Exam 3 Study

Mechanistic model

"synonymous with Bureaucracy" A structure characterized by: Extensive departmentalization. High formalization. Limited information network (Clear chain of command). Centralization. High Specialization. Narrow spans of control

Contingency theories

(A leader + a situation): Fiedler model, situational leadership theory, leader participation model, leader-member exchange theory, path-goal theory

Lewin's Three-step model

1. Unfreezing the Status Quo: Changing to overcome the pressures of both individual and group resistance; Restraining Forces (push downwards towards eq.): Forces that hinder movement from the equilibrium (DOWN). Driving Forces (push upwards towards eq.): Forces that direct behavior away from the Status Quo (UP). 2. Movement to a desired end state: A change process that transforms the organization from the status quo to the desire state. 3. Refreezing the new change to make it permanent: Stabilizing a change by balancing driving and restraining forces. Change is short-lived if not refrozen

Action research

A change process based on systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicates. Benefits: Problem-focused rather than solution centered. Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance. 5 process Steps: 1. Diagnosis 2. Analysis 3. Feedback 4. Action 5. Evaluation

Organizational Development (OD)

A collection of planned-change interventions, built on humanistic-democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well being. Values: 1. Respect for people 2. Trust and support 3. Power equalization 4. Confrontation 5. Participation

Situational leadership theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on follower's readiness. Follower Readiness: ability & willingness (both must be in place) Leader: decreasing need for support and supervision if ability and willingness are in place for follower readiness If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task the leader needs to give clear and specific directions. Unable and willing requires high task orientation and high relationship orientation (Directive). Able and unwilling requires supportive. Able and willing the leader should just use participative style

strong culture

A culture in which the organization's core values are intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on member behavior. A strong culture should more directly affect organizational outcomes because it demonstrates high agreement about what the organization represents. Such unanimity of purpose builds cohesiveness, loyalty, meaning, and organizational commitment.

servant leadership

A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. Characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential.

Graphic Rating Scales

A method in which the evaluator rates the performance factors on an incremental scale.

Job characteristics model (JCM)

A model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback

Job satisfaction

A positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. It depends in part on perceived fairness.

Coercive power

A power base that depends on the target's fear of negative results from failing to comply. On the physical level, coercive power rests on the application, or the threat of application, of bodily distress through the infliction of pain, the restriction of movement, or the withholding of basic physiological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B values her job. If A can assign B work activities B finds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. Coercive power comes also from withholding key information. People in an organization who have data or knowledge that others need can make others dependent on them. When subordinates are being abused by supervisors, coercive power is the main force that keeps them from retaliating.

Socialization or onboarding methods

A process that adapts employees to the organization's culture. We can think of socialization as a process with three stages: pre-arrival, encounter, and metamorphosis. This process has an impact on the new employee's work productivity, commitment to the organization's objectives, and decision to stay with the organization. The three-part entry socialization process is complete when new members have internalized and accepted the norms of the organization and their work groups, are confident in their competence, and feel trusted and valued by their peers. They understand the system—not only their own tasks but the rules, procedures, and informally accepted practices as well. Finally, they know what is expected of them and what criteria will be used to measure and evaluate their work.

Virtual Organization

A small, core organization that outsources major business functions; highly centralized, little or no departmentalization; Concepts: Provides maximum flexibility while concentrating on what the organization does best. Disadvantage is reduced control over key activities and assets of the business.

Innovation strategy

A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services (Structure: Organic [loose structure, low specialization, low formalization, decentralized])

Cost-minimization Strategy

A strategy that emphasizes tight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or marketing expense, and price cutting (Structure: Mechanistic [Tight control, extensive work specialization, high formalization, high centralization])

Imitation Strategy

A strategy that seeks to move into new products or new markets only after their viability has been proven (Structure: Both, mix of loose and tight properties.)

Simple structure

A structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization

Matrix structure

A structure that creates dual lines of authority and combines functional and product departmentalization. Gains advantages of functional and product departmentalization while avoiding their weaknesses. Facilitates coordination of complex and interdependent activities. Breaks down unity-of-command concept, functional and departmental managers: "Who do I report to?"

organizational culture

A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. This system of shared meaning includes values, beliefs, and assumptions that characterize the organization.

Two-factor theory

A theory by Frederick Herzberg that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associate extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Elements that reduce dissatisfaction can only just do that - reduce dissatisfaction, but not contribute to job satisfaction; Also, called motivation- hygiene theory

Equity theory

A theory that says that individuals compare their job outcomes and inputs with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Individuals take the ratio of their outcomes over their inputs and compare their ratio to others (usually someone similar). If we believe our ratio to be equal to those with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity exists (fairness)

Expectancy theory

A theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. In which, as each need is substantially satisfied the next need becomes dominant. Physiological, safety, social are lower order needs. Esteem and self-actualization are higher order needs. As each need is substantially satisfied the next need becomes dominant; a lower level need must be satisfied before the next level higher can be motivating.

Group-order Ranking

An evaluation method that places employees into a particular classification, such as quartiles.

Individual Ranking

An evaluation method that rank-orders employees from best to worst.

Zero-sum approach

An approach that treats the reward "pie" as fixed so that any gains by one individual are at the expense of another. Such a practice encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do. The more an organizational culture emphasizes the zero-sum or win-lose approach to reward allocations, the more employees will be motivated to engage in politicking.

Attribution theory

An attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally (individual's fault) or externally (due to situation) caused. Determination depends on 3 factors: Distinctiveness: does the person show different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: Is the person's response the same as others to the same situation. Consistency: Is the person likely to respond in the same way over time.

An individual's investment in the organization and perceived alternatives influence the degree to which he or she will pursue illegitimate means of political action. The more a person expects increased future benefits from the organization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he or she is to use illegitimate means. Conversely, the more alternate job opportunities an individual has—due to a favorable job market, possession of scarce skills or knowledge, prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization—the more likely the person is to employ politics. An individual with low expectations of success from political means is unlikely to use them. High expectations from such measures are most likely to be the province of both experienced and powerful individuals with polished political skills, and inexperienced and naïve employees who misjudge their chances.

An individual's investment in the organization and perceived alternatives influence the degree to which he or she will pursue illegitimate means of political action. The more a person expects increased future benefits from the organization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he or she is to use illegitimate means. Conversely, the more alternate job opportunities an individual has—due to a favorable job market, possession of scarce skills or knowledge, prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization—the more likely the person is to employ politics. An individual with low expectations of success from political means is unlikely to use them. High expectations from such measures are most likely to be the province of both experienced and powerful individuals with polished political skills, and inexperienced and naïve employees who misjudge their chances.

What influences the creation of a culture?

An organization's customs, traditions, and general way of doing things are largely due to what it has done before and how successful it was in doing it. This leads us to the ultimate source of an organization's culture: the founders. Founders have a vision of what the organization should be, and the firm's initial small size makes it easy to impose that vision on all members. Culture creation occurs in three ways. First, founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do. Second, they indoctrinate and socialize employees to their way of thinking and feeling. And finally, the founder's own behavior encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions. When the organization succeeds, the founders' personalities become embedded in the culture.

Interviews

Are the most frequently used selection tool. Should be structured to ensure against distortion due to interviewers' biases. Are best for assessing conscientiousness, interpersonal skills, and person-organization fit of the applicant.

Personal appeals

Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Issue Selling

Attempts to influence high-level managers to pay attention to particular issues - "managing up"

Five-stage group-development model

Forming - The first stage in-group development, characterized by much uncertainty. Storming- the second stage in-group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. Norming stage - the third stage in-group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. Performing Stage - The fourth stage in-group development, during which the group is functional. Adjourning stage - the final stage in-group development temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.

Resistance to change

Forms of Resistance to Change: Overt and Immediate. Voicing complaints, engaging in job actions (easy to see). Implicit and Deferred. Loss of employee loyalty and motivation, increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism (harder to catch early on)

Training and development programs

Basic Literacy. Technical Skills. Interpersonal Skills. Problem Solving

The tactical choices of issue selling

bundling, framing, language, involvement, approach, timing

Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely objective and thus open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to support their goals and interests. That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. One person's "selfless effort to benefit the organization" is seen by another as a "blatant attempt to further his or her interest."

Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely objective and thus open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to support their goals and interests. That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. One person's "selfless effort to benefit the organization" is seen by another as a "blatant attempt to further his or her interest."

Defensive behavior avoiding blame

Bluffing: Rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness, known as "covering your rear." Playing safe: Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts. Justifying: Developing explanations that lessen one's responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both. Scapegoating: Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. Misrepresenting: Manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.

Reward power

Compliance achieved because it produces positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable has power over them. These rewards can be financial - such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses - or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.

Bureaucracy

Characterized by: high Specialization, high formalization, centralized authority, decision-making follows chain of command, usually departmentalization by function, narrow spans of control. A way of trying to take politics out of an organization.

IM Techniques

Conformity: Agreeing with someone else's opinion to gain his or her approval is a form of ingratiation. Favors: Doing something nice for someone to gain that person's approval is a form of ingratiation. Excuses: Explaining a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament is a defensive IM technique. Apologies: Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action is a defensive IM technique. Self-promotion: Highlighting your best qualities, downplaying your deficits, and calling attention to your achievements is a self-focused IM technique. Enhancement: Claiming that something you did is more valuable than most other members of the organizations would think is a self-focused IM technique. Flattery: Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make yourself appear perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM technique. Exemplification: Doing more than you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hard working you are is an assertive IM technique.

Bundling

Connecting the issue to another issue vs. selling the issue as an isolated concern

The functions of culture

Culture defines "the rules of the game". First, it has a boundary-defining role: it creates distinctions between organizations. Second, it conveys a sense of identity for organization members. Third, culture facilitates commitment to something larger than individual self-interest. Fourth, it enhances the stability of the social system. Culture is the social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing standards for what employees should say and do. Finally, it is a sense-making and control mechanism that guides and shapes employees attitudes and behavior.

How employees learn culture

Culture is transmitted to employees in several forms, the most potent being stories, rituals, material symbols, and language.

Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum (win-lose) reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers will also create breeding grounds for politicking. Because political activities are not required as part of the employee's formal role, the greater the role ambiguity, the more employees can engage in unnoticed political activity. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed employee behaviors are not clear; therefore, there are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee's political actions.

Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum (win-lose) reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers will also create breeding grounds for politicking. Because political activities are not required as part of the employee's formal role, the greater the role ambiguity, the more employees can engage in unnoticed political activity. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed employee behaviors are not clear; therefore, there are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee's political actions.

Involvement

Go solo vs. involve others as co-sellers

Individual Factors

Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of social conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Because they believe they can control their environment, individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. Not surprisingly, the Machiavellian personality trait—characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire for power—is consistent with using politics as a means to further personal interests.

Motivational theories

Hierarchy of Needs, two-factor theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory

Language

Flexible or specific to one audience

When Providing Performance Feedback

Focus on specific behaviors. Keep feedback impersonal. Keep feedback goal-oriented. Make feedback well-timed. Ensure understanding. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that the recipient can control

Charismatic leadership

Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain (charismatic) behaviors.

What creates dependence?

Dependence increases when the resource you control is important, scarce, and non-substitutable.

Dependency as the key to power

Dependency and what creates it: B's relationship to A when person A has something Person B needs. General Dependency Postulate: The greater number of B's dependent on A, the greater power A has over B Dependency is created by: Importance of the resource to the organization, Scarcity of the resource, Non-substitutability of the resource

Work Specialization

Describes the degree to which activities in the organization are divided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is to divide a job into several steps, each completed by a separate individual. Individuals specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entirety. Specialization is a means of making the most efficient use of employees' skills and even successfully improving them through repetition. Less time is spent changing tasks, putting away tools and equipment from a prior step, and getting ready for another.

Inspirational appeals

Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

Timing

Early vs. late

The effect of job satisfaction on: employee performance, organizational citizenship behavior, customer service, absenteeism, turnover

Effect of job satisfaction: Employee performance: happy workers are more likely to be productive workers; organizations with more happy employees seem to be more effective than those with less. Organizational citizenship behavior: fairness plays a part in the fact that when people are satisfied, they are more likely to participate in OCB; research shows that when people are in a good mood they are more likely to participate in OCB. Customer service: satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Absenteeism: low satisfaction leads to high absenteeism in a moderate to weak relationship; but other factors like liberal sick leave benefits can contribute to absenteeism. Turnover: relationship is stronger than with absenteeism; lower satisfaction is a predictor of intent to leave

Advantages of empowering/involving employees

Employees are more engaged in their work, enhanced employee performance, lower employee turnover, positive employee attitudes: job satisfaction, trust, organizational commitment

Approach

Formal, public appeal vs. informal, private appeal

Coalitions

Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Forced Comparisons

Evaluating one individual's performance relative to the performance of another individual or others. Group-order Ranking. Individual Ranking

Individual differences that influence the relationship between potential and experienced stress

Higher stress for individualistic countries over collectivistic countries 1. Perception: people respond based on their perception of reality, not reality itself, it is all about interpretation 2. Job Experience: How long you have worked will influence your ability to cope with stress 3. Social Support: Having people there for you can definitely lower the levels of stress and negativity experienced 4. Personality: Hostility and Workaholism are related to stress levels

Organizational Structure

How job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated.

Strong vs. weak cultures

If most employees have the same opinions about the organization's mission and values, the culture is strong; if opinions vary widely, the culture is weak.

Importance

If nobody wants what you have, it's not going to create dependence. Note, however, that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience.

Example of dependence

If you want a college degree and have to pass a certain course to get it, and your current instructor is the only faculty member in the college who teaches that course, she has power over you because your alternatives are highly limited and you place a high degree of importance on the outcome.

Individual approaches to managing stress

Implementing time management. ABC Method of Time Management: Organizing day's activities according to their priority, then analyze completion success. Another priority-based self-management system: O-PATSM: A Self-Management System: values checklist, 6-month personal objectives, setting priorities and checking up weekly on values-action gap. Increasing Physical Exercise. Relaxation training. Expanding social support network. Create balance in the different aspects of your life

Dependency is created by

Importance of the resource to the organization. Scarcity of the resource. Non-substitutability of the resource

Organizational approaches to managing stress

Improved personnel selection and job placement. Training. Use of realistic goal setting. Redesigning of jobs. Increased employee involvement. Improved organizational communication. Offering employee sabbaticals. Establishment of corporate wellness programs

In general, you're more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. A single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics.

In general, you're more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. A single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics.

Performance Evaluations and IM

In terms of performance evaluations, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance ratings, meaning those who ingratiate themselves with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. However, self-promotion appears to backfire: Those who self-promote actually may receive lower performance ratings. There is an important qualifier to these general findings. It appears that individuals high in political skill are able to translate IM into higher performance appraisals, whereas those lower in political skill are more likely to be hurt by their IM attempts.Another study of 760 boards of directors found that individuals who ingratiated themselves with current board members (e.g., expressed agreement with the director, pointed out shared attitudes and opinions, complimented the director) increased their chances of landing on a board. Interns who attempted to use ingratiation with their supervisors in one study were usually disliked—unless they had high levels of political skill. For those who had this ability, ingratiation led to higher levels of liking from supervisors and higher performance ratings.

Consultation

Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to accomplish your plan.

Expert Power

Influence based on expertise, special skills, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become dependent on experts to achieve goals.

Referent Power

Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. Example: why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials.

Environment

Institutions or forces outside an organization that potentially affect the organization's performance. (Dynamic environments [Organic Model] create more uncertainty than static environments [Mechanistic Model])

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX)

Leaders create in-groups and out-groups and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater satisfaction with their superior. The following contribute to subordinates gaining "in-group" status: Personal Compatibility Subordinate Competence Extroverted Personality

Challenges to the Leadership Construct aka: Why Leadership is not easy (Difficult)

Leadership is driven largely by perceptions Immersion in a situation makes it difficult to gain perspective Stubborn reliance on what has worked before Focus on technical aspects at the exclusion of human aspects of job is easy

What are the 9 power tactics?

Legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure, coalitions

Approaches to Managing Organizational Change

Lewin's three-step model, Kotter's 8 step plan for implementing change, action research, organizational development

Language

Many organizations and subunits within them use language to help members identify with the culture, attest to their acceptance of it, and help preserve it. Unique terms describe equipment, officers, key individuals, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to the business. New employees may be overwhelmed at first by acronyms and jargon that, once assimilated, act as a common denominator to unite members of a given culture or subculture.

Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the "facts" used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation. When allocating pay based on performance, for instance, what is good performance? What's an adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? It is in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life—where the facts don't speak for themselves—that politics flourish.

Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the "facts" used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation. When allocating pay based on performance, for instance, what is good performance? What's an adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? It is in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life—where the facts don't speak for themselves—that politics flourish.

Subcultures

Mini-cultures within an organization, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation. Tend to develop in large organizations in response to common problems or experiences that a group of members face in the same department or location.

Bureaucracy Strengths

Minimum duplication of equipment and personnel. Enhanced communication. Centralized decision making. Standardization

What is a powerful variable for dependence?

Money

Forces for Change

Nature of the Workforce. Technology. Economic Shocks. Competition. Social Trends. World Politics

Boundary spanning

Occurs when individuals form relationships with people outside their formally assigned groups. Boundary-spanning activities occur not only within but also between organizations. Positive results are especially strong in organizations that encourage extensive internal communication; in other words, external boundary spanning is most effective when it is followed up with internal boundary spanning.

What reinforces and sustains a culture once it is in place?

Once a culture is in place, practices within the organization maintain it by giving employee's a set of similar experiences. The selection process, performance evaluation criteria, training and development activities, and promotion procedures ensure those hired fit in with the culture, reward those employees who support it, and penalize (or even expel) those who challenge it. Three forces play an important part in sustaining a culture: selection or hiring practices, actions of top management, and socialization or onboarding methods (e.g., teaching and including new employees).

One study found that when managers attributed an employee's citizenship behaviors to impression management, they actually felt angry (probably because they felt manipulated) and gave subordinates lower performance ratings. When managers attributed the same behaviors to prosocial values and concern about the organization, they felt happy and gave higher performance ratings. In sum, people don't like to feel others are manipulating them through impression management, so such tactics should be employed with caution. Not all impression management consists of talking yourself up, either. Recent research suggests modesty, in the form of generously providing credit to others and understating your own contributions to success, may create a more positive impression on others.

One study found that when managers attributed an employee's citizenship behaviors to impression management, they actually felt angry (probably because they felt manipulated) and gave subordinates lower performance ratings. When managers attributed the same behaviors to prosocial values and concern about the organization, they felt happy and gave higher performance ratings. In sum, people don't like to feel others are manipulating them through impression management, so such tactics should be employed with caution. Not all impression management consists of talking yourself up, either. Recent research suggests modesty, in the form of generously providing credit to others and understating your own contributions to success, may create a more positive impression on others.

How do people respond to organizational politics?

Organizational politics may threaten employees: decreased job satisfaction increased anxiety and stress increased turnover reduced performance

Organizations have individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as budgets, work space, and salary and bonus pools. If resources were abundant, all constituencies within an organization could satisfy their goals. But because they are limited, not everyone's interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organization (whether they are or not). These forces create competition among members for the organization's limited resources.

Organizations have individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over the allocation of limited resources, such as budgets, work space, and salary and bonus pools. If resources were abundant, all constituencies within an organization could satisfy their goals. But because they are limited, not everyone's interests can be satisfied. Furthermore, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as coming at the expense of others within the organization (whether they are or not). These forces create competition among members for the organization's limited resources.

Size

Organizations that have more than 2,000 employees generally are more specialized, and more departmentalization (More people=more mechanistic)

Departmentalization

The basis by which jobs are grouped together; grouping activities by: function, product, geography, process, customer

Defensive behaviors avoiding action

Over-conforming: Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like "The rules clearly state..."or "This is the way we've always done it." Buck Passing: Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else. Playing dumb: Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability. Stretching: Prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a 4-month job. Stalling: Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.

Perception

Perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Behaviors are based on perceptions of reality, not reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

Change agents

Persons who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change activities.

Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership. Male employees are more responsive to ethical leadership and show the most citizenship behavior when levels of both politics and ethical leadership were high. Women, on the other hand, appear most likely to engage in citizenship behavior when the environment was consistently ethical and apolitical.

Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership. Male employees are more responsive to ethical leadership and show the most citizenship behavior when levels of both politics and ethical leadership were high. Women, on the other hand, appear most likely to engage in citizenship behavior when the environment was consistently ethical and apolitical.

Rational persuasion

Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.

defensive behavior avoiding change

Prevention: Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring. Self-protection: Acting in ways to protect one's self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.

SAS video: What are the pros and cons of doing so much "living" on the job?

Pros: Proximity of services. Family support system. Less transportation time/costs. Stress Reduction tools for free/low cost. Cons: Dependence on company. Disagreements between employees

Performance evaluation

Purposes: Making general human resource decisions. Promotions, transfers, and terminations of employees. Identifying training and development needs within an organization. Validating selection and development programs effectiveness. Providing feedback to employees. Supplying the basis for rewards allocation decisions (bonuses). People often do what is rewarded, while not doing what is not rewarded.

Preferred Power Tactics by upward influence

Rational Persuasion

Preferred Power Tactics by lateral influence

Rational Persuasion Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Personal appeals Coalitions

Preferred Power Tactics by downward influence

Rational Persuasion Inspirational appeals Pressure Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy

Legitimacy

Relying on your authority position or saying that a request is in accordance with organizational policies or rules.

Written tests

Renewed employer interest in using written tests for selection. Tests must show validated connection to job-related performance requirements.

Rituals

Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization - what goals are most important, and/or which people are important versus which are expendable.

Exchange

Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for acceding to a request.

Managerial actions taken to create a customer-responsive culture

Select new employees with personality and attitudes consistent with high service orientation. Train and socialize current employees to be more customer focused. Change organizational structure to give employees more control. Empower employees to make decisions about their jobs. Lead by conveying a customer-focused vision and demonstrating commitment to customers. Conduct performance appraisals based on customer-focused employee behaviors. Provide ongoing recognition for employees who make special efforts to please customers.

Challenges of empowering/involving employees

Sending your employees mixed messages if other areas of your company are not consistent with employee involvement. Requires extensive training. When moving to high involvement, employees may fall into traditional low involvement roles. Can be disruptive when employees leave the company. Employees need more experience/tenure to reach maximum performance. Requires leaders to relinquish control (need to trust those you are empowering)

What are the effects of servant leadership?

Servant leaders tend to create a culture of service, which in turn improves the firm's performance and enhances employee attitudes and performance by increasing employees' identification with the restaurant. Second, there is a relationship between servant leadership and follower OCB that appears to be stronger when followers are encouraged to focus on being dutiful and responsible. Third, servant leadership increases team potency (a belief that your team has above-average skills and abilities), which in turn leads to higher levels of team performance. Fourth, higher levels of servant leadership are associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn is associated with higher levels of creative performance.

Organic model

Similar to a Boundary-less organization; A structure characterized by: Using cross-hierarchical and cross-functional teams. Flat (Decentralization). Wide spans of control. Low formalization. Possesses comprehensive information network (free flow of information). Relies on participative decision making.

Power

The capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. Therefore, someone can have power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential. The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence.

Using Power Tactics

Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. The pressure tactic tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine. You can increase your chance of success by using two or more tactics together or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible.

Kotter's 8 step plan for implementing change

Steps 1-4 relate to Unfreezing, 5-7 relate to Movement, and 8 relates to Refreezing: 1. Establish Sense of Urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed. 2. Create a guiding Coalition with enough power to lead the change. 3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision. 4. Communicate a the vision throughout the organization 5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk-taking. 6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term "wins" that move the organization toward the new vision. 7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments to new programs. 8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success.

Stories

Stories such as these circulate through many organizations, anchoring the present in the past and legitimizing current practices. They typically include narratives about the organization's founders, rule breaking, rags-to-riches successes, workforce reductions, relocations of employees, reactions to past mistakes, and organizational coping. Employees also create their own narratives about how they came either to fit or not to fit with the organization during the process of socialization, including first days on the job, early interactions with others, and first impressions of organizational life.

Challenge Stressors

Stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and urgency.

Hindrance stressors

Stressors that keep you from reaching your goals. Like Red Tape, Office politics, confusion over job responsibilities. Shown to be more influential on people.

Bureaucracy Weaknesses

Subunit disagreements/inefficiencies. "Red Tape" - Too many steps/hoops to get end result. Obsessive concern with following the rules

Bases of Power

The Bases of Power can be divided into two general groupings: formal and personal.

General Dependency Postulate

The Greater number of B's dependent on A, the greater power A has over B

Political skill

The ability to influence others so that one's objectives are attained

Actions of top management

The actions of top management have a major impact on the organization's culture. Through words and behavior, senior executives establish norms that filter through the organization about, for instance, whether risk taking is desirable; how much freedom managers give employees; appropriate dress; and what actions earn pay raises, promotions, and other rewards.

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)

The appraiser rates employees based on items along a continuum, but the points are examples of actual behavior on the job rather than general descriptions or traits.

Job involvement

The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth.

Organizational commitment

The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Centralization

The degree to which decision-making is concentrated at a single point in the organization.

Decentralization

The degree to which decision-making is spread out to all levels of an organization.

Adaptability

The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and flexible as well as to take risks and experiment.

Detail Orientation

The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail

Formalization

The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized.

People/customer orientation

The degree to which management decisions consider the effect of outcomes on people within and outside the organization

Results/outcome orientation

The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve them

Integrity

The degree to which people exhibit integrity and high ethical standards in their work

Collaboration/team orientation

The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals

Interviews and IM

The evidence indicates that most job applicants use IM techniques in interviews and that it works. Interviewers are rarely able to detect when an individual is engaging in impression management, especially when applicants are using deception to engage in impression management. To develop a sense of how effective different IM techniques are in interviews, one study grouped data from thousands of recruiting and selection interviews into appearance-oriented efforts (like looking professional), explicit tactics (like flattering the interviewer or talking up your own accomplishments), and verbal cues (like using positive terms and showing general enthusiasm). Across all the dimensions, it was quite clear that IM was a powerful predictor of how well people did. However, there was a twist. When interviews were highly structured, meaning the interviewer's questions were written out in advance and focused on applicant qualifications, the effects of IM were substantially weaker. Manipulative behaviors like IM are more likely to have an effect in ambiguous and unstructured interviews. In addition, the effectiveness of impression management depends on the applicants' ability to correctly identify what traits or skills the interviewer is looking for.

Organizational Factors

The evidence more strongly suggests that certain situations and cultures promote politics. Specifically, when an organization's resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politicking is more likely to surface. When resources are reduced, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Also, any changes, especially those implying significant reallocation of resources within the organization, are likely to stimulate conflict and increase politicking.

Selection or hiring practices

The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully. The final decision, because it is significantly influenced by the decision maker's judgment of how well candidates will fit into the organization, identifies people whose values are consistent with at least a good portion of the organization's. The selection process also provides information to applicants. Those who perceive a conflict between their values and those of the organization can remove themselves from the applicant pool. Selection thus becomes a two-way street, allowing employer and applicant to avoid a mismatch and to sustain an organization's culture by removing those who might attack or undermine its core values, for better or worse.

Non-substitutability

The fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power a person controlling that resource has.

Dependence

The greater B's dependence on A, the greater A's power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Why don't more companies adopt the approach taken by SAS?

The initial cost, uncertain outcome/response, hit to earnings, and conservative management are some of the reasons

span of control

The number of subordinates a manager can effectively and efficiently direct. Concept - wider spans of management increase organizational efficiency

People won't make the choice to sell issues in organizations when...

The organization's culture is a conflict-avoiding culture. Politics are complex. People are afraid to damage their reputations.

Which bases of power are most effective?

The personal (expert, referent) sources of power are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power (sources of formal power) seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. One source of formal power - coercive power - can be damaging.

The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual's understanding of the hows and whys of organizational politics. When both politics and understanding are high, performance is likely to increase because these individuals see political activity as an opportunity. This is consistent with what you might expect for individuals with well-honed political skills. But when understanding is low, individuals are more likely to see politics as a threat, which can have a negative effect on job performance.

The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual's understanding of the hows and whys of organizational politics. When both politics and understanding are high, performance is likely to increase because these individuals see political activity as an opportunity. This is consistent with what you might expect for individuals with well-honed political skills. But when understanding is low, individuals are more likely to see politics as a threat, which can have a negative effect on job performance.

Legitimate power

The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. Specifically, it includes members' acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical position. We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an organization chart leads people to infer the leaders are especially powerful. Example: when school principals speak, teachers usually comply.

Impression Management (IM)

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions that others form of them. High self-monitors engage in IM. Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. In contrast, high self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation.

Metamorphosis stage of socialization

The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the job, work group, and organization. The more management relies on formal, collective, fixed, and serial socialization programs while emphasizing divestiture, the more likely newcomers' differences will be stripped away and replaced by standardized predictable behaviors. These institutional practices are common in police departments, fire departments, and other organizations that value rule following and order. Programs that are informal, individual, variable, and random while emphasizing investiture are more likely to give newcomers an innovative sense of their roles and methods of working. Creative fields such as research and development, advertising, and filmmaking rely on these individual practices. Most research suggests that high levels of institutional practices encourage person-organization fit and high levels of commitment, whereas individual practices produce more role innovation.

Encounter stage of socialization

The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee sees what the organization is really like and confronts the possibility that expectations - about the job, coworkers, boss, and organization in general - and reality may diverge. If expectations were accurate, this stage merely cements earlier perceptions. However, this is not often the case. At the extreme, a new member may become disillusioned enough to resign. Proper recruitment, selection, and socialization (e.g., giving a realistic preview of the job) should significantly reduce this outcome, along with encouraging friendship ties in the organization—newcomers are more committed when friendly coworkers help them "learn the ropes."

Self-serving bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behaviors of others.

Fiedler model

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader. Least Preferred Coworker Questionnaire - measures whether a person is task or relationship oriented. The 2 leader styles that are looked at as fixed: Task oriented or Relationship oriented. 3 situational Variables: Leader member relations: degree of trust and confidence subordinates have in leader Task structure: degree to which job assignments are processed and thought out Position power: influence to tell to stay late, fire, hire, discipline etc. Task oriented leaders do better in situations that are very favorable/unfavorable. Relationship oriented leaders do better in moderate situations

Chain of command

The unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of an organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom.

Technology

The way in which an organization transfers its inputs into outputs (every company has at least one technology they use). Routine technologies are associated with tall, departmentalized structures and formalization in organizations. Non-routine technologies are associated with delegated decision authority.

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

There are a number of factors that encourage political behavior. Some are individual characteristics, derived from the qualities of the people employed by the organization; others are a result of the organization's culture or internal environment. Both individual and organizational factors can increase political behavior and provide favorable outcomes (increased rewards and averted punishments) for individuals and groups in the organization.

There are also political forces at work in the relationships between organizations, where politics work differently depending on the organizational cultures. When two organizations with very political environments interact with one another, the political interactions between them hurt performance in collaborative projects. On the other hand, when companies with less internal political behavior interact with one another, even political disputes between them do not lead to lower performance in collaborative projects. Companies should be wary of forming alliances with companies that have high levels of internal political behavior.

There are also political forces at work in the relationships between organizations, where politics work differently depending on the organizational cultures. When two organizations with very political environments interact with one another, the political interactions between them hurt performance in collaborative projects. On the other hand, when companies with less internal political behavior interact with one another, even political disputes between them do not lead to lower performance in collaborative projects. Companies should be wary of forming alliances with companies that have high levels of internal political behavior.

People make the choice to sell issues in organizations when...

They perceive that management will listen and be supportive. The organization is changing.

To answer the question of whether it is possible for an organization to be politics-free, we can say yes—if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn't describe the organizational world in which most of us live.

To answer the question of whether it is possible for an organization to be politics-free, we can say yes—if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn't describe the organizational world in which most of us live.

True or False: If organizations were composed only of subcultures, the dominant organizational culture would be significantly less powerful. It is the "shared meaning" aspect of culture that makes it a potent device for guiding and shaping behavior.

True

True or False: Most large organizations have a dominant culture and numerous subcultures.

True. Sometimes the subcultures can be so strong, however, that they subtly reject the "official" culture and do not conform.

True or False: A strong culture supported by formal rules and regulations (i.e., an organizational infrastructure) ensures that employees will act in a relatively uniform and predictable way.

True. Today's trend toward decentralized organizations makes culture more important than ever, but ironically it also makes establishing a strong culture more difficult. When formal authority and control systems are reduced through decentralization, culture's shared meaning can point everyone in the same direction. However, employees organized in teams may show greater allegiance to their team and its values than to the organization. Strong leadership that fosters a strong culture by communicating frequently about common goals and priorities may be especially important for organizations.

Framing

Using a business vs. moral frame

Ingratiation

Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.

Pressure

Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

Charismatic Leadership key characteristics

Vision and articulation. Personal risk. Sensitivity to follower needs. Unconventional behavior

Power Tactics

Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

Scarcity

We see the scarcity-dependence relationship in the power situation of employment. Where the supply of labor is low relative to demand, workers can negotiate compensation and benefits packages far more attractive than those in occupations with an abundance of candidates.

Symbols

What conveys to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate, such as risk taking, and conservative, authoritarian, participative, individualistic, or social behavior. Ex: the layout of corporate headquarters, the types of automobiles top executives are given, and the presence or absence of corporate aircraft. Others include the size of offices, the elegance of furnishings, perks, and attire.

Whenever people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People in organizations want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers. If they convert their power into action, we describe them as being engaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively. Politics are not only inevitable; they might be essential, too.

Whenever people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People in organizations want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers. If they convert their power into action, we describe them as being engaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively. Politics are not only inevitable; they might be essential, too.

performance simulation tests

Work sample tests. Assessment centers

Types of teams

Work team: A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. Problem solving team: Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. Self-managed work team: Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors. Cross-functional teams: Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Virtual teams: Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.

Dominant culture

a culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members. Gives the organization its distinct personality

Path-Goal Theory

a theory that states that it is the leader's job to assist followers in maintaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization; leaders can adapt behaviors unlike fielder's model

What are the six characteristics of organizational culture?

adaptability, detail orientation, results/outcome orientation, people/customer orientation, collaboration/team orientation, integrity

Formal power

based on an individual's position in an organization. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority.

Personal Power

comes from an individual's unique characteristics. There are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of others. Personal power is not mutually exclusive from formal power, but it can be independent.

Political behavior (in organizations)

consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual's formal role but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.

when employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with...

defensive behaviors

Most of the studies to test the effectiveness of IM techniques have related IM to two criteria

interview success and performance evaluations

HR Selection practices

interviews, written tests, performance-simulation tests

360-Degree Evaluations

looking at an employee from all the different perceptions of the employees they work with, MGT can get a clear picture of employees and evaluate their performance.

The politically skilled are...

more effective users of all influence tactics, leading to many positive outcomes in the workplace. People who are politically skilled have higher self-efficacy, job satisfaction, work productivity, and career success. They are less likely to be victims of workplace aggression. Political skill is also more effective when the stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important organizational outcomes. Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element in effectiveness (it's damaging to be labeled political). These individuals are able to use their political skills in environments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice. Politically skilled individuals tend to receive higher performance ratings when they ask strategically for feedback in a way that enhances their image in the organization. However, when an organization has fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually negatively related to job performance ratings.

Expert power example

physicians have expertise and hence expert power: Most of us follow our doctor's advice.

People who fit the culture of the organization tend to...

obtain more influence. Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. People who fit the culture are influential because they can perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. Thus, the organization itself influences which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use.

What happens to employee performance after organizational change

performance goes up and then comes back down (hawthorne effect). Steadily goes up from change. Goes down at first then steadily up.

defensive behaviors

reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that eventually it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

Common organizational designs

simple structure, bureaucracy, matrix structure

Strategy

structure derives from strategy (3 major strategy dimensions: innovation, cost-minimization, and imitation)

Stages of group development

the five distinct stages groups go: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

Pre-arrival stage of socialization

the period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee joins the organization. Recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values, attitudes, and expectations about both the work and the organization. How accurately people judge an organization's culture before they join the organization, how proactive their personalities are, and their anticipated "psychological contract" with the organization become critical predictors of how well they adjust.

Core Values

the primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization

Organizational Politics

this type of politics focuses on the use of power to affect decision making in an organization, sometimes for self-serving and organizationally unsanctioned behaviors.

Elements of organizational structure

work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, formalization, centralization and decentralization, boundary spanning