Experimental Psychology - Chapter 1
A human who is observed, examined, and/or measured in a research study is called a a. Case b. Confederate c. Participant d. Subject
c. Participant
Seeking answers by reading a chapter in a college textbook is an example of using
the method of authority
Two routes of new questions that can come from results supporting a hypothesis.
1. Test the boundaries of the result: Suppose your study demonstrates that higher levels of academic performance are related to higher levels of self-esteem for elementary school children. Will this same result be found for adolescents in middle school? 2. Refine the original research question: If your results show a relationship between academic success and self-esteem, what causes the relationship? (what is the underlying mechanism by which success in school translates into higher self-esteem?)
Two reasons to report research results
1. The results become part of the general knowledge base that other people can use to answer questions or to generate new research ideas. 2. The research procedure can be replicated or refuted by other researchers.
Method of authority
A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area. Whenever you google something, consult books, people, television, the internet, or the newspaper you are using the method of authority. A quick and one of the best ways to obtain answers. Does not always provide accurate information. Authorities can be biased. A doctor's diagnosis Linus Pauling's claim that vitamin C could cure the common cold An "expert" movie reviewer degenerate scum
Argument
A set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.
Hypothesis
A statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. Not the final answer but a proposal to be tested and evaluated (A researcher might hypothesize that there is a relationship between personality characteristics and cigarette smoking. Another researcher might hypothesize that a dark and dreary environment causes winter depression).
Pseudosciences
A system of ideas often presented as science but lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research (aromatherapy, astrology, intelligent design). Anything that is unsupported by empirical evidence. Popular among psychology gurus who write self-help books and appear on TV talk shows presenting novel systems to solve romantic relationship problems, end depression, or help autistic children.
Method of faith
A variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge. Young children tend to have faith in the answers they get from their parents. Religious authority (earth was believed to be the center of the universe), that allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information.
Qualitative research
Based on making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report. Commonly used by social anthropologists, Thigpen and Cleckley's detailed description of a woman with multiple personality disorder. NO MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL SCORES, A HOLISTIC OBSERVATION OF BEHAVIOR; A DETAILED NARRATIVE.
Quantitative research
Based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, that are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation (size, magnitude, duration, amount).
Where do biases come from in science?
Belief in a particular theory, a researcher might try to find evidence to support his theory. Because the researcher typically is testing a theory, he could have an expectation about the outcome of the study, expectations can subtly influence the findings. A blind study (keeping people who are observing the study uninformed) reduces the likelihood of the influence of experimenter expectation.
Which of the following describes a similarity between science and pseudoscience? Both are based on objective observations Both are open to change when new data contradict old theories Both tend to use "scientific" jargon Both are based on hypotheses that are testable and refutable
Both tend to use "scientific" jargon.
What is an example of an incorrect rational argument?
All psychologists are human. Some humans are women. Therefore, some psychologists are women. The conclusion is not logically justified by the premise statements. If replaced with apples and oranges: All apples are fruits. Some fruits are oranges. Therefore, some apples are oranges. Unless the logic is sound, the conclusion might not be correct.
Applied research
Applicable to a real-life problem for human benefit
Empirical method/empiricism
Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience. Product of the empirical viewpoint in philosophy, which holds that all knowledge is acquired through the senses. When we make observations, we use the senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, etc. This can be dangerous and time consuming. Appearances can be deceiving.
What is the fifth step of scientific method?
Compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis (to what extent do the observations agree with the predictions?). Some agreement indicates support for the hypothesis and suggests that you should consider making new predictions and testing them. Lack of agreement indicates that the original hypothesis was wrong or the hypothesis was used incorrectly, producing faulty predictions. You should revise the hypothesis or reconsider how it was used to generate predictions.
What is the seventh step in research design?
Conducting the study. Decide whether the study will be conducted in a laboratory or in a field. If you will observe participants individually or in groups? Decide about manipulating, observing, measuring, controlling, and recording different aspects of your study.
What is the third step in research processes?
Determine how you will define and measure your variables. (your example says watching violence on television leads to more aggressive behavior. You evaluate this hypothesis using a group of preschool children as your participants. Your hypothesis predicts that if we observe a group of preschool children, we should see that those who watch more television are more aggressive than those who watch less television violence)
What qualities do natural leaders have that gets people to follow them? Is this more common in males or females?
Domination, good lying skills, facial recognition. Males that are best in deception are the best leaders. Female leaders are not always the best at deception.
What is the second step of scientific method?
Identify other factors or variables that are associated with the observation. Variables come from common sense, background research (library or internet). Select one of the explanations to be evaluated in a scientific research study that is the most plausible or interesting. Do not discard other evaluations. This is your hypothesis, or possible explanation for an observation.
What is the fourth step in research process?
Identifying the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment. If the individuals are human, they are called participants. Nonhumans are called subjects. Ethics must be considered. Limitation generalizations (If you use a sample of 50 college students, you are justified in generalizing the results to other college students).
A hypothesis is
A statement that describes the relationship between variables.
Variables
Characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals (the weather, economy, and state of health can change from day to day. Two people can be different in terms of personality, intelligence, age, gender, self-esteem, height, weight, etc).
What are premise statements?
Describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. FIRST TWO SENTENCES. "All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark. Amy is a 3-year-old girl. Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark."
Descriptive/observational research
Describe variables without manipulating or trying to affect them (Shark route, case study, survey)
What are the goals of science?
Description - Documenting phenomenon in question Prediction - specifying conditions that indicate when phenomena will occur Explanation - Answering questions about psychology phenomena.
What is an issue with replication in science? (esp psych)
Prestigious journals tend to publish cutting edge and unusual research, which are less likely to find replication. Replication studies are rejected for publication because it's deemed as 'old'.
Basic research
Pursuit of pure knowledge
What is the fifth step in research process?
Select a research strategy. The type of question asked. (Is there a relationship between sugar consumption and activity level for preschool children? vs Will increasing the level of sugar consumption for preschool children cause an increase in their activity level?) Ethics and other constraints that can force you to choose one research strategy over another.
The last step in research process is a. Collecting the data. b. Using statistical techniques to evaluate the results. c. Replicating the study. d. Generating new questions or new hypotheses to restart the research process.
d. Generating new questions or new hypotheses to restart the research process.
What is the first step of scientific method?
observe behavior or other phenomena, generalize beyond the actual observations (induction/inductive reasoning), reaching a general conclusion based on a few specific examples.
A group of students in a cooking class is trying to find a faster way to bake a cake. They know it takes 30 minutes to bake a cake at 350 degrees, so they figure that it should take only 15 minutes at 700 degrees. These students are using
rational method
How do deductive and inductive reasoning contrast?
Induction uses specific examples to generate general conclusions or hypotheses, deduction uses general conclusions to generate specific predictions. IND: I ate three green apples and all were sour. Therefore, all green apples are sour. (Generalize from a small set of specific examples to the complete set of all possible examples). DED: All green apples are sour, therefore if I eat a green apple it will be sour. (Predict a small set of specific examples from a general statement about the complete set of all possible examples).
Based on limited experience with daisies in a flower garden, you have concluded that flowers require almost no care at all. This conclusion is an example of Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Practical reasoning Predictive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Method of tenacity
Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. "Look both ways before you cross" "head on - apply directly to the forehead" Case 1 from lecture - Believing autism spectrum disorder is caused from vaccines because of hearing it so frequently. The information acquired is not always accurate. "You can't teach an old dog new tricks" "opposites attract"
Method of intuition
Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling". The quickest way to obtain answers, has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge. Gambling Pizza Gate Case 2 from lecture - Woman believes her neighbor was burgled from the ex convict that lives down the street.
What is an exception for the contrast of qualitative and quantitative research?
It does not always mean no numbers versus numbers. Scores obtained in quantitative research occasionally are qualitative values (A researcher examining the relationship between gender (male or female) and color blindness (yes or no). These variables do not produce quantitative measurements-both are qualitative, however the measurements ultimately are TRANSFORMED into numbers by computing the percentage of males who are color blind and comparing the number with the percentage for females.
How is something scientifically accepted?
It is not scientifically accepted until it has been empirically demonstrated. Observations are structured so that the results either will provide clear support for the hypothesis or clearly refuted the hypothesis. Observations must be systematic in that they are performed under a specified set of conditions so that we can accurately answer the question we are addressing.
Where is the truth of any logical conclusion founded?
On the truth of the premise statements. If any basic assumption or premise is incorrect, then we cannot have any confidence in the truth of the logical conclusion. "All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark. Amy is a 3-year-old girl. Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark." Not every 3 year old is afraid of the dark, even though a lot are. We are not completely confident that Amy is afraid of the dark.
What is the tenth step in research design?
Refine or reformulate research idea. Extend your original question into new domains or make the research question more precise.
Replication
Repetition of observation, allows verification of the findings. Only public observations can be repeated, therefore only public observations are verifiable. By replicating studies and subjecting them to peer review, we have checks and balances against errors and fraud.
What is the ninth step in research design?
Report the results. Observations and results must be public, a written report describing what was done, what was found, how the findings were interpreted.
Scientific method
approach for acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers.
Which of the following is not a typical characteristic of qualitative research? a. Involves observing and interacting with individuals to record behaviors. b. Produces a narrative report describing behaviors. c. Produces data, usually numerical, that are analyzed with statistical methods. d. Usually involves a holistic approach rather than examining individual variables.
c. produces data, usually numerical, that are analyzed with statistical methods
What is the scientific method and how is it obtained?
Each step in the process of answering a question be clearly defined and publicly visible so that others can see and understand exactly what was done and how the answer was obtained. The scientific method must produce clear, justified answers to the questions that researchers encounter.
You find some mushrooms growing in your backyard and want to find out whether or not they are poisonous, so you eat a few and see what happens. This is the
Empirical method
What is the eighth step in research design?
Evaluate the data. Use various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data. Drawing graphs, computing means or correlations to describe your data, and using inferential statistics to help determine whether the results from the specific participants can be generalized to the rest of the population.
What is the fourth step of scientific method?
Evaluate the prediction using direct observation. This is the actual research phase of the scientific method. Provide a fair and unbiased test of the research hypothesis by observing whether the prediction is correct. (NOTE: THE RESEARCH STUDY IS AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS).
How can you increase confidence in information obtained by an authority?
Evaluate the source of the information (is the authority really an expert, is the info really within the authority's area of expertise?) Is the information an objective fact or is it a subjective opinion? (You can evaluate the info yourself; does it seem reasonable?) Get a second opinion, two independent authorities providing the same answer gives you more confidence.
What is the first step in research processes?
Finding a research idea. 1. Selecting a general topic area (human development, perception, social interaction, etc) 2. Reviewing the literature in that area to identify the relevant variables and find an unanswered question.
Nomothetic
Focused on groups and average performance
Idiographic
Focused on individuals (single case or small designs/case studies.
What is the second step in research processes?
Forming a hypothesis.
What are some distinctions between science and pseudoscience?
Science is based on test-ability and refutable hypothesis, a theory is scientific only if it can specify how it could be refuted. Negative results are acknowledged and accepted. Pseudoscience responds to negative results with discounting them or explaining them away without altering the original theory. Science demands objected and unbiased evaluation of available evidence. Pseudoscience relies on subjective evidence (testimonials, anecdotal reports), and focuses on examples of success and ignores instances of failure. Science tests and challenges its own theories, and adapts theories when new evidence appears (constantly evolving theories). Pseudoscience ignores non-supporting evidence and treats criticism as personal attack. Science is grounded in past science (a system for teaching communication skills to autistic children is based on established theories of learning and uses principles with empirical support. Pseudoscience creates new disciplines and techniques that are unconnected to established theories and empirical evidence. These theories use their own vaguely scientific jargon, or describe links to science that suggest scientific legitimacy without any real substance.
Which of the following is NOT a basic characteristic of scientific research? Scientific research is public Scientific research is empirical Scientific research is conducted in a laboratory Scientific research is objective
Scientific is conducted in a laboratory
Rational method (rationalism)
Seeking answers by logical reasoning. Beginning with a set of known facts or assumptions and using logic to reach a conclusion or getting an answer to a question. "All 3-year-old children are afraid of the dark. Amy is a 3-year-old girl. Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark." The rational method is manipulating premise statements to determine whether they can be combined to produce a logical conclusion.
What is the sixth step in research design?
Select a research design. Making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct research study. (does the research question call for the detailed examination of one individual, or would you find a better answer by looking at the average behavior of a large group?)
What is the third step of scientific method?
Take the hypothesis and apply it to a specific observable, real-world situation. One hypothesis can lead to several different predictions and each prediction refers to a specific situation or an event that can be observed and measured. Form a general (universal) statement and make specific deductions, the hypothesis is used as a universal premise statement and then to determine the conclusions or predictions that must logically follow if the hypothesis is true. (REMEMBER: INDUCTION USES SPECIFIC EXAMPLES TO GENERATE GENERAL CONCLUSIONS OR HYPOTHESES, AND DEDUCTION USES GENERAL CONCLUSIONS TO GENERATE SPECIFIC PREDICTIONS).
Methods of acquiring knowledge
The different ways that people know or the methods that people use to discover answers are referred to as the methods of acquiring knowledge. The ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions.
If you know that you do not want to ride the new roller coaster even though you friends say that it is fun, you decision is
The method of intuition
Although scientific method incorporates several other methods of inquiry, which of the following is least likely to be apart of the scientific method? The method of empiricism The rational method The method of tenacity The method of authority
The method of tenacity.
Deduction or deductive reasoning
Uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.
Induction/inductive reasoning
Using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations. (you taste a green apple and discover it is sour. A second green apple is also sour, so is the third. You reach the general conclusion that all green apples are sour. Although you only tasted 3 apples you reached a conclusion about the millions of other green apples).
