Exam 3 Map

Avignon

the city on the Rhône River, in modern southeastern France. In the Middle Ages, however, it was part of Burgundy, then an independent territory controlled by the church. From the years 1305-1377 popes, normally bishops of Rome, resided there in the so-called "Babylonian Captivity." After returning to Rome, an new papal election created the Great Schism, where a pope resided in Rome and another in Avignon, then a third in Pisa. The Schism was resolved by the Council of Constance 1415-1417. The town is also famous for its Roman bridge, commemorated in a children's song.

Nile

the important North African river, which flows northward into a wide delta emptying into the Mediterranean. Its regular flooding helped to establish civilization in Egypt.

Europe

the large peninsula, with many sub-peninsulas, that juts off the western landmass of Eurasia. Its traditional eastern borders are the Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Black Sea, and the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus. The many peoples who live there formed Western Civilization and spread it around the world. See also Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Western Europe.

Scandinavia

the territories and peninsulas framed by the Atlantic on the northwest and north, the North Sea on the west, and the Baltic on the south and east. It also includes the Danish islands and Jutland, the peninsula pointing into the split of Norway and Sweden, separating the North Sea from the Baltic. From their homeland here, the Vikings from the eighth to the eleventh centuries A.D. plagued the rest of Europe.

Holy Roman Empire

Although many historians look to Charlemagne's coronation as Emperor of the Romans in 800 as its foundation, the Holy Roman Empire really began its continuous history with Otto the Great's coronation in 962. From that time on German dynasties of kings controlled both Germany and northern Italy, the core of the empire. Soon kings added Burgundy (southeastern France) and Bohemia. By the eleventh century the power of the emperors was strong enough to influence the papacy, but the Investiture Struggle (1076-1122) marked the beginning of the decline of royal power in Germany. By the late middle ages the empire was in serious decline, with the emperor increasingly confined in power to just Germany and Bohemia while territorial princes ruled in places like Bavaria and Saxony. The Habsburg dynasts of Austria tried to re-catholicize and dominate the state in the 30 Years War, but they failed. The Treaty of Westphalia kept the emperor weak and the empire religiously divided. The wars of the French Revolution brought about its total collapse as an institution in 1806

AngloSaxon Kingdoms

Beginning in A.D. 450 the groups of Germans (such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes) invaded the island of Great Britain establishing numerous kingdoms on the island. The native Britons and Romans were either subjugated, or retreated to Cornwall, Wales or across the Channel to Brittany. In the ninth century the Vikings invaded and destroyed most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. What survived were restored and reorganized by Alfred the Great who is considered the founder of England

Warsaw

City located south of the Baltic Sea on the Vistula River, Warsaw served as a capital of Poland until the country was divided by the powers of Russia, Prussia and Austria at the end of the 18th century. Napoleon briefly created a puppet state of the Duchy of Warsaw, which after 1815 became a semi-autonomous Kingdom of Poland ruled by the Russian Tsar. After the failed revolution of 1830 Poland was once again absorbed into the Russian Empire. It is located on the map, but you are not responsible for knowing it.

Spain

Created at the end of the 15th century by the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille. Financing Columbus's voyage in 1492, Spain soon became, briefly, a major power, conquering much of the Americas and the Philippines. Philip II sent an Armada through the English Channel to ferry troops from the Netherlands in 1588 to invade England, but the effort failed. Spain began to decline after 1660. The Latin American colonies successfully rebelled from 1810 to 1825. Spain also lost the Spanish-American War with the United States in 1898. The Philippines and Puerto Rico became US colonies.

Belgium

Created during the Revolutions of 1830 as a result of the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. It lies just south of the mouth of the Rhine River, nestled against France and the North Sea

Madrid

Established by Philip II as a new capital for his vast empire, Madrid, located just north of Toledo, is still the capital of Spain today.

Portugal

Established during the Reconquesta of the Iberian Peninsula, Portugal runs along the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. Cut off by Castille from further crusading against the muslims, the Portuguese began to sail down to Afirca. Thus they began the first modern European colonial empire, eventually stretching around Africa to India and the Indies. It quickly faded in importance, important parts being seized by the English, French and Dutch. Brazil rebelled from its rule and became independent in 1822. But remnants lasted into the 20th century.

Aragon

Established during the Reconquesta of the Iberian Peninsula, it is located along its southeastern edge. Ferdinand of Aragon's marriage to Isabella of Castille created modern Spain

Germany

In Ancient times "Germania" was the broad region where Germans lived on the borders of the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, the "German Kingdom" was the most important part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. The Second German Empire was created by Bismarck in 1871 in the heart of Europe. Bordered by the Baltic Sea to the north, the Alps and Bohemia to the south, France to the west and Poland to the East.

Romania

In the Middle Ages it was a frontier area mixing Slavic and Roman heritage. It won independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, at the same time as Serbia and Bulgaria. It is located in the Carpathian Mountains, forming an arc stretching northwards from the lower Danube River.

Sardinia

Island located South of Corsica and West of the central Italian Peninsula. After 1815 it became a part of the important Kingdom of Sardinia/Savoy/Piedmont.

Versailles

Just outside of Paris (a shadow to the Paris diamond on the map), Versailles was an enormous palace built by Louis XIV to serve as France's new capital. In 1789, during the French Revolution, the people moved the capital back to Paris.

Berlin

Located in between the Elbe and Oder Rivers, it became the capital of Prussia and then a united Germany after 1871. Bismarck ruled there. It is located on the map, but you are not responsible for knowing it

St Petersburg

Located in northern Russia on the eastern tip of an offshoot of the Baltic Sea, St. Petersburg provided Peter the Great with his "Window on the West." It served as Russia's capital from the early 1700s until the Russian Revolution in the early 1900s.

Moscow

Located in the heart of Russia, Moscow provided a base for the Dukes of Muscovy to establish a united Russia. It was capital of the Russian empire until the early 18th century when Peter the Great moved the government to St. Petersburg

Netherlands

Located in the northwestern part of the lowlands, by the early modern period the Netherlands began to separate more distinctly from Flanders. While Flanders remained largely Catholic and French-speaking, the Netherlands became Calvinist and Dutch speaking. Beginning in 1581, the Dutch fought a eighty-year War of Independence to free themselves from the Spanish kings, finally successful after the 30 Years War in 1648. In the early seventeenth century until the mid-1600s, the Netherlands was the greatest economic power in Europe, based on its huge network of transport ships and the stock market in Amsterdam. It also acquired the East Indies (modern Indonesia) as a colony, as well as, briefly some in North America (what would be New York and New Jersey), South America and South Africa.

Vienna

Located on the Danube River, Vienna became the capital of Austria, the most important of the Habsburg dynasty's possessions. In 1815 rulers and representatives from all over Europe attended the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the maps of Europe after the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars.

Papal States

Since the Donation of Pepin in 756 the Bishop of Rome, the pope, has controlled territories in central Italy. Later popes, like Boniface VIII, and those of the Renaissance reaffirmed direct rule, acting like temporal, secular princes. These territories were lost to the pope during the Risorgimento, or reunification of Italy in 1871. The Vatican City was restored to temporal papal rule by Mussolini.

Russia

Starting in the late 1400s the dukes of Muscovy (Moscow) threw off the dominion of the Mongols/Tartars. Soon uniting most of the Russians, by 1687 they were also expanding into both Asia, the Caucasus and Europe to create a vast empire. Tsar Peter the Great and Tsar Catherine II the Great are examples of two absolute monarchs who ruled over the Russian Empire.

Prague

Surrounded by the Sudeten mountains Prague became the capital of Bohemia. As part of the Habsburg dominions it became an important cultural center. The 30 Years War started there with the defenestration of the Habsburg emperor's officials. Today it is the capital of the Czech Republic. It is located on the map, but you are not responsible for knowing it.

Sardinia Savoy Piedmont

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 combined the island (to the West of the central Italian Peninsula, just south of Corsica) with Savoy and Piedmont (in the Alps Mountains of northwestern Italy) to serve as a bulwark against possible French expansion. During the Risorgimento 1848-1871 this kingdom expanded to unite all of the Italian Peninsula as the Kingdom of Italy.

Ottoman Empire

The Turkish dynasty of the Ottomans established a Muslim empire in 1291 as they invaded Asia Minor. The next century they invaded mainland Europe, and subjugated much of the Balkans, including the crushing of Serbia at the Battle of the Field of Crows on June 28, 1389. An aggressive modern power for the times, the Ottomans led thier muslim djihad to threaten Vienna with conquest in 1527 and 1680, as well as successfully conquering Palestine and North Africa. After 1700 the empire went into comparative decline, becoming the "Sick Man of Europe" by 1900. In 1829 the Greeks won their independence. In 1878 it lost Serbia, Rumania and Bulgaria.

Black Sea

The body of water to the north of Asia Minor, entered through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. Greek poleis settled along its southern coast in ancient times. Russia and the Ottoman Empire fought over access to it in the Crimean War

England

The country that formed in the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England was first made distinct as the province of Briton in the Roman Empire, with Hadrian's Wall as the province's and the empire's northernmost border. England was created as the last remnants of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fought off the Vikings under Alfred the Great. William of Normandy established a new dynasty there in 1066. After a civil war, in 1154 Henry II established the Plantegenet or Angevin dynasty, named after his possession of the county of Anjou in France. This dynasty lasted the rest of the Middle Ages, until 1485. The English dominated the island of Great Britain, conquering Wales by the late Middle Ages and uniting with Scotland after the death of Elizabeth I. The English also tried to defend territories on the French mainland, leading to King John's failure and the Magna Carta in 1215 (which led to Parliament by 1295). The Hundred Years War between England and France was also over English control of France. After the end of the Tudor dynasty with Elizabeth I, the Stuart kings combined Scotland with England and Wales to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain, which also included Ireland. The English Civil War or Puritan Revolution established parliament as the key constitutional body of government. The British Empire then came to dominate world politics after the Seven Years War. See also Great Britain

Amsterdam

The most important city in the Netherlands, in the early 17th Century it was the economic capital of the world, especially because of the Bourse or stock exchange and national bank established there. It is located near the North Sea, just north of the Rhine River.

Bohemia

The small central European Province nestled between the mountains around its capital city of Prague, was established by the Czech people. The Germans for a long while mixed with the Czech population, after making the region part of the Holy Roman Empire. A conflict about power and religion in 1618 between the Bohemians and the Austrian Habsburg dynasty who ruled the province led to the 30 Years War. The province then belonged to the Austrian Empire.

British Empire

Under the Stuart Kings who united England and Scotland, the British people began to expand into the rest of the world. They established successful colonies in North America, the West Indies and Australia. They took over colonies from the Dutch (New York and New Jersey, South Africa, Singapore), and the French (India and Canada). After the failed Sepoy Mutiny in 1857 the British secured their control of India which would last until 1948.

Atlantic

a body of water of which only a small portion of this ocean appears on the map, covering the western side and stretching around the northwest. On the globe it reaches from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica in the south. It separates the Americas from Europe and Africa. In the pay of Spain, Christopher Columbus crossed this ocean hoping to find an alternate route to the Indies than around Africa (which the Portuguese were doing). He discovered the Americas by mistake. The British came to dominate the ocean by 1763. This helped the USA to enforce the Monroe Doctrine after 1823, keeping European colonialism out of the Americas.

Lake Geneva

a lake in the western Alps at the headwaters of the Rhône River. Do not confuse it with Lake Constance just to the east which flows into the Rhine River.

Aquitaine

a large province of southeastern France, bordering against the Pyrenees Mountains, it became part of the vast possessions of Henry II Plantegent, Angevin King of England, through his marriage to the Duchess Eleanor. King John lost most of the province in a war against Philip Augustus. The issue of the King of England's continuing control of that remnant helped contribute to causing the 100 Years War, at the end of which the English lost almost all possessions in France

Rhine

a major river flowing northward from the Alps to the North Sea. On either side of its mouth are the "Lowlands." Along with the Danube River, it formed an essential part of the northern border of the Roman Empire. The Germans consider it their river, the French often want to see it as their border. The city of Worms, where the Concordat of 1122 was signed and the Diet of 1519 was held, is on the upper Rhine.

Pyrenees

a range of mountains separating the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe. Thus it has formed the border between countries like Muslim Caliphates vs. the Carolingian Empire or Aragon and Spain vs. France. Therein lies the small country of Andorra.

Ionia

along the western edge of Asia minor, along the coastline of the Aegean Sea, this region saw the settlement of many Greek cities. The rebellion of the Greeks here against the Persians sparked the Persian Wars

Aegean

an arm of the Mediterranean important to Greek Civilization. The Aegean holds many islands east of modern Greece, west of Asia Minor, north of the island of Crete.

Adriatic

an arm of the Mediterranean nestled between the Italian and the Balkan Peninsulas, ending where the heel of the former comes within 50 miles of the latter. Venice lies on the north coast of the sea.

Urals

an easternmost range of mountains in Europe, traditionally separating the cultural area of "the West" from the rest of Eurasia. In 1687 the Russians soon crossed the Urals to begin the domination of northern Asia, namely Siberia.

Baltic

an isolated sea squeezed between the north of Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. The passage to the North Sea lays around Denmark. Along its southern coast lay the Prussian people who when conquered by the Teutonic Knights became part of Prussia. From 1648 to 1721 the sea became virtually a "Swedish Lake" as Sweden dominated most of its coastline. Peter the Great's defeat of Sweden and his building of St. Petersburg on one of its arms brought Russian power to the sea.

Greece

at the south of the Balkan Peninsula, Greece is the original home of the Hellenes, or Greek people. Although the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Greeks nowadays are limited to this area, the location of the modern country of Greece. The Greeks achieved a nation-state in 1829 after revolting from the Ottoman Empire

France

bordered by the English Channel on the north, the Atlantic to the west, the Pyrenees Mountains to the southwest, the Mediterranean to the south, and the Alps to the south east. Its western border was a source of warfare between France from its beginnings with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in 843 until the 20th Century. Its provinces of Aquitaine, Champagne, the Isle de France, Normandy, Anjou played important roles in medieval history. The Isle de France was the base of the Capetian dynasty of kings. King Philip II Augustus took over Normandy, Anjou, and most of Aquitaine to create strong French kings. King Philip IV the Fair and his Estates-General continued in this tradition. King Louis XIV became a role model for absolutism, but the French Revolution under his successor Louis XVI breifly established a Republic. Napoleon then turned France into an Empire leading it to dominate Europe from 1800 to 1814. By 1871, after crushing the socialist experiment of the Paris Commune, the French were on their 3rd Republic

Bulgaria

created in 1878 alongside Serbia and Romania out of the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria lies south of the mouth of the Danube River, exanding to border the Black and Aegean Seas by 1913

Switzerland

encompassing most of the northwestern Alps, especially between Lake Geneva and Lake Constance, this small country began in 1291 as the local peasants defied the rule of the Habsburgs. It won its full independence in the 30 Years War. Today its three main languages are French, Italian and German, with a small group speaking Rheto-Romansch, a dialect of ancient Latin. It is also divided between Protestantism and Roman Catholocism, showing that many different kinds of people can live in the same country. Home to the Geneva of John Calvin. Although briefly conquered by the French during their Revolution, since the Renaisance Switzerland has tried to be a neutral country in international affairs.

Egypt

following along the Nile River, for thousands of years a great civilization flourished here. Lower Egypt lays at the broad delta; Upper Egypt streches south into Africa until the Sudan. After 1000 B.C. Egypt came to be dominated by a succession of powers like Assyria and Persia, the Greeks then the Romans, then Arabs and Turks. The British took over Egypt at the end of the 19th century to secure the Suez Canal

Austria

founded during the time of Charlemagne as a march against the east, it lies along the Danube river and through the Alps eastward. As a key territory of the Habsburg dynasty it became the core of their vast empire. The traditional capital has been Vienna. The Habsburgs proclaimed the Austrian Empire in 1804 as the Holy Roman Empire collapsed under Napoleon's assualts. After 1868 it became known as Austria-Hungary

Balkan Peninsula

from the Peloponnesus in the south, the Balkans extend north just past the Danube River, between the Adriatic and Black Seas. Today many different peoples are quarreling about control of the area in countries largely of Slavic ethnicity. The Greeks won a nation state in 1829. In 1878 three new countries were carved out of the Ottoman empire there: Serbia, Rumania and Bulgaria

Sweden

in Scandanavia, bordered by the Baltic Sea to the south and east, Sweden briefly was a major power in early modern times. During the 30 Years War Sweden conquered large parts of Germany. Sweden's decline began as Peter the Great of Russia defeated it and took away many possessions in the early 1700s. Today it is a role model of a socialist/capitalist mixture state.

Prussia

in the 13th century the Teutonic Knights, an order of monk-knights dedicated to crusading, conquered the pagan Prussians living in northeastern Europe on the south coast of the Baltic Sea. The created their own monk ruled principality there, which after the Reformation became a secular state inherited by the Margraves of Brandenburg. The Hohenzollern dynasty then became the rulers of the combined Kingdom of Prussia with Brandenburg. In the 19th century Chancellor Bismarck led Prussia to unify most of Germany by 1871.

Peloponnesus

is the hand-shaped peninsula at the very southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula. It is the home of Sparta. That polis' war with nearby Athens gave its name to the Peloponnesian War.

Assyria

is the home of the Assyrians, who established a militaristic empire over Mesopotamia and Egypt at the beginning of the Iron Age, destroyed in 612 B.C. Originally on the upper Tigris and Eurphrates, those extinct people gave their name to modern Syria

Sicily

it is one of the islands to the west of the Italian Peninsula, just off the tip of "toe" of the "boot." With southern Italy is is part of "Magna Graecia," whre many Greeks lived in ancient times. In the 4th century B.C. the Romans first confronted the Carthaginians here as they fought over the island, thus beginning the Punic Wars. Normans conquered the island from the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century A.D. During the Risorgimento 1848-1871, the adventurer Garibaldi invaded the island and conquered it. He then handed it, along with his other conquests on the peninsula, over to Cavour of Sardinia-Savoy-Piedmont, thus creating a largely united Kingdom of Italy by 1860.

Jerusalem

lies in Palestine just west of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. It was the capital of one of the ancient Hebrew kingdoms. The Roman Empire acquired the region in the first century B.C. There Jesus of Nazereth died by crucifixion. Muslims conquered the area in the eighth century A.D. The city was the target of the Crusades, a military effort by Western Christendom to conquer the Holy Land. They were successful in the First Crusade (1096-1099), but by 1271 were driven out of the region. Today the city is the putative capital of Israel, and is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians and Muslims.

Isle de France

located along the upper Seine, south of Normandy, the province just around the city of Paris, it provided the foundation for the Count of Paris to replace the Carolingian Dynasty with his own, the Capetian, in 987.

Athens

located in Attica, the peninsula jutting to the south east, while the Peloponnesus lies to the west and southwest, Athens is often considered the premier city of ancient Greece. The Acropolis there, with the temple of the Parthenon, is the most famous and artistic of any polis. Athens developed an empire after the Greek victory in the Persian War. Sparta fought Athens in the Peloponnesian War and defeated it. In modern times, shortly after Greek's War of Independence it became Greece's capital in 1834.

Normandy

lying along the southern coast of the English Channel, Normandy was created by a group of Norsemen, or Vikings, who were granted that territory in the ninth century by the French king. They soon gave up their Viking language for French, but remained an energetic and aggressive people. One group of Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily in the mid-twelfth century, while another under Duke William conquered England in 1066. Normandy remained united with England under the Norman Kings and first Angevin kings until John lost it in war with Philip Augustus of France.

Asia Minor

meaning "lesser Asia," it is the peninsula jutting westward off the rest of Asia and the Middle East, south of the Black Sea and east of the Aegean. It and the Middle East could be considered Southwest Asia. The Greeks saw it as the beginning of Asia while the Persians ruled there. The conquest of most of Asia Minor by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century, gravely weakened the Byzantine Empire. Their call for help to Western Christendom led to the crusades. The Ottoman empire dominated the region from the fourteenth century until its collapse in 1918. Today it is the heart of modern Turkey

Genoa

on the northwestern coast of Italy, Genoa was one of the important cities (along with Venice and Pisa near Lombardy) that promoted trade and commerce in the High Middle Ages. The explorer Christobolo Colombo came from that city

Hungary

on the plains of Hungary centered around the middle Danube river, the Magyars established their home base for raids into western Europe. By 1000 they had evolved into a Christian Kingdom. Briefly overrun by the Turks in the 16th century, Hungary was reconquered the Austrian Habsburgs who made it part of their growing empire

Poland

one of the largest states in Europe at the end of the Middle Ages, and was the homeland of Nicolaus Copernicus who helped establish the heliocentric theory. But weakened by an elective monarchy, it was partitioned and taken over by the enlightened despots of Russia, Austria, and Prussia between 1772 and 1795. Napoleon briefly revived it as the Duchy of Warsaw, and the Congress of Vienna gave it some autonomy as the Kingdom of Poland or Congress Poland from 1815-1830. After the failed revolution of 1830, Russia took away any independence in Poland, turning it into one more province of the Russian Empire.

Iberian Peninsula

or Iberia is the proper name to the quadrilateral shaped mass of land to the west of the Pyrenees. Do not just call it "Spain" since that country did not appear until about 1500 and the peninsula today includes countries of Portugal, Gibraltar, Andorra as well as the Basque people.

Macedon

or Macedonia, was a rural hilly country to the north of Greece. Considered uncivilized by the proper Greeks, this kingdom under Philip II nontheless conquered the mainland poleis in 338 B.C. Alexander the Great inherited it from his father Philip II, and from there dominated Greece and then conquered the Persian Empire. After Alexander's death the kingdom tried to continue to dominate Greece, the Balkans, and nearby Asia Minor until it was conquered by Rome. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Macedonia was fought over by many peoples in the Balkan Wars. At the end of the twentieth century it split from Yugoslavia to become its own nation.

Alexanders Empire

stretches from Europe across Asia to India. It includes much of what was in the Persian empire (Asia Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Iran) in addition to mainland Greece and Macedonia. It ended with Alexander's death in 323 B.C., being divided up by his generals into Hellenistic Kingdoms.

Norway

stretching northwards along the Scandnavian peninsula, whose western border is the North Sea and North Atlantic ocean, Norway was one of the major homelands of the Vikings.

Paris

the area known as the île de France, in northern France, but south of Normandy, was center of power for the counts of Paris. Under Philip Augustus the growing city of Paris became the capital for France. The government moved out under Louis XIV, but Paris was restored as capital during the French Revolution.

North Sea

the arm of the Atlantic Ocean bordered by Great Britain on the west, Scandinavia on the east and continental Europe (the Lowlands and Germany) on the south. Do not locate it too far north: north of Great Britain is the Atlantic again. The groups of Germans called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossed this see from Scandinavia to begin conquering the island of Great Britain around A.D. 450. Later, from the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Vikings crossed this sea to raid England and the Holy Roman Empire. In the 19th and 20th Centuries, Britain tried to prevent Germany from using a navy to dominate the North Sea.

Florence

the city in north-central Italy in the late Middle Ages it was an indepent city-state. The Renassance originated there in 1400. Lying to the east of Pisa, it conquered that city in the early 1400s. The city later declined in power and wealth, although it was briefly the capital of a new Italian Kingdom in the 1860s.

Aachen

the city on west side the lower (northern part of the) Rhine River. It was Charlemagne's main residence, built as his capital city. It became a center for the intellectual revival called the Carolingian Renaissance

Arabia

the desert region in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, which extends from the Middle East as part of the larger Arabian Peninsula which streches into the Indian Ocean between the Persian Gulf in the northeast and the Red Sea on the west. Be sure to locate this desert region south of Mesopotamia, away from the fertile area of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and sufficiently east of the Palestinian coastline with the River. The region was of little importance until Mohammed, the Arab native who in A.D.622 founded Islam in Mecca. From there over the next century Arab armies conquered much of the Middle East, north Africa and into Europe in the Iberian Peninsula.

Africa

the large continent south of Europe, across the Mediterranean Sea and west of the Red Sea. Just the northernmost portion is on this map. From the global point of view it looks like a horsehead. One of the fist great Middle Eastern Civilizations, Egypt, was located in Africa. The Phoenician city of Carthage and Alexander's most famous Alexandria are on the continent's Mediterranean coast. The northern part of Africa was the southern part of the Roman Empire. The Portuguese in the 1400s began to invade Africa, first motivated by crusade, but then by the wealth and opportunities for colonial imperialism. The Portuguese rounded the continent on the quest to reach the Indies by sea by the end of the 15th century. Then Africa became a major source of slaves for Spanish, Portuguese and British colonies in the Americas. Between 1884 and 1914 the European Powers divided up most of the continent into colonies for their overseas empires

Gibraltar

the large rock mountain at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula gives its name to the narrow sea passage of the Strait of Gibaltar, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea. It is named after a Muslim conqueror. By the Napoleonic Wars it became a British possession, controlling the entrance to the Mediterranean. The Prudential insurance company uses the mountain as a symbol.

Great Britain

the largest of the British Isles, in the Northeast of Europe. To its east is the North Sea (don't get confused about that), to its south is the English Channel. This island was the Roman Empire's northernmost province (although the Romans did not control the very northern part which later became Scotland). It can be used as the name for the countries united by the Stuart dynasty in 1603, namely England, Scotland and Wales, along with Ireland.

Italian Peninsula

the long "leg and boot" extending from the south of Europe. The Alps form the northern border, the Adriatic lays between it and the Balkans. Also known as Italy, although that name belongs properly to the country created in the late nineteenth century. Located in the Italian Peninsula are the cities of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence, and Rome.

Mediterranean Sea

the long body of water surrounded by Europe to the north and Africa to the south. Its name in Latin means "in the middle of land." It formed the core of the Roman Empire. The Romans even called it "mare nostra," or "our lake."

Danube

the longest river in Europe, it begins in the Alps, then winds its way through Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the Balkans until it empties into the Black Sea. Along with the Rhine River, it formed an essential part of the northern border of the Roman Empire. Vienna, the capital of Austria lies on the river. Johann Strauss wrote the famous waltz "An den schönen blauen Donau" about it, but it is rarely blue today

Lowlands

the low flat country around the mouth of the Rhine River, bordering the English Channel and North Sea. Always an important area, today the nations of Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg lay there. The area was known as Flanders in the Middle Ages, where it became a major economic center of the Middle Ages. Its attempt to be independent helped cause the 100 Years War. The Dutch declared independence against Philip II of Spain in 1581, splitting the region into Catholic and Protestant parts.

Tigris and Euphrates

the major river system of the Middle East, flowing into the Persian Gulf. It is part of the larger "Fertile Crescent" which stretches into southwest into Palestine. The rivers give their name to Mesopotamia, the "Cradle of Civlization."

Red Sea

the narrow arm of the Indian Ocean separating Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Some associate it with the "Sea of Reeds" crossed by the Hebrews during the Exodus. Since the 19th Century, the Suez Canal connects it with the Mediterranean.

English Channel

the narrow sea passage between Great Britain and Europe connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea. Do not focus only on the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the east. Crossed by William the Conqueror to invade England in 1066; passed through by the Spanish Armada in its failed attempt to conquer England in 1588.

Saxony

the province of northern Germany, around the Elbe River, which Charlemagne spent thirty years conquering. It later expanded to the east. The Duke of Saxony in the 1500s supported the reforms of Martin Luther.

Ireland

the second largest of the British Isles, just to the west of Great Britain. Technically the island is called Hibernia. Unconquered by the Romans, since the Middle Ages it was invaded by Vikings then the English, who increasingly dominated the island. By the 17th century they controlled the island and encouraged the settlement of Protestants from Wales and Scotland in the northern region called Ulster. Today two countries, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland share the island.

Bavaria

the significant province in southern Germany, south of the Danube River and north of the Alps

Rome

the small city-state in the center of the Italian Peninsula near its western coast, a few miles inland on the Tiber River. In legend founded by Romulus, in history Rome was the starting point of the large Roman Empire, especially in winning the Punic Wars against Carthage. As the capital city of the Roman Empire for most of its ancient history, the Republican consuls, dictators, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, Diocletian and Constantine ruled there. After the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome, or the pope, soon became the most important leader of the city. As capital of the Papal States, Rome was part of European politics through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and into modern times. The pope's temporaral rule only ended when Italy became a national Kingdom in A.D. 1871, making the city its new capital.

Palestine

the small strip of fertile land along the southern half of the easternmost Mediterranean Coast, especially west of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent linked to Mesopotamia. In ancient times, it became off and on the home of the Hebrew people, until the Diaspora from Hellenistic times until the first century A.D. By then the Romans drove most of the Jews from the region. The muslims conquered the region from the Byzantine Empire in the 8th century. From 1099 to 1291 Christian Crusaders from western Europe established states there, subjugating the local population. The muslims reconquered the region by 1291, soon after becoming part of the Ottoman Empire. With the movement of Zionism in the late 19th Century, many Jews called for Palestine to become a new state of Jewish nationality.

Alps

the tallest mountains in Europe, they stretch from the Mediterranean in a northeastern arc, separating the Italian Peninsula from the rest of Europe. The French, Swiss, Germans, Austrians, Italians and Slovenes (Yugoslavs) all claim parts of them. The Alps are the main route to invade Italy. Hannibal crossed them in the 3rd century B.C. In 1077 King Henry IV of Germany crossed the Alps in order to beg Pope Gregory VII's forgiveness at Canossa. French armies invaded Italy in 1494. The Kingdom of Sardinia-Savoy-Piedmont expanded out of the Alps to unite the Italian Peninsula in 1871

Italy

through the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times Italy was a geographical location not a country. It is the same as the long Italian Peninsula stretching south from the Alps. During the Middle Ages the Franks dominated Lombardy in the north, later becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Papal States were established in the center. During the Renaissance the most important city-states, who created the cultural revival of the Reniassance, were Florence, Venice, Milan, the Papal States and Naples. The Kingdom of Sardinia-Savoy-Piedmont united the whole peninula into a kingdom in 1871.

Lorraine

usually combined with Alsace, Lorraine lies along the west bank of the upper Rhine river. Of a mixed French and German population, France and Germany have fought over it since its creation during the wars over the collapsing Carolingian Empire. It is named after Lothar, the one-time king of the territories stretching from the Lowlands through the Rhineland and the Alps into norhern Italy.

Serbia

was a powerful medieval kingdomof Slavs before being conquered by the Turks in the 14th century. It won independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878 along with Rumania and Bulgaria, it was the center of Yugoslavism. It lay nestled in the crook of the Danube River in the Balkan Peninsula.

Alexandria

was only one of the many cities founded by Alexander the Great, although perhaps the most important. On a key location on the Mediterranean and the Nile Delta, it soon became the leading city in Egypt. As a Hellenistic city it was planned with square blocks, many public buildings, and a cosmopolitan population.

London

was the most important city in England, becoming its capital by the late Middle Ages. By the 18th century, as capital of the British Empire, London became the most important city in the world, especially for finances, until the twentieth century.

Bosphorus

with the Dardanelles just to the southwest, they form the very narrow sea passages between the Black Sea and the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Jointly they are a traditional boundary between "Europe" and "Asia." The Greek city of Byzantium lay there on the European side. Constantine rebuilt the city as his capital for the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople. In 1453 the city, capital of the "Byzantine" Empire, fell to the Ottoman Turks. They made the city the capital of their new empire, renaming it Istanbul.