EXAM 3 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
According to Expectancy Theory what motivates to performance?
- Like equity theory, expectancy theory assumes that workers are rational, decision-making persons whose behavior will be guided by an analysis of the potential costs and benefits of a particular course of action. Also, like equity theory, expectancy theory focuses on the particular outcomes associated with a job, which refer not only to pay, but also to any number of factors, positive or negative, that are the potential results of work behavior. For example, positive outcomes include benefits, recognition, and job satisfaction, and negative outcomes include reprimands, demotions, and firings. Expectancy theory states that the motivation to perform a particular behavior depends on a number of factors: whether the outcome of the behavior is desirable (valence); whether the individual has the ability, skills, or energy to get the job done (expectancy); and whether the performance of the behavior will indeed lead to the expected outcome (instrumentality).
What are Pros and Cons of reinforcement theory?
- Reinforcement theory argues that reinforcement is a much better motivational technique than is punishment, because the goal of punishment is to stop unwanted behaviors, whereas reinforcement is designed to strengthen the motivation to perform a particular desired behavior. One limitation to reinforcement theory is that it emphasizes external, or extrinsic, rewards. That is, persons are motivated to perform a behavior because they receive some extrinsic reward from the environment. Yet theorists such as Deci and Ryan (1985) emphasize that people are often motivated by internal or intrinsic motivation.
What can increase worker motivation?
Organizational behavior modification has been a successful strategy for enhancing worker motivation. McClelland's achievement motivation theory proposes that the three needs important in work motivation are needs for achievement, power, and affiliation, which can be measured with a projective test known as the Thematic Apperception Test. Unlike Maslow's and Alderfer's need theories, McClelland's theory has been used extensively in work settings to encourage worker motivation.
McClelland and the Thematic Apperception Test?
To assess an individual's motivational needs, McClelland used a variation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective test that uses ambiguous pictures to assess psychological motivation. Despite the criticisms of McClelland's version of the TAT and criticisms of the measurement properties of projective tests in general, meta-analysis shows that the TAT is a reasonably good measurement tool.
What is a fixed and variable Interval Schedule?
Variable-Interval Schedule reinforcement that follows the passage of a specified amount of time, with exact time of reinforcement varying. Fixed-Interval Schedule reinforcement that follows the passage of a specified amount of time
What is fixed and variable Ratio Schedule?
Variable-Ratio Schedule reinforcement that depends on the performance of a specified but varying number of behaviors. Fixed-Ratio Schedule reinforcement that is contingent on the performance of a fixed number of behaviors
What is an Organizational behavior modification?
- the application of conditioning principles to obtain certain work outcomes, Specifying the desired work behaviors; Measuring desired performance of these behaviors using trained observers; Providing frequent positive reinforcement, including graphs demonstrating individual and group performance of desired behaviors; and Evaluation of the program's effectiveness. Such programs have been used to motivate workers to be more productive; to produce higher-quality work; and to cut down on rates of absenteeism, tardiness, and work accidents by rewarding good performance, attendance, and/or safe work behaviors. In general, organizational behavior modification has been a successful strategy for enhancing worker motivation.
What is the correlation job satisfaction and absenteeism?
A meta-analysis of a number of studies indicates that job satisfaction and absenteeism are indeed negatively correlated but that the relationship between the two is not very strong. One reason the relationship is not as strong as one might think stems from problems in measuring absenteeism that cause voluntary and involuntary absenteeism to be lumped together in most of these studies. In other words, there may be a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction and voluntary absenteeism, but no significant relationship between job satisfaction and involuntary absenteeism due to illness.
What influences voluntary turnover?
According to one school of thought, voluntary turnover is likely to be influenced by lack of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, whereas involuntary turnover is not. As is the case with absenteeism, research that does not distinguish between voluntary and involuntary turnover may not find the expected relationships between employee attitudes and turnover simply because the two types of turnover are lumped together.
What is change comparison?
An overpaid worker might change comparison others to persons of higher work status and ability. For example, "Obviously my boss sees my potential. I am paid more because she is grooming me for a management position."
What are pros and cons of both MSQ and JDI?
Both the MSQ and the JDI have been widely researched, and both have established relatively high levels of reliability and validity. However, one study indicates that such a total score is not the best overall measure and suggests the use of a global assessment instrument called the Job In General (or JIG scale) as an accompaniment to the five JDI scales.
What is facet approach?
Considers job satisfaction to be composed of feelings and attitudes about a number of different elements, or facets, of the job. For example, overall satisfaction may be a composite of numerous factors: satisfaction with pay, the type of work itself, working conditions, the type of supervision, company policies and procedures, relations with coworkers, and opportunities for promotion and advancement. The facet approach considers each of these aspects individually, assuming that a particular worker might be quite satisfied with some facet, such as the amount of pay, but unsatisfied with others, such as the quality of supervision and the opportunities for promotion.
Which is the most complicated of the models of motivation?
Either Need Theories Maslow's Need Hierarchy Alderfer's ERG Theory or Cognitive Theories Equity Theory Expectancy (VIE) Theory.
What did Mayo say about workers that are highly motivated?
Elton Mayo stressed the role that interpersonal needs play in motivating workers.
How to operationalized voluntary and involuntary absenteeism involved?
One way that researchers have operationalized the measurement of voluntary and involuntary absenteeism is to use absence frequency (the number of days absent) as a measure of voluntary absenteeism and absence length (the number of consecutive days absent) as an assessment of involuntary absenteeism (Atkin & Goodman, 1984). However, this is a very crude measure. It is important to note that voluntary absenteeism is likely to be more strongly associated with employee job satisfaction; involuntary absenteeism is beyond the control of the employee
What did Herzberg develop and how?
Frederick Herzberg developed a theory of motivation that highlighted the role of job satisfaction in determining worker motivation. Herzberg arrived at these conclusions, called the two-factor theory, after analyzing the survey responses of many white-collar, professional workers who were asked to describe what made them feel especially good or bad about their jobs. What he found was that the factors clustered into one of two categories. Certain factors, when present, seemed to cause job satisfaction, and Herzberg labeled them motivators. Other factors, when absent, tended to cause job dissatisfaction, and he called them hygienes. Motivators are factors related to job content; they are inherent in the work itself. Despite criticisms and a lack of supportive research, Herzberg's theory helped stimulate the development of an innovative strategy used to increase worker motivation known as job enrichment. According to Herzberg, the presence of hygienes will prevent job dissatisfaction, but motivators are needed for employee job satisfaction and hence, motivation.
What is Job Diagnostic Survey?
Hackman and Oldham (1975) developed a questionnaire to measure the five core characteristics.
According to Herzberg, how does a worker not feel dissatisfied?
Herzberg's theory indicates that if managers are to keep workers happy and motivated, two things must be done. First, to eliminate job dissatisfaction, workers must be provided with the basic hygiene factors. That is, they must be compensated appropriately, treated well, and provided with job security. However, furnishing these hygiene's will only prevent dissatisfaction; it will not necessarily motivate workers.
What is key elements of equity theory?
Inputs elements that a worker invests in a job, such as experience and effort. Outcomes those things that a worker expects to receive from a job, such as pay and recognition. According to this theory, the worker brings inputs to the job, such as experience, education and qualifications, energy, and effort, and expects to receive certain outcomes, such as pay, fringe benefits, recognition, and interesting and challenging work, each in equivalent proportions.
How can job satisfaction be increased?
Investing in employees by offering training, up-skilling, mentoring or coaching is proven to enhance their satisfaction and engagement with the business. As an employer, you not only benefit from happier employees, but the additional skills and expertise they are subsequently able to offer.
Why does job satisfaction rely on self-report instruments?
Job satisfaction, which involves the positive feelings and attitudes one has about a job, can be conceptualized in overall, or global, terms or in terms of specific components or facets and can be measured through interviews or with self-report instruments. The most widely used self-report measures are the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) and the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). Research indicates that there is a slight positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, although the link may be moderated by another variable, such as the receipt of work rewards.
Practical applications of McClelland's theory?
McClelland's theory can help you to identify the dominant motivators of people on your team. You can then use this information to influence how you set goals and provide feedback, and how you motivate and reward team members.
What is functional voluntary turnover?
Most voluntary turnover takes place when a competent and capable employee leaves to work elsewhere. It is this turnover that is costly to the organization because losing a valued employee means reduced organizational productivity and increased expenses associated with hiring and training a replacement.
What is McClelland three key motives of worker's needs?
Need for achievement—the compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done. Individuals with a very high need for achievement are those who love the challenge of work. They are motivated by a desire to get ahead in the job, to solve problems, and to be outstanding work performers. Need for achievement is also associated with being task oriented, preferring situations offering moderate levels of risk or difficulty and desiring feedback about goal attainment. Need for power—the need to direct and control the activities of others and to be influential. Individuals with a high need for power are status oriented and are more motivated by the chance to gain influence and prestige than to solve particular problems personally or reach performance goals. McClelland talks about two sides to the need for power: one is personal power that is used toward personal ends, and the other is institutional power, or power that is oriented toward organizational objectives. Need for affiliation—the desire to be liked and accepted by others. Individuals motivated by affiliation needs strive for friendship. They are greatly concerned with interpersonal relationships on the job and prefer working with others on a task. They are motivated by cooperative rather than competitive work situations.
What can affect organizational commitment?
O'Driscoll et al. (1992) found that job satisfaction may directly affect organizational commitment, whereas other studies indicate that organizational commitment leads to job satisfaction.
What happens when punishment is used in the workplace?
Punishment is the term used to describe any unpleasant consequence that directly follows the performance of a behavior. The effect of punishment is to weaken the tendency to perform the behavior again. Punishment is applied to behaviors that are deemed inappropriate. Receiving a harsh reprimand from your boss for too much socializing on the job and receiving a demotion because of sloppy work are examples of punishment. Reinforcement theory argues that reinforcement is a much better motivational technique than is punishment, because the goal of punishment is to stop unwanted behaviors, whereas reinforcement is designed to strengthen the motivation to perform a particular desired behavior.
What is the correlation between job satisfaction and organizational commitment?
Research has found that organizational commitment is positively correlated with job satisfaction while negatively correlated to turnover intention.
Why is the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance weak?
Research indicates that there is a slight positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, although the link may be moderated by another variable, such as the receipt of work rewards. Job satisfaction is positively correlated with organizational commitment, or employees' feelings and attitudes about the entire work organization.
What is the relationship between employee engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment?
Results of the study show that organizational commitment significantly correlated with employee engagement and career satisfaction. Both of the hypotheses developed were accepted as employees were engaged and satisfied with their career as a result of organizational commitment. Organizational Commitment a worker's feelings and attitudes about the entire work organization.
What is the foundation of Porter-Lawler model of job satisfaction?
The Porter and Lawler model is a process model that explains the conditions and processes (contingencies) by which motivation to work takes place. the variables of a process, the interactions between those variables, and the dynamic conditions under which those variables work.
What are pros and cons of standardized job satisfaction?
The ability to compare scores from standardized job satisfaction measures that have been obtained from different groups of workers in different companies also allows researchers to investigate the various organizational factors that cause job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. In other words, if different questionnaires were used for all studies, researchers could not be sure that the studies were measuring and comparing the same things.
What are pros and cons of self-report instruments?
The main advantage of self-report is that it is a relatively simple way to collect data from many people quickly and at low cost. A second advantage is that self-report data can be collected in various ways to suit the researcher's needs. There are several disadvantages of self-report that threaten the reliability and validity of measurement. Researchers must ensure that measures are reliable—meaning the outcomes of measurements are repeatable—and valid— meaning the intended variable is measured.
What is difficult in Herzberg two-factor theory?
There also have been difficulties in clearly distinguishing hygiene's and motivators. For example, salary, which should be a hygiene because it is external to the work itself, may sometimes act as a motivator because pay can be used to recognize outstanding employees and indicate an individual's status in the organization. It has also been suggested that Herzberg's theory applies more to white-collar than to blue-collar workers. As a result, some scholars do not consider it to be a viable theory of motivation, although it continues to be used as a theory to explain worker motivation in a number of jobs.
What is equity sensitives?
These individuals adhere to notions of equity. They become distressed when feeling underpayment inequity and feel guilt when overrewarded. Individual differences in equity sensitivity can be measured via self-report instruments. Only the motivation of individuals in the third category, the equity sensitives, should adhere to the predictions made by the equity theory of motivation.
What is Gainsharing?
a compensation system based on effective group performance. In gainsharing, if a work group or department reaches a certain performance goal, all members of the unit receive a bonus.
What is merit pay?
a compensation system in which employees receive a base rate and additional pay based on performance.
What is the definition of motivation?
a force that serves three functions: it energizes or causes people to act; it directs behavior toward the attainment of specific goals; and it sustains the effort expended in reaching those goals.
What is job enrichment?
a motivational program that involves redesigning jobs to give workers a greater role in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work.
What are job enrichment strategies?
a motivational program that involves redesigning jobs to give workers a greater role in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work. (Note that job enrichment is not the same as job enlargement, because job enrichment raises the level of responsibility associated with a job, whereas job enlargement does not.)
According to Maslow's needs-hierarchy theory what happens when needs are satisfied?
as each level of need becomes satisfied, the next higher level becomes a strong motivator.
How does the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) work?
briefer than the MSQ and measures satisfaction with five job facets: the job itself, supervision, pay, promotions, and coworkers. Within each of the five facets is a list of words or short phrases. Respondents indicate whether the word or phrase describes their job, using the answers "yes," "no," and "undecided." Each of the words or phrases has a numerical value that reflects how well it describes a typically satisfying job. Items checked within each scale are summed, yielding five satisfaction scores that reflect the five facets of job satisfaction.
McClelland needs theory?
every person has one of three main driving motivators: the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power. These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences. Achievers like to solve problems and achieve goals.
How does the Minnesota Satisfaction Question (MSQ) work?
is a multiple-item rating scale that asks workers to rate their levels of satisfaction/dissatisfaction with 20 job facets, including supervisor's competence, working conditions, compensation, task variety, level of job responsibility, and chances for advancement. Ratings are marked on a scale from "very dissatisfied" to "neutral" to "very satisfied."
What is job enlargement?
is the practice of allowing workers to take on additional, varied tasks in an effort to make them feel that they are more valuable members of the organization. For example, a custodian who is responsible for the cleaning and upkeep of several rooms might progressively have the job enlarged until the job's duties involve the maintenance of an entire floor. Job enlargement is tricky to implement because it means that workers are required to do additional work, which some might perceive as negative. However, if used correctly, job enlargement can positively affect job satisfaction by giving an employee a greater sense of accomplishment and improving valuable work skills.
What is involuntary turnover?
occurs when an employee is fired or laid off. A certain amount of involuntary turnover is likely to be considered inevitable and possibly even beneficial. Firing workers who are not performing at desirable levels can be viewed as a positive, "weeding" process.
What is a compressed work week?
schedules that decrease the number of days in the workweek while increasing the number of hours worked per day. One type of flexible schedule is compressed workweeks, in which the number of workdays is decreased while the number of hours worked per day is increased. Most common are four 10-hour days, and certain groups, such as nurses, may work three 12-hour shifts per week. Workers may prefer a compressed schedule because the extra day off allows workers time to take care of tasks that need to be done Monday through Friday, such as going to the doctor, dentist, or tax accountant. Usually, compressed workweeks include a three-day weekend, which allows workers more free time to take weekend vacations. Meta-analyses suggest that although employees tend to be satisfied with compressed workweeks and exhibit higher overall job satisfaction, there is no reduction in absenteeism associated with compressed schedules.
What is organizational commitment?
similar to job satisfaction because both involve feelings about the work situation (and both can be seen as components of the "umbrella" construct of employee engagement). However, because organizational commitment deals specifically with workers' attitudes about the organization, it may be more directly linked to employee attendance variables such as absenteeism and turnover than is job satisfaction. A good definition of organizational commitment is that it is the worker's attitudes about the entire work organization.
What is task Identity?
the degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job or function. The worker needs to see the observable outcome or product of work efforts.
What is voluntary absenteeism?
when employees miss work because they want to do something else. Calling in sick to take a three-day weekend or taking a day off to run errands or to go shopping are examples of voluntary absenteeism.