Exercise and sports Psychology Test I

4 key unique characteristics of teams -

1.Collective sense of identity: "we-ness" rather than "I-ness" 2.Distinctive roles: all members know their job 3.Structured modes of communication: lines of communication 4.Norms: social rules that guide members on what to do and not do

... is a blend of physiological and psychological activation, carrying in intensity along a continuum -

arousal

Arousal is a measure of intensity in what system in the body -

autonomic nervous system

Key: The advantage of an experiment ...

is that researchers are better able to determine causal (or cause-and-effect) relationships.

•Theory...

is the ultimate goal of the science of sport and exercise psychology Theory - To make sense of an otherwise unknown intangible phenomenon

Anxiety is a negative emotional state -

true

Competition and aggression

•Competition is not good or bad; it is neutral. Environment determes its effects to a great degree •Whether it leads to aggression or cooperation depends on the social environment and the way the performers view competition

Principles of Effective Behavioral Programs

•Target the behaviors you want to change. •Define targeted behaviors. •Record the behaviors. •Provide meaningful feedback. •State outcomes clearly. •Tailor reward systems.

•Clinical sport psychologists ... Educational sport psychology ...

(phD/liscensed doctorate in psychologist) specialists (do not have a degree, giving them these tools ideas mindsets)

What is true:

all of above: elite athletes generally interpret their anxiety as more facilitating than non-elite athletes. A mix of positive emotions appears to enhance performance. Both personal and situational factors may influence anxiety interpretation.

Creating

an autonomy where client has control

athletes take stressors

and facilitate them

Extrinsic motivation - Intrinsic motivation -

anything outside of yourself; people money •People who have intrinsic motivation strive inwardly to be competent and self-determining in their quest to master the task at hand. •They enjoy competition, like the action and excitement, focus on having fun, and want to learn skills to the best of their ability.

•State anxiety refers to an emotional state characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the .... It is a right-now feeling of nervousness and apprehension that can change from moment to moment.

autonomic nervous system(fight or flight arousal) state is right now

task and social cohesion

both task and social cohesion are equally important; in both task and social cohesion are associated with increased performance.

A quarterback needs to shift his attentional focus surveying the field for receivers to delivering a pass. This shift would be from

broad external to narrow internal

Eliminating Social Loafing -

create as many opportunities of possible where people get individual attention and can perform to their abilities

What theory of arousal regulation is based on the notion that the more arousal one has the more their performance increases -

drive theory

How Arousal and Anxiety Affect Performance

drive thoery inverted U hypothesis •Individualized zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) •Multidimensional anxiety theory •Catastrophe model •Reversal theory •Anxiety direction and intensity

An implication of Morgan's Profile of Mood States (POMS) research is that personality tests should be used to select athletes for teams.

false

Self-concept and trait anxiety differences have been shown to be evident between male and female athletes.

false

The POMS instrument is not a useful means of monitoring the appropriateness of athlete training loads.

false

There is a link between type B behavior and the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

false

research shows that personality both has a ... and that it is influenced by ...

genetic base (up to 60%); learning

According to the catastrophe model a catastrophe occurs with

high cognitive anxiety and high physiological arousal

Cohesion leads to

increase adherence which is good

•Arousal

is a blend of physiological and psychological activation, varying in intensity along a continuum.

•Anxiety

is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body.

four stages of competition process

•Stage 1: An objective competitive situation is a situation in which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison. •Stage 2: The subjective competitive situation is how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation (influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness). Note: Competitiveness is the personality characteristic that best predicts how people appraise the objective competitive situation. •Stage 3: Response is whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels). •Stage 4: Consequences Results from comparing the response to a standard of comparison.(perceived positive or negative. Ex. You lost the game but felt positive of personal performance).

Integrated, or biopsychosocial, approach

•To understand personality, a "whole person" perspective; consider interaction of biological, traits, adaptations, and life stories or narratives that are in social context or culture. Focuses more on innate biological physiological level weakness: Only a few studies have adopted this approach.

Competition and cooperation

•Triplett's cyclists: Cyclists were faster in competition than alone racing against the clock. •Deutsch's puzzles: Competition-group students were self-centered, directed efforts at beating others, had closed communication, and exhibited group conflict and distrust; cooperation-group students communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and solved more puzzles.

Teamwork -

A dynamic process involving a collaborative effort by team members to effectively carry out the independent and interdependent behaviors that are required to maximize a team's likelihood of achieving its purposes.

•Stress:

A substantial imbalance between physical and psychological demands placed on an individual and his or her response capability under conditions in which failure to meet demands has important consequences

ABCs of psychology:

Affect (one's feelings), Behavior (one's actions), Cognitions (one's thoughts) within D, a dynamic, and E, an ever changing environment

Intrinsic Motication and Extrinsic Rewards

Basic question: Do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation? •Research shows that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person's intrinsic motivation for the activity. Yes, baking for passion making money, know you have to do it and don't have flexibility

Flow how to achieve it

Be motivated to perform: maintain a balance between goals and skills. •Achieve optimal arousal before performing. •Maintain an appropriate focus: stay in the present, focus on key points. •Use precompetitive and competitive plans and preparation. •Achieve optimal physical preparation and readiness.

roots of feedback/reinforcement

Biologically wired to seek pleasure, avoid pain, and do so using the least amount of energy. •Our sum of our actions / behavior is built on reinforcement.

•Multidimensional anxiety theory

Cognitive anxiety is negatively related to performance. •Somatic anxiety is related to performance in an inverted-U pattern. •There is little support for its predictions.

•1918: As a student,

Coleman Griffith conducts informal studies of football and basketball players at the University of Illinois.

... is critical. (... is everything this group of people this position makes biggest difference)

Contextual intelligence; context

Theories of Group

Development(which is relative to the unique theory) •Linear perspective •Cyclical (life cycle) perspective •Pendular perspective

Flow: a special case for intrinsic motivation

Flow is a holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation that people feel when they are totally involved in an activity or are on automatic pilot. •A flow model describes the essential elements of flow.

Group Structure

Group roles involve behaviors required or expected of a person occupying a certain position. •Formal roles (e.g., coach, instructor, captain) are dictated by the nature and structure of the organization. •Informal roles (e.g., enforcer, mediator) evolve from the group's dynamics or interactions among group members. •Both role clarity and role acceptance are critical for team success. •Role conflict exists when the role occupant does not have sufficient ability, motivation, time, or understanding to achieve the goal. •Group norms •A norm is a level of performance, pattern of behavior, or belief. •Leaders need to establish positive group norms or standards (especially standards or norms of productivity). •Positive norms are important to establish. •Pressure of social norms

Punishment

Happens all the time; benefit takes out a negative out of the sport we don't want in it; the biggest negative can arouse a fear of failure and a fear of learning/new things Autonomy - self regulation, control •Allow the athlete's input in making up punishments for breaking rules. Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention. •Punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive. •Support of punishment: •Punishment can serve an educational purpose (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery). •Punishment can deter future cheating or wrongdoing. •Criticisms of punishment: •Punishment can be degrading or shame-producing. •Punishment can arouse fear of failure. •Punishment can act as a reinforcer. •Punishment can create an unpleasant learning environment.

•Reversal theory

How arousal affects performance depends on an individual's interpretation of his or her arousal level. •Arousal can be interpreted as pleasant (excitement) or as unpleasant (anxiety). •Arousal interpreted as pleasant facilitates performance. •Arousal interpreted as unpleasant hurts performance. •Bottom line: This view is interesting, but too few studies have been conducted to draw firm conclusions.

principles of reinforcement

If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement. •If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences. •Why principles of reinforcement are complex: •People react differently to the same reinforcement. •People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors. •People receive different reinforcers in different situations.

step process

Implications of the stress process for practice (intervene at any of the stress process stages): stage 1: environmental demand (physical and psychological) stage 2: individual's perception of the environmental demand (amount of psychological or physical threat percieved stage 3: stress response (physical and psychological) arousal, state anxiety (cognitive and somatic), muscle tension, attention changes stage 4: behavioral consequences (performance or outcome)

•Individualized zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)

Individualized zones for specific tasks or sports

Unstructured Play

Informal and unorganized games (or play) are generally action-centered, while organized competitive sport is rule-centered. Informal play or unstructured sport allows children to make decisions, manage relationships among peers, and learn important life lessons. •Unstructured sport is characterized by action, especially scoring; personal involvement in the action; closely matched teams; and opportunities to reaffirm friendships. •Efforts need to be made to make unstructured sport more child-centered, focusing on skill development, fun, and personal growth.

figure extrinsic motivation for test

low self determination cross through threshold where it was extrinsictly motivated to threshold of autonomy goes to intrinsic motivation Amotivation: Apathetic and or not motivated Extrinsic 4. Intergrated: Interested in outcome rather than activity itself (Belief that getting in shape will make someone happier) 3. Identified: Behavior is highly valued even if activity is not pleasant (High risk competition for social recognition such as ultra marathon) 2. Introjected: Motivated by internal prods or pressures. Ex. Get in shape to fit social norm 1. External: Behavior is Motivated by external rewards. Ex. Exercise to attract opposite sex Intrinsic 3. Knowledge: Engaged for pleasure/satisfaction of learning, exploring or understanding something new 2. Accomplishment: Engaged in satisfaction of creating or mastering something new 1. Stimulation: Engaged to experience sensations such as fun, excitement, and aesthetic pleasure.

moderate less and high arousal

moderate broad and narrow vision

Exam: competitive process

Objective competitive situation through personality dispositions to subjective competitive situation through abilities to response through motives to consequences through attitudes to objective competitive situation: circle

•Inverted-U hypothesis

One spot for all persons for all sports

•Catastrophe model

Performance and arousal high then performance drop drastically

•... doesn't account for behavior in sport and exercise.

Personality alone

Group -

mutual influence, collective idea that you would accept •A collective sense of identity •Distinctive roles •Structured modes of communication •Group norms

As arousal levels rise, what happens to our field of vision -

narrows

•Both extreme positions regarding ...

nature versus nurture, then, are false.

•Cohesion is

positively related to performance.

The relationship between arousal and performance depends on one's interpretation of the arousal level. This is the basic approach of

reversal theory

•No ... has been found that consistently distinguishes athletes from nonathletes.

single definitive personality profile

challenge anxiety apathy flow boredom

skills low challenge high anxiety skills low challenge low apathy skills high challenge high flow skills high challenge low boredom •Research with athletes indicates that they cannot control flow, can only increase probability of flow occurring

The more you can increase ... the better the team can be

social support climate

A substantial imbalance between demand and response capability under conditions in which failure has important consequences refers to

stress

In essence, like other aspects of psychology, sport and exercise psychology examines ...

the ABCs of psychology Or relationship with conscious and subconscious minds

•Direction of causality—

the circular relationship: Increased cohesion leads to greater performance and brings teams together, which in turn leads to still more cohesion.

•Linear perspective

theories of group development Assumes that groups progressively move through stages: •Forming: Familiarization, formation of interpersonal relationships, development of team structure •Storming: Rebellion, resistance to the leader and to control by the group, interpersonal conflict •Norming: Development of solidarity and cooperation; group conflicts resolved •Performing: Channeling of energies for team success

•Cyclical (life cycle) perspective

theories of group development •Development of groups is similar to the life cycle—birth, growth, and death. •Emphasis is on the terminal phase of the group's existence. •As the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own breakup. •This model is especially relevant for groups and teams that last 10 to 15 weeks.

•Pendular perspective

theories of group development •Shifts occur in interpersonal relationships during the growth and development of groups. •Groups do not progress through stages in a linear fashion. •Five stages of group development: 1.Orientation 2.Differentiation and conflict 3.Resolution and cohesion 4.Differentiation and conflict 5.Termination

. Exercise and increased levels of fitness are associated with increases in self-esteem.

true

According to Morgan's mental health model, successful athletes exhibit greater positive mental health than less successful athletes.

true

No specific personality profile has been found that consistently distinguishes athletes from nonathletes.

true

Olympic medalists differ from nonmedalists in that they internalize their stress-coping strategies to the extent that they become automatic.

true

•trait ... •State ...

typical style of behavior. situation's effect on behavior—a "right now" feeling that can change from moment to moment.

•Anxiety direction and intensity

•An individual's interpretation of anxiety symptoms is important for understanding the anxiety-performance relationship. •To understand the anxiety-performance relationship, we must consider both the intensity (facilitative anxiety or how much anxiety one feels) and the direction (debilitative anxiety or a person's interpretation of anxiety as facilitating or debilitating to performance). •Viewing anxiety as facilitative leads to superior performance. •State anxiety is perceived as facilitative or debilitative depending on how much control the person perceives. •Some support has been found for this view. •Developing cognitive skills and strategies(THROUGH PRACTICE) helps people view anxiety as facilitative.

Conditions that increase social loafing

•An individual's output cannot be independently evaluated. •The task is perceived to be low in meaningfulness. •An individual's personal involvement in the task is low. •A comparison against group standards is not possible. •Other individuals contributing to the collective effort are strangers.

Appriaches to influencing behavior

Positive approach focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future. •Negative approach focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors; good when something has no place in the sport kicking people •Most coaches and instructors combine positive and negative approaches. •Sport psychologists agree that the predominant approach with physical activity and sport participants should be positive because the negative approach often instills fear in participants. •Why is fear a problem in learning? less likely to try new things

Providing Performance Feedback

Provide feedback •Knowledge of results: information about the outcome of an action •Knowledge of performance: feedback regarding the correctness of an action or type of movement pattern •Provide sincere and contingent feedback. •Provide motivational and instructional feedback. •Use varied types of feedback—verbal praise, facial expressions, and pats on the back.

Approaches to Understanding Personality

Psychodynamic Trait Situation Interactional Phenomenological Integrated, or biopsychosocial

•Significance of all these views

•Arousal is multifaceted: •Physical activation of arousal •Interpretation of arousal •Performers find the optimal mix of these emotions for best performance. •These optimal mixes of arousal-related emotions are highly individual and task specific. Arousal and state anxiety do not always have negative effects on performance. They can be facilitative or debilitative depending on the interpretation. •Self-confidence and enhanced perceptions of control are critical to perceiving anxiety as facilitative. •Some optimal level of arousal leads to peak performance, but optimal levels of physiological activation and arousal-related thoughts (worry) are not the same. •Interaction of physiological activation and arousal interpretation is more important than actual levels of each.

•Interactional approach

•Behavior determined by person, situation, and interaction. •contemporary sport and exercise psychologists favor interactional approach. •Weakness: None.

•Phenomenological approach

•Behavior determined by situation and personal characteristics. •mindfulness or understanding and interpretation of one's self and environment are critical. used by today's sport psychologists. •Weakness: None.

•Situation approach

•Behavior determined by situation or environment. •situation more important determinant of behavior than personality traits. Situations alone not enough to predict behavior; individual's traits must also be considered. •Weakness: Situation will not always influence individual behavior.

•Trait approach

•Behavior determined by stable traits that are fundamental units of personality. •These traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. •Weakness: Knowing traits will not always help predict behavior in particular situations. Predictive effects tend to be small.

•Psychodynamic approach

•Behavior determined by unconscious, changing factors that conflict with one another. •understanding person as a whole rather than identifying isolated traits. •Weakness: Focuses almost entirely on internal determinants of behavior, giving little attention to the social environment.

Principles of Positive Reinforcement

•Choose effective reinforcers (e.g., social, material, activity, special outings, intrinsic, and extrinsic). •Choose the timing or schedule of reinforcement. •Early learning: continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable •Learned skill: intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable

•State anxiety can be of two types:

•Cognitive state anxiety is the degree to which one worries or has negative thoughts. •Somatic state anxiety concerns the moment-to-moment changes in perceived physiological activation.

Guidelines for BuildingTeam Cohesion: strategies for leaders

•Communicate effectively. •Explain individual roles in team success. •Develop pride within subunits. •Set challenging team goals. •Encourage team identity. •Avoid formation of social cliques. •Employ transformational leadership. •Avoid excessive turnover. •Conduct periodic team meetings. •Enhance team efficacy. •Know the team climate. •Get to know others⎯enhance personal disclosure. •Get to know other members of the group. •Help group members whenever possible. •Give group members positive reinforcement. •Be responsible. •Communicate honestly and openly with leader. •Give 100% effort at all times.

Effect of Competition and Cooperation on Performance

•Cooperation as opposed to competition produces superior performance, although results may depend on the nature of the task. •Competition can serve as a positive source of motivation to improve and refine skills. •Sport can lead to cooperative teamwork and behavior. Only cooperative activities: doesn't push people, complacency •Prisoner's dilemma: Competitors draw cooperators into competition. •Sherif and Sherif (1969) summer camp studies: Competition can be reduced through cooperative efforts to achieve superordinate goals.

Group Cohesion

•Group Cohesion •tendency for a group to stick together in pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs •An important factor influencing participation, motivation, and performance in sport and exercise settings. •Task cohesion: The degree to which group members work together to achieve common goals and objectives •Social cohesion: The interpersonal attractions among group members

Cooperative games

•Maximize participation. •Maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills. •Do not keep score. •Maximize opportunities for success. •Give positive feedback. •Provide opportunities for youngsters to play different positions.

•Drive theory

•On well-learned skills, an individual's arousal or state of anxiety increases; so does performance. •Note: Also used as the basis for social facilitation theory (the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned skills and inhibits performance on complex or unlearned skills).

Creating an Effective Team Climate

•Proximity: Closer contact between members promotes team interaction. •Distinctiveness: The more distinctive the group feels, the better the climate. •Fairness—or a lack of it—can bring a group closer together. •Greater similarity = closer climate. •Task interdependence: Outcome interdependence refers to the fact that all group members benefit (or suffer) from the group's performance.

•The structure of personality:

•Psychological core •Typical responses •Role-related behavior

Ringelmann Effect and Social Loafing

•Ringelmann effect is the phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases. •Social loafing is when individuals within a group or team put forth less than 100% effort due to loss of motivation.

Leadership and Social laboring

Social laboring occurs when increasing group size increases effort and performance. •Social laboring is most likely to occur when a group is lead by a transformational leader because team members are motivated to go the extra mile for the team.

•Experiment:

The investigator manipulates variables while observing them, then examines how changes in one or more variables affect changes in others.

•Study:

The investigator observes or assesses without changing the environment in any way.