a person's skill level can provide a sense of well-being. When people's attention becomes focused on meaningful work they can get "in the zone" and experience ___1___ (being so engrossed in the work that other needs become negligible).

Practical

Professor Oblivious is your traditional absent minded professor who seems clueless about everyday life and he is also terrible at art and music despite being a genius in his field of science. According the Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, Professor Oblivious has very good analytic intelligence (book smarts), but poor ____1_____ intelligence (street smarts) and creative intelligence (musical and artistic ability).

Nutrition

Psychologist with a biological perspective and functionalist perspective use the fact that children have a similar level of intelligence as their parents to suggest that nature (inborn qualities) affects a person's IQ. However, psychologist from a sociocultural perspective point out that IQ is also influence by family experiences (like birth order and parental expectations), socioeconomic class (relative wealth and work prospects), toxins (like lead and mercury), and ____1_____ (the amount and quality of food eaten) and therefore, nurture (the effect of experiences) also impacts IQ.

Problem solving

Rebecca's bathtub just overflowed and she needs to mop up the water; however she cannot find her mop. In her closet she finds an old cotton blanket, a few beach towels, and her father's wet/dry vacuum. Because of functional fixedness which prevents Rebecca from considering using a tool for anything other than its most common function in her schema (mental concept of what the tool does) and her mental set of having always used a mop to clean up spilled water in the past, Rebecca is having difficulty with ____1_____. She cannot figure how to soak up water with the blanket or beach towels or use the wet/dry vac to suck up the water.

Dualistic thinking

Riba and Kevin are having an argument over how to play a video game. Kevin, who uses ___1___, insists that the only right way is to follow the rules to win all the challenges in the game and that all other ways of playing are wrong. Riba, who uses relativistic thinking, says that people with different perspectives can have different goals. The best way to play the game depends on the person's goals (e.g. exploring a new world, defeating monsters, collecting coins, or enjoying the graphics). Riba is able to use dialectical reasoning (also called epistemic cognition), but Kevin seems unable to do so.

1) Extinction

Sam once fell off a ladder and learn to associate heights with falling, that is being up high became a conditioned stimulus associated with the unconditioned stimulus of falling. Falling always evokes the unconditioned response of pain. To treat his fear of heights, Sam decides to sit on the roof of his 25 story apartment building on a warm spring day. He wants his learned association between heights and falling to undergo ___1___ so the association no longer exists. Then being high up will no longer elicits the conditioned response of fear for Sam. You Answered

intrapersonal intelligence

Sammy is very good at understanding his own feelings and those of people around him. Daniel Goleman would say Sammy has very good emotional intelligence which exists alongside of traditional types of intelligence. Howard Gardener's multiple intelligences theory would say that Sammy's ability actually reflects two types of intelligence - _____1______ which is his ability to understand his own feelings and interpersonal intelligence which is his ability to understand other people.

Representativeness

Several basketball fans were discussing what profession basketball player has made the most career free throws. Desiree decides to consult the NBA records in order to be sure to get a correct answer (Karl Malone) because she uses a longer but more accurate way to solve the problem called a algorithm. Meanwhile her friends use quick rules of thumb to make easier, but less accurate decisions. Pete just read an article about Magic Johnson and so easily thinks of Magic. So Pete uses the availability heuristic and answers that it is Magic Johnson. Amanda thinks Michael Jordan is the perfect, prototypical basketball player and chooses him based on the ____1____ heuristic. Jarvis does not know the names of many NBA players, so using the recognition heuristic guesses LeBron James just because Jarvis actually recognizes LeBron James as the name of a basketball player. Larry idolizes Larry Bird and so uses the affect heuristic to answer Larry Bird because it makes him feel good to think that he and the record holder share a name.

1) Basal ganglia

Subcortical brain structures are important for long term memory. The hippocampus is a structure that allows people to store new memories, especially explicit (declarative memory) that a person can say that they know. The amygdala is also involved in memory, especially for emotional memories like fear. Another limbic system structure called the ___1___ works with the cerebellum in the brain stem to store procedural memory (how to perform some action) which is part of implicit (nondeclarative memory).

1) Variable Interval Schedule

Teachers like to use unannounced pop quizzes where quizzes occur after different amounts of time rather than announced exams given at specific times because a(n) ___1___ of reinforcement encourages steady frequency of studying but a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement results in a pattern of no studying until the exam date approaches and then increasing frequencies of studying as the date approaches, i.e. cramming. Research has shown using distributed practice by studying everyday improves long term memory (permanent storage for information in the mind) much more than cramming.

1)Episodic Memory

Teddy remembers the first day he rode a horse very clearly. He can relate the event as if he is reliving it and he can tell you the facts he learned about horses that day too, because in explicit (declarative) memory, ___1___ for events and semantic memory for facts work together to form the autobiographical memory of Teddy's life. However, it is hard for Teddy to describe to you how to ride a horse because the procedural memory (muscle memory how to do something) for horse riding is stored in implicit (nondeclarative) memory.

Normalized

The Flynn effect is the fact that raw (not standardized) scores on IQ test have been steadily increasing since the 1950's. However, the average IQ score for people has remained at 100 because today these score are ___1___. That means the raw scores are transformed so that the top 2% of people will always be categorized as "geniuses" with IQs over 130, the bottom 2% will always be considered "disabled" with IQs less than 70, and the vast majority of people 96% will have IQs between 70 and 130.

1) Short term memory

The Modal Model of Memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin breaks memory down into three separate systems. Information first enters sensory memory (iconic memory for sight, echoic memory for hearing, haptic memory for touch, or another memory specific to the sensation) where it is perceived. If that information is paid attention to, it is encoded into ____1____ (working memory) where conscious thought occurs. Well-organized information is permanently stored in long term memory for retrieval when it is needed in the future.

Dialectical reasoning

The boss at Sellalot Marketing has assigned you to a group that needs to develop many ways to sell a new product called a Thing-A-Magigger. Your group needs to use divergent thinking to come up with as many ideas as possible about how to sell this product. Using ____1____ (also called epistemic cognition) will let your group appreciate the perspectives of different buyers and design marketing strategies to sell to the people with different needs and goals. You will also need to use relativistic thinking to evaluate each way of selling Thing-A-Magiggers as better or worse based on many factors like cost, effectiveness, time needed, etc.

Phoneme

The word "achingly" has 8 letters (a, c, h, i, n, g, l, y) - each called a grapheme ; 6 speech sounds (/e/, /k/, / ĭ /, /ŋ/, /l/, /i/) - each called a(n) _____ ; and 3 units of meaning (ache, -ing, and -ly) - each called a morpheme. All these units are combined together using the rules of language called syntax. Because language has these multiple levels the surface structure (physical stimulus) of language may have multiple meanings because of different relationships between units in the deep structure (rules connecting units). This is called the quality of duality in language.

grepheme

The word "unoiled" has 7 letters (u, n, o, i, l, e,d) - each called a(n) _____1_____ ; 5 speech sounds (/ǝ/, /n/, /oy/, /l/, /d/) - each called a phoneme ; and 3 units of meaning (un-, oil, and -ed) - each called a morpheme. All these units are combined together using the rules of language called syntax. Because language has these multiple levels the surface structure (physical stimulus) of language may have multiple meanings because of different relationships between units in the deep structure (rules connecting units). This is called the quality of duality in language.

Algorithm

These user manual for the lawnmower has step-by-step instructions for adding oil to the machine. These fool-proof, although complicated instructions for maintaining the machine are a(n) ___1___ to keep the lawn mower running well. A heuristic like "mix a little oil into the gas each time you fill the lawn mower" may be quicker and easier to use to solve the problem, but it also may fail to work.

1) Levels of processing

Three students are studying for biology. Tatiana is looking at pictures of anatomy but not really thinking hard about them, so she is only doing procesing the information at the sensory level (thinking using only the physical stimulus) of the material. Connie is reading aloud the names and locations of each body part, so she is doing somewhat deeper processing at the phonemic level (thinking using language) of the information. Beatrice is trying to understand the relationships between the location and function of the body parts, so she is doing semantic level processing (thinking at the level of meaning). ___1___ theory says that Beatrice will have the best memory for the class material because she thought deeply and connected the information to other knowledge in long term memory.

1) Latent Learning

Through ___1___, which is learning that occurs unintentionally and has not had an opportunity to be expressed, people learn their way around a town just by riding the bus or in a car through the streets of the town. This learning results in cognitive maps of the area they have seen.

1) Systematic Desensitization

Tina is terrified of bees but she wants to have a career as a gardener so she goes to a therapist to get help overcoming her phobia of bees. Using a treatment called ___1___, her therapist teaches Tina to relax deeply and associate that relaxation with bees. The therapist has Tina relax while imagining a bee, then she relaxes while looking a a picture of a bee; then she relaxes while watching bees in a sealed container, and finally she is able to relax sitting outside in a flower garden where bees are flying. This treatment extinguishes Tina's fear response to the stimulus of bees by associating a new conditioned response of relaxation to the conditioned stimulus of the bee.

1) Priming

Top-down processing affects memory in a way that can be explained by neural network/spreading activation models of long term memory. ___1___ studies have shown that people are faster to read, more accurate at recognition, and better able to recall words if they are presented in pairs of related words such as rain-wet or fast-slow because the first word can serve as a cue to help remember the second word.

General intelligence

Traditional intelligence tests attempt to measure one underlying factor that can predict a person's overall ability to learn and process information called g, or ___1___. However, these tests have proved to be difficult to develop so that they have both reliability, the quality of giving consistent measurements over repeated use of the test, and validity, the quality of truly reflecting intelligence and not culture or other factors. Because of these problems researchers like Howard Gardener have proposed that people have multiple intelligences, and every person had areas in which they perform very well and other areas where they do not do as well.

general intelligence

Traditionally theories of mental ability such as Spearman's G have focused on measuring a single underlying factor that measured ability to learn, solve problem, and think called ___1___. More recent theories developed by psychologists such as Gardener focus on measuring many abilities that a person may have in order to determine the relative strengths and weaknesses each person has in various ways of thinking. These multiple intelligence theories can account for savant abilities where a person who has severe cognitive disabilities can also be gifted in other areas like music or math.

1) Chunking

Unless you read Hebrew, when you are asked to remember how to spell a brand new word you can much more easily remember the spelling of words using the Latin alphabet (the ABCs) than using the Hebrew alphabet גב‎א . This increase in memory reflect the fact that you can use ___1___ to combine the lines, curves, and dots of Latin letters so each letter is one unit of information, but each line, curve, or dot of a Hebrew letter is its own unit of information. Short term memory, or working memory, is only able to hold the magic number 7 (5 to 9) of these units of information, but there is not limit of the size of the unit as long as you can combine the information in a meaningful way to you.

Epistemic cognition

When Zelma was younger, she always thought that information had to be totally true or totally false because she used dualistic thinking. Now that she is a more experienced adult, Zelma can see that even seemingly contradictory positions can be valid. It just depends on a person's perspective which position is better or worse. Zelma has this ability to use relativistic thinking like this because she has developed dialectical reasoning also know as ____1_____.

1) Habituation

When you first walk into the nursing home to visit you Grandmother, the smell of the disinfectant is overwhelming and you wrinkle up your nose automatically. However, over time you learn to not react to the smell and your nose wrinkling response decreases because of the type of learning known as ___1___ that explains decreasing responses to mild stimuli.

Prototype

Whenever Cary goes to the beach he always compares it to the beach in Wildwood, NJ with its large sandy shore, a wooden boardwalk with shops and game, the amusement park on the pier, and the ampithreatre overlooking the ocean. The beach in Wildwood is Cary's ideal, most perfect beach. In his mind this beach is the ___1___ for the concept of beaches.

Exemplar

While Betsy's stuffed spiny sea urchin may be far from the ideal prototype of a stuffed animal, it fits into the algorithm, or definition, or a stuffed animal because it is a plush toy filled with stuffing. Therefore Betsy's spiny sea urchin still qualifies as a(n) ___1___ of a stuffed animal because it is one instance of this concept.

General intelligence

While Spearman's theory of intelligence said that people have just a limited amount of_____1____ called G, they can take some G and devote it to a specific intelligence like athletic ability or linguistic ability. Thurstone said that intelligence is much more flexible and G can be rotated among seven primary mental abilities (PMAs) depending on what a person is doing. Other theories say everyone has more than just one type of intelligence. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence has three types (analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Gardner's multiple intelligences theory describes at least 8 different types of intelligence and says every person is better at some and less skilled with others.

1) Operant Conditioning

While classical conditioning involves learning associations between automatic responses and stimuli that occur at the same time, ___1___ involves changing the frequency of voluntary responses by adding or taking away stimuli that are rewarding of punishing.

Self efficacy

While working on a challenging, but not overwhelming project, for her favorite class, Steph gets "into the zone" where she experiences intense focused attention on the project so that she hardly notices time passing and very little self-consciousness (an awareness of other people evaluating her). Positive psychology calls this experience flow and says that it promotes a good life by providing a person with high ____1_____ (a person's own assessment of their ability to do something), achievement (a psychological need to feel accomplished), and a sense of personal control (ability to regulate your own situation).

visuospatial sketchpad

While you are listening and watching a video of your last birthday party, your short term memory (working memory) is using multiple ways to process the information in the video. The phonological loop processes the sounds and language your hear. The ___1___ processes the images you see. The episodic buffer connects the video to your memories of the event. The central executive coordinates the actions of all these processes.

Working memory

Will is 10 years old and preparing for a spelling contest. He is starting to memorize the spelling of the word antidisestablishmentarianism. He realizes that he can group the letters into units like "anti", "dis", "establish", and so forth rather than trying to remember 28 unrelated letters. This process is called chunking. By using this method he can increase the capacity (amount of information that can be held) in his short term memory, which is also called ___1____

1) Operant 2) Variable ratio 3) Negative reinforcement

You are fed up with your roommate never picking up their stuff. So in order to get you roommate to put their things away more often, you lock the bathroom door, removing your roommate's access to a toilet, whenever the living room gets too much of your roommates stuff laying around. It usually takes 5 to 10 of your roommate's things laying out around the apartment before you impose this consequence on your roommate. This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The schedule of reinforcement is ___2___. The type of learning is ___3___.

1) Generalization

Your cat was once attacked by a toy poodle, and now the cat is afraid (conditioned response) of small dogs (the conditioned stimulus) because it associates them with the pain (unconditioned response) of being attacked (unconditioned stimulus). Because of ___1___ to similar stimuli that cat shows fear not just to toy poodles but also to miniature dachshunds, chihuahuas, and pekingese dogs, but because of discrimination it is not afraid of large dogs like Great Danes, Mastiffs, St. Bernards.

negative reinforcement

You are playing a video game in which monsters respawn after 90 second to 150 seconds. The exact amount of time changes a bit for each monster, but on average they respawn after 2 minutes. The monsters are bad and you want to avoid them, but you have learned that if you use a magic spell at the right time you can prevent the monsters from respawning. Operant conditioning says that by taking away the negative stimulus of respawned monsters, this game is using ___?___ on a variable interval schedule of reinforcement to increase the rate of the response - you casting a magic spell.

1) The ___CONCEPT___ in this example of representations in memory is "fast food restaurant" 2) The ___SCHEMA___ in this example of representations in memory is "drive thru or go in, read posted menu, tell cashier order, get food in paper bag" 3) The ___PROTOTYPE___ in this example of representations in memory is "place that always has high quality hot burgers and fries ready for a low price" 4) The ___EXEMPLAR___ in this example of representations in memory is "the McDonald's near you" 5) The ___ALGORITHM___ in this example of representations in memory is "restaurants that provide quick service and low cost ready-made food" 6) The ___HEURISTIC___ in this example of representations in memory is "any place with a neon sign saying 'Burgers'" 7) The ___NEURAL NETWORK___ in this example of representations in memory is 8) The ___IMAGE___ in this example of representations in memory is

You can close your eyes and see in your mind what a McDonald's fast food restaurant looks like. You also know that when you go there you can drive thru or go in, then read a posted menu, then tell a cashier your order, and receive your food in a paper bag. You also know that the perfect fast food restaurant always has high quality hot burgers and fries ready for a low price, but the McDonald's near you is slow and often serves cold food. By definition these restaurants should provide quick service and low cost ready-made food, but it is quicker to look for a neon sign saying "Burger" to identify one than research its pricing and type of service. In your mind, fast food is linked to greasy and not linked to nutritious.

1) Inhibition

You learned to drive in the United States and learned to associated the right side of the road with the safe driving lane. When your family moves to England you have trouble learning to associate the left side of the road with the safe driving lane. The difficulty you are having learning a new association for safe driving lane is called ___1___ and is caused by having previously learned a different association.

Cognitive Maps

Your dog, Fido, has learned how to navigate your neighborhood by escaping from your yard repeatedly. Although he has never be taught geography or tested on it, Fido used a type of nonassociative learning called latent learning to understand where things are located in your neighborhood. The learning resulted in Fido forming ____ for each yard in the neighborhood, with favorite napping places, trees to mark, cat chasing areas, and great sniffing spots located in each of these mental representations for yards in the neighborhood. Correct!

1) Operant 2) Fixed Interval 3) Positive Punishment

Your pet cat has been trying to get into your pet bird's cage. To stop this behavior you rigged up a motion sensitive alarm to the bird cage so that if it moves for 10 seconds a very loud noise sounds. So now when your cat messes with the cage for more than a couple seconds the loud noise sounds (and the cat despises all loud noises). This learning scenario describes ___1___ conditioning. The schedule of reinforcement is ___2___. The type is ___3___.

Organization

___1___ of information being stored in memory is very important for later retrieval of the information, just like putting clothes away in their correct places is important for finding all parts of an outfit when you want to get dressed later. Otherwise, information that may be stored in long term memory cannot be accessed when it is needed because it is not connected with other knowledge that is also stored in memory. When information cannot be found at the time it is needed, a type of forgetting called retrieval failure occurs.

Retrieval

___1___ of information from long term memory can be measured two ways. Both of the measures test how well you can get information out of memory when you need it (i.e. remember) but recall (when you have to come up with the information all on your own) tends to be harder because fewer cues are available to help locate the information you want to remember than on recognition tests like multiple choice where all you need to do is pick out what information you learned.