eXAM 3 iss 310
Means of production
- technology, land, factories, and materials
Contradiction
- Statements opposed to one another -or statements that are logically incompatible
Commodity
- an object that has economic value- made by human labor to be exchanged
Capitalism has the power to absorb rebellion
- by keeping workers minimally satisfied People tend to argue against things that do not change the system itself Rebellion itself is commodified - objects transformed into exchangeable goods on the market such as - books about penguins, Fair Trade coffee, green products, bird feeders Nature (water for instance) is commodified Humans (also natural) are commodified - made into labor numbers, replaceable, exchangeable
Second contradiction of capitalism
- draw surplus from the natural environment - then it gets damaged, destroyed, and damage to workers' health - then less profit (and around we go)
First contradiction of capitalism
- overproduction (to make more money) - but not enough workers to buy stuff (and workers don't have much money)- so wages are reduced - and then people can't buy more stuff anyway
Conditions of production
- securing the natural resources to make things (as cheaply as possible)
Bycatch (副渔获物)
- the accidental harvest of non-targeted marine species
Eco-feminism
- the perspective that patriarchy is a source of environmental degradation and the social condition of women
Monoculture
- the process by which a single crop is grown and harvested to the exclusion of other types of crops Large-scale producers have the resources available to purchase inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, machinery) that lower costs Small-scale producers cannot compete and are forced out of the business
The greenhouse effect
- the process by which gases in the atmosphere trap heat
Social construction
- the theory that any category, condition, or thing is understood to have certain characteristics because people agree that it does Ex: wilderness and nature are constructed as separate from society A constructivist examines how concepts, beliefs, and practices shape not only how we understand the world, but also the world itself
Mode of production
- the way the production of goods is carried out in a society
Mountain Top Removal
A form of surface mining in which the top portion of a mountain is blasted apart and then removed to expose underlying seams of coal First clear-cut the hardwood forest Then, the top portion of the mountain is blasted by explosives to loosen the soil and rock(called the "overburden") Huge earthmoving draglines expose the coal an push the overburden into nearby valleys - can fill these valleys with 800 feet for more than a mile Coal is then removed and washed to remove impurities - toxic waster from this process is put into "sludge impoundments"
Contradiction and crisis
A political economist would argue that crises are not aberrations, but are an inherent part of capitalism Crises mean that the system is working! Crises arise through the first and second contradictions of capitalism
The prisoner's dilemma
A theoretical game in which a particular action would benefit all, but individuals behaving selfishly will create a situation that is not optimal for everyone
Robbins Chapter 9 - CO2
AIMS - What is being done and what can be done to reduce carbon emissions? Developed counties emit more carbon dioxide The Keeling Curve shows increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it is a natural process but it is also impacted by human use of fuels and deforestation CO2 levels have been increasing 0.5% per year since 1958
Townsend Chapter 8
AIMS - show us the anthropological perspective on climate change How do societies manage hazards? Societies and people have histories of adapting, but their resources to adapt can run out Some mange ok, some face more risk, hunger, poverty with climate change
Robbins Ch 7
AIMS - to examine how environmental problems are an key part of the modernist capitalist economy Using the Political Economy Approach
THE LAST MOUNTAIN Film
Almost half of the electricity produced in the U.S. comes from the burning of coal. Sixteen pounds of coal is burned each day for every man woman and child in the US. Thirty-percent of that coal comes from the mountains of Appalachia. Burning coal is the number one source of greenhouse gases worldwide.
Political ecologist Peter Kropotkin
Argue that cooperation is as important for evolution as competition. used to observations of collective action in nature and in human societies to reject social darwin
Environmental impacts
Bottled water is marketed as clean and environmentally friendly But a life cycle analysis shows the environmental impacts in terms of: Fossil fuels used to make and transport the bottles Bottles discarded improperly or in landfills
Greenhouse gases:
Carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons
Materialist theories
Conflict theory in sociology and other fields ( aka) Marxist social theory (political economy is based on this) Focus on the material forces of history Evolutionary scheme Systems of production shape society Social contradictions and crises Theory of change Insight and into the workings of capitalism and domination
Environmental Discourse
Discourse - spoken and written language that not only represents the world, but may materially change it. Includes: Narrative - a story with a beginning and an end Concept - a single idea Ideology - belief about how the world is and how it ought to be Signifying practices - modes and methods of representation A social constructivist wants to destabilize the accepted discourses by discovering the origins of the elements, the relations of power in which they were created, and the institutions that benefit
Animal rights for certain animals
Dolphins are socially constructed as charismatic species with interests valued by humans (noble creatures, charismatic species) Tuna are socially constructed as just fish, or just food As a result, there is greater emphasis on the conservation of marine mammals than any other residents of oceanic biomes
Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively undisturbed natural areas, intended as a low-impact and often small scale alternative to standard commercial mass tourism.
Environmental justice (see Robbins Ch 7)
Environmental hazards are often located in minority and low-income areas Is it that hazardous materials are placed in minority or low-income neighborhoods? Is it that housing values are lower near hazardous materials, so minority and low-income families move there? Both. Minorities and low-income people are more likely to live near hazardous materials because they have less power to protest, pay to live elsewhere, or move
Nature
Essential quality of something Inherent force that directs humans and / or the world The material world itself, may or may not include humans
Crafting sustainable environmental institutions(打造可持续环境机构)
Failures can occur because: laws do not match the ecological systems rules are not supported by authority and do not command respect norms are not established in the first place Successful commons management includes: clearly defined boundaries costs should match benefits rules are made collectively by users monitoring systems are in place sanctions must be in place to punish violators there must be conflict resolution mechanisms the system must have autonomy
Living in a food desert Film
Fast food joints and convenience stores are often the only options for those who live in food deserts, even in Washington, D.C. WAMU highlights one resident's journey to buy fresh, healthy food.
Capitalists solve crises by...
Finding new markets, new sources of cheap natural resources, new sources of cheap labor, and new sites of production, new places to send rubbish (called the "spatial fix" by David Harvey) People do respond by doing environmental justice work, eco-feminism work, or organizing labor unions to fight for workplace safety, work hour regulation, parental leave, vacation time, and waste disposal that does not pollute environments Resistance exists, but rebellion and reformation of the system do not occur
Food deserts
Food deserts are areas which have a much greater density of fast food restaurants than grocery stores and fruit vendors They tend to occur in low-income and minority neighborhoods They are also associated with high incidence of diabetes, obesity, and other health problems
Tragedy of the Commons
Garrett Hardin(1968) theorized tragedy of the commons as a particular type of prisoner's dilemma.
The Mustang Debate
Greta Thunberg, 16 years old from Sweden has ben an activist for adults and policy makers around the world to work on the problems of climate change, since by ignoring it they are impacting the youngest people who don't have voice. This young student, Brigit Brown, won 1st place at a regional Natural History Day event in D.C. for her 10 minute documentary This is sample of what people younger that us are doing
Hardin's solutions
Hardin says that since people will act in their own interest, there are only two solutions: Coercion and enforcement of regulations Privatization Hardin prefers privatization individuals have incentive to manage property sustainably, they are the only ones hurt by their actions Hardin's theory is widely accepted, so many environmental issues are managed either through strict regulation or privatization
The Irish Potato Famine (1845-1852) via Simple History (2018) film
In 1845, in Ireland, the potato crops were failing and potato plants were turning black and rotten. ..
Batey Nine District Dominican Republic Film
In affluent regions, bottled water consumption is associated with perceptual scarcity Municipal water providers could use risk communication to inform people about the safety of public water supplies People often use taste to determine quality After blind taste tests, people complain less about public water but do not reduce bottled water consumption
Accumulation
In contrast... If workers control the means and the conditions of production, there is no need for a surplus value Goods can be sold at their exchange value, which means that they are exchanged for the value of the persons directly involved in the transaction People have value for their personhood, kin relations, talents that cannot be quantified
The puzzle of bottled water
In industrialized countries, bottled water consumption is associated with health and wealth In developing countries, bottled water is used to replace supplies that are becoming scarce, polluted, or privatized Water has become increasingly expensive and privatized, despite its historically communal nature
Examples of successful commons management
Irrigation systems- require collective management to ensure equal access and proper function Hunting and wildlife management systems - to prevent overhunting
The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 was an institutional attempt to address the greenhouse effect
It was not mandatory It attempted to set national limits on carbon emissions It did not say "how" to do this or enforce it The US withdrew, calling it a failure 37 countries stayed
Hydrological scarcity(水文稀缺）
Lack of water due to climatological and hydrological factors (water cycle) Often mitigated(缓解) with affluence and technology Can purchase bottled water or use expensive processes such as desalination(盐水淡化） Ex: deserts, United Arab Emirates
Techno-economic scarcity(技术经济稀缺)
Lack of water due to lack of infrastructure (pipes) or treatment Often occurs in rapidly urbanizing, underdeveloped areas Ex: Mexico
Reconciliation ecology
Maintaining both human activities and ecosystem services such as biodiversity Humans allowed to access and use resources
The Strange Logic of "Under-pollution"
Markets are used to distribute pollution more efficiently, based on arguments that places are "under-polluted" Market-oriented distribution often leads to less equitable exposure of different social and economic groups (so-called "under polluted") A political economy approach argues that it is the structure of the economy and power relations within it that create environmental problems and our perception of them.
Company: Massey Energy
Massey Energy is responsible for more mountaintop removal mining than any other company in the U.S. [Massey agreed to be purchased by Alpha Natural Resources in mid-2011] Massey Energy is America's 3rd largest coal company by revenue, and it controls all the coal mining in Coal River Valley. Between 2000 and 2006 Massey committed more than 60,000 environmental violations.
The evidence and logic of collective action
Most common property is managed through institutions instead of coercion or privatization institutions - formal laws and social norms - a society wide web of roles and norms set up to meet a need or goal (such as institution of education, law, family, etc.) Property can be owned communally. Two forms of communal property: Res nullius - not owned, open to anyone Res communes - common property owned collectively, only the group has access
A short history of bottled water
Most water around the world has been seen as a common property resource Bottling water has been around for thousands of years, but only recently has been privatized and turned into a commodity (sold for profit) Bottled water has traditionally been identified with wealth and health, something for the elite
American Fast Food Took Over Kuwait And Made Its People Obese | VICE on HBO (2018) film
Obesity(肥胖)
What is modern capitalism?
People sell their labor on a market for less than its value Some (the few) accumulate capital (cash, wealth) This leads to contradictions and crises These crises can disrupt ecology, environment, the economy, and the health and well-being of people
Impacts of climate change
Potential agricultural losses Islands and coastal areas lost to sea level rise Species extinction and ecosystem collapse Increase in disease incidence
Political Economy
Primitive accumulation: water is appropriated and turned from a common resource into a commodity, then sold back to people for profit Privatization of water is common in underdeveloped countries, leaving many without access to clean, affordable water.
Preservation
Protection of a resource or environment, usually for its own sake Often means preventing human access or use
Tuna fishing techniques
Purse-seine fishing - a net encircles the school of fish and the bottom is drawn shut. Dolphins become bycatch because they school above tuna and drown in the nets Tuna ranching - young wild tuna are captured and reared for human consumption. Young tuna are preferentially harvested, which puts pressure on the wild tuna populations
Risk: Health and Safety in a Bottle?
Risk assessment could determine if bottled water is safer than tap water, or if it is a matter of risk perception Is bottled water safer than tap water? Depends on where you are. Most bottled water is packaged tap water. In the U.S., tap water is more strictly regulated than bottled water.
What is nature according to Robbins?
Robbins suggests we look at the context - historical, economic, political, institutional, and our beliefs to see how they shape what we know, what we see and how we see it It may be helpful to consider how the concept of social construction helps us see: Race does not genetically exist The New World was actually inhabited How science was used to discover nature, but also to support ideologies
Renowned activist Michal Pollan on potatoes and fries (2014) Film
Russet Burbank potato (too much 杀虫剂 toxic)
An example of ecological reconciliation:
Shade-grown agriculture Does not require trees to be cut for agricultural commodity production Provides complex habitat and supports biodiversity For example, shade-grown or "bird-friendly" coffee
The atmosphere as global commons
The atmosphere is basically common property shared by all countries Atmospheres are impossible to enclose, hard to monitor, have no overarching ruling authority Incentives to free-ride and defect through pollution are high, few incentives to stop polluting Negotiating and enforcing collective rules are difficult, but the framework has been established
Columbian exchange
The indigenous peoples of the Andes were the first to domesticate the potato When the Spanish colonized the Americas, they sent precious metals, foods, and other goods between Europe and the colonies This movement of goods was known as the Columbian exchange, and is how the potato got to Europe
Russet Burbank potato
The potato finally became a major commodity around 1872, when Luther Burbank created the Russet Burbank potato Today, the Russet Burbank potato is the major export of Idaho and is the most widely grown variety of potato in the world The Russet Burbank became the most dominant potato in the world because it is ideal for making French fries Yet, the Russet Burbank is not easy to grow because it requires increasing amounts of inputs, including pesticides, fertilizer, water, and energy These inputs generate high economic, social, and environmental costs
Environmental justice (see Robbins Ch 7)
The principle, and research arguing that we need equitable division of environmental goods (parks, clean air, healthy workplaces) and environmental bads (pollution, hazards, waste) between people, no matter their nationality, race, ethnicity, or gender
Enclosure Laws in England
The privatization of communal areas Then some could own the means and conditions of production and some could not Without land, people became mobile laborers who sold their labor to others Surplus labor - labor is sold for less than the value of the products made - this becomes capital (profit)
Global capitalism and the ecology of uneven development
The spatial fix allows capitalism to continue functioning, but contributes to increasing inequality between places and people Globalization is part of the spatial fix Development is always uneven
Social context(社会环境)
The way that we understand "natural" properties depends on the social context Social context - set of social relations The social context determines which concepts are conceived, which ones take hold, and which ones are dismissed Ex: The concept of race was socially constructed as natural so that it could be used as justification for dominating other people during the period of European expansion
Are all commoners equal? Does scale matter?
There are some problematic assumptions in the theories discussed so far such as: Uneven power relationships make it impossible for some to: own property make decisions negotiate rules or sanctions Scale issues may or may not be a problem negotiations may become more difficult with more people and greater distance between them
competition between capitalists
They must keep innovating They must keep getting a surplus and keep trade profitable One way to keep a surplus is to spend less on labor or environmental issues Must keep expanding the market, finding new markets, creating markets, finding cheap land and cheap labor (also creating desire for products)
Robbin ch8
To examine how we can scrutinize our ideas about nature by looking at the history and social construction of those ideas Our ideas of nature and wilderness are social processes- and that is both natural and social
No matter how remote a place appears to be, all nature is socially constructed.
True
The puzzle of tuna
Tuna are too valuable for their own good, and high demand for tuna cannot be sustained at this rate Tuna is still readily available on the marketplace despite declining wild populations It is nearly impossible to harvest tuna without negatively impacting other important species
Perceptual scarcity(感知稀缺)
Water is perceived to be scarce or hazardous even where there is widespread availability of potable(可饮用的) water Developed countries Ex: Europe and the United States
Can a rights victory produce an ecological defeat?
When all tuna sold in the U.S. became dolphin-safe, the boats started using other means to harvest tuna By setting on logs instead of dolphins, which results in fewer dolphin kills but 2-3 times more bycatch of other marine species By moving to fisheries without dolphins, which leads to the rapid overexploitation of other fisheries Thus, this green certification process guarantees only the minimization of dolphin kills, but actually makes tuna harvesting more unsustainable
A study conducted by Douglas Smith
concluded that willows, beavers, etc. in Yellowstone National park recovered when wolves re-introduced
For Marx
crises are build into the system, they are not aberrations, but are normal things such as layoffs, homelessness, environmental destruction, all keep the system working, keep wages and expenses low, and profits high
Anthropologists are well situated to help understand conflicts over conservation
ecotourism - money from tourism to help environment and local community in exchange for local people losing access to land, game animals, wood, etc. can lead to poverty, migration to the city, or disillusionment when it doesn't work expanding parks moves local people off their land Tanzania - 1/3 of the country is a park, anthropologists are hired to assess successes and failures
Political economy
is defined as a theory focused on how the economy is structured by unequal power relations that impact the environment and our perceptions of the environment It is a focus on power and inequality with roots in Marxist Social theory
Our idea of "natural park" is a social construction
it's not raw and untouched there are signs, roads, trails, pavilions, outhouses, picnic tables we have constructed the nature that we see and how we see it and think about it
Should we call people who lose their livelihoods, homes, and cultures do to changes in their local climate "environmental refugees"?
no Discourages our investment in the causes of climate change (look at "victims" not "causes") They are still in their own country (unlike war refugees, who have to leave) The label does not address injustices (we must be careful of all labels)
The Science of Flint's Water Crisis
polluted by pipe && lead (铅)
Power/knowledge
power/knowledge - Michel Foucault uses this concept to remind us that power and knowledge are inextricable Power is used to create and sustain particular ways of knowing Power is not a thing to be had, given, or taken, but to be exercised by one entity over another Even marginalized entities use power to destabilize dominant discourses
The current state of the bottled water market
spring water and artesian spring water from underground water resources mineral water that occurs naturally purified water, usually filtered municipal tap water fortified products that have included additional nutrient additives
Green consumerism
the idea that responsible consumer purchasing can change the behavior of firms and industries
Trophic cascade（营养级)
the impact on higher or lower trophic levels after the elimination of individuals in one trophic level trophic level - think of ecosystems as having a web of interactions - trophic levels are levels of energy use (food use) in this web - plants (photosynthesis), herbivores (plants), carnivores (animals) Case of Yellowstone park - wolves are related to elk, willows, forest recovery, beaver, bear, reptiles, amphibians, scavenger birds, beetles, river banks, rivers
Social Darwinism
the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. Discredited was used to justify political conservatism, imperialism and racism and to discourage intervention and reform.
Environmental movements are part of culture
they are dynamic (change) they take different forms in different places or among different groups green environmentalism - conserve wild places brown environmentalism - clean up pollution white - danger of biotechnology and GMOs animal rights - protect animals
Relations of production
way people organize labor - who does what - division of labor- workers and owners (work is a relationship)