Ex's chapter 2

Random selection of subjects

When the law of probability are permitted to operate in the selection of two or more experimental groups of subjects systematic bias is removed and the effect of extraneous variables is minimalized.

Summary of objectives

1. Understand the various steps of the research process 2. Recognize the different levels of research questions 3. Understand those factors that must be considered When selecting a research question 4. Recognize the different types of variables

The concept of variables

A characteristic trait or attribute of a person or thing that can take on more than one value and can be classified or measured. New wine skill self concept strengths heart rate intelligence eye color sex Church preference are examples of variables. When a characteristic does not very it is referred to as a constant

Excluding theVariable

A researcher May simply choose to not include a particular trait in the study. The intent is to eliminate the possible effects of a variable by holding the variable constant thereby removing it from the study this is sometimes referred to as controlling for the variable. Research participants should be selected from only one age group or grade level that's removing age and grade as variables.

Limitations

Aspects of a research study that the investigator cannot control that represent weaknesses to the study and that may negatively affect the results. They have influenced the results of the study period researchers will of course try to eliminate extremely serious Witnesses before the study commences. The process of carefully defining or distilling the research problem necessarily involves identifying the major limitations associated with the research. Among the items that typically involve limitations to a study of the following 1 the research approach designed methods and techniques 2 sampling problems 3 uncontrolled variables 4 faulty administration of tests or training programs Other things include generalizability of the data or representativeness of subjects compromises to internal and external validity and reliability and validity of research instruments. The number of limitations identified will vary depending upon the nature of the study the research design and the methodology utilized it is generally recommended that the number of limitations be less than the number of the limitations represented Why are so many facets of the research or not controlled this questioning the overall legitimacy of the research.

Selecting the question

A researcher necessarily begins any study with a question A research question is the central focus of the research effort that serves as the basis for the research problem and provides direction for the entire process There are three categories when it comes to selecting a research question: 1. Those who know precisely what they want to do and I have a well-conceived problem 2. Those who have many interests ideas and have difficulty deciding what they want to study 3. Those students who do not have any idea about a worthwhile research question It is generally agreed that the process begins with the idea or question in the mind of the researcher Each of these problem areas contain innumerable research questions the challenge for the researchers to identify a specific question within the problem area that is amenable to research. There are many reasons why people engage in research. Curiosity is as good as any motivational Factor A recent graduate student was interested in the broad problem area of dietary disorders and illnesses specifically anorexia nervosa and bulimia. This student was curious about where the attitude began that led to the development of these disorders and teenagers and young adults. It is possible that the dietary problems are rooted in childhood? Mini methods for finding worthwhile research questions have been suggested to graduate students by their professors over the years. 1. Write out your philosophy of the field of hhp in which you are studying. Divide the field into its several parts and study them then you come to something you would like to know but do not know write it down for your research Hope Chest. 2. And reading and discussions at lectures and at all times write down at once any hunches or ideas that come to you many times reading will reveal gaps in your present field of knowledge write this down Reading the best studies in your interest area. Think about the problem. 3. Pair a paper on some subject that interests you and extended into unknown realms. 4. With what in your field are you dissatisfied? What problems does it suggest? Investigate these 5. Analyze challenge and criticize popular beliefs and practices in your field of Interest. You will be appalled by their unquestioned acceptance 6. What procedures or practices in your field interest you 7. Browse reference and bibliographical list and books journals magazines and thesis. 8. Talk to your professors or other professionals that work in your interest area

Interpreting the results

Analyzing the data drawing conclusions regarding the research question and providing meaningful recommendations based upon the results

Descriptive questions

As the name suggests descriptive questions six simple to describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects being studied. Such questions describe what is. Data is typically gathered by asking questions of a group of individuals observing their behavior or measuring their performance on specific tasks. Basis for survey research as well as qualitative research.

Formulation of hypothesis

Based upon the literature reviewed and the researchers experience establishing the expected outcomes of the research

Identifying the research question

Becoming aware of research questions where to look for them and how to select and Define them

Continued review of literature

Becoming thoroughly knowledgeable in the problem area entertaining ideas about methods techniques and instrumentation needed to attack the problem of Interest

Delimitations

Characteristics specified by the investigator that Define the scope of the research study affecting fencing it in. Refers to the scope of study For example the limitations include characteristics of studies such as 1. Type of research participant 2. Number of research participants 3. Measures to be collected 4. Instruments utilized in the study 5. Time and duration of study 6. Setting 7. Type of intervention or treatment These are parameters of the study of that the researcher can control. Identifying the limitations of a study is actually part of a process known as defining or distilling the problem. As the researcher Narrows the question down to the researchable problem, many of the delimitations are stablished. In published papers, new mitations are usually embedded in the narrative contained within the methods section. The following example illustrates the limitations that were included in a thesis focused on the participation in Special Olympics 1. 62 adults with mild to moderate levels of mental retardation 2. Individuals who reside in Northeast Iowa

Selecting or developing specific data collection instruments or procedures

Considering the data collection plan as well as the availability and adequacy of available instruments deciding what specific instruments is or are needed to procure the needed data

Choosing the method of data analysis

Depending upon the nature of the variables and types of data collected in their research identifying with what statistical procedure will be applied

Determining the basic research approach

Depending upon the type of question being asked determining the preferred research approach such as experimental non-experimental quantitative qualitative and basic plan of attack

Identifying the population and Sample

Determining the type of participants who will produce the needed data to answer the research question. All the participants available? How many participants are needed? How will they be selected?

Defining the problem

Distilling the question into a carefully defined problem that is amenable to investigation This process normally commences with a thorough review of background literature in the problem areas around at the research question. Such a literature review will go a long way in helping the researcher crystallized the research question this facilitating the development of a specific problem statement. Before going much further the researcher is now at a point to make a final determination as whether or not the problem should be studied. In making this decision the researchers should consider three primary criteria. 1. Does the problem interest you? 2. Is the problem worthwhile? 3. Is the problem manageable?

Assumptions

Facts or conditions presume to be true yet actually verified, that become underlying basics in the planning and implementation of the research study. The information gleaned from the literature during the process of defining or distilling the problem free currently serves as the basis for much of the development of the research project.

Relationship questions

Investigate the degree to which two or more variables kaveri or are associated with each other. Typically researcher obtains measurements on two or more variables for a group of subjects and then computes some index of Association often a correlation coefficient. The intent of such questions is simply to determine the extent to which the variables are related not to establish cause-and-effect.

Dependent variable

Is one that is expected to change as a result of the treatment. It is the variable that is observed or measured in the research process. It is not under the control of researcher as it represents the response or outcome from the manipulation of the independent variable. The independent variable is expected to cost some effect on the dependent variable. The change or affected variable is referred to as dependent because its value depends upon the value of the independent variable Some of the most common independent variables seen in hhp research or exercise diet medicines drugs motivation programs procedures methods techniques gender social class attitude and intelligence. Some of the most common dependent variables are Performance Fitness learning Health knowledge and behavior. Consider for example one experiment in which the investigator studies the effects of losing independent variable motivation dependent variable among a group of athletes

Control of variables

It is critically important not only for the researcher but also for the consumer of the research literature to be able to identify the pertinent variables in a study in designing a study particularly an experimental study the researchers should pay particular attention to controlling the influence of extraneous variables.

Distilling the question to a specific research problem

Judging the potential of the research and during the research question to a specific researchable problem statement

Quantitative and qualitative variables

Parables that can be qualitative or categorical if they are classified according to some characteristic attribute or property. People are categorized as two six icolor Church preference and political affiliation. Examples of those include male female blue brown green or Catholic Protestant Jewish and Republican Democrat independent. Qualitative variables are usually unmeasurable. Variables are called quantitative if they can be measured in a numerical sense such as Heights age. There are two basic types of quantitative variables discrete and continuous

Initial review of literature

Reading sources that will provide an understanding of the basic body of knowledge surrounding the question

Difference questions

Seek to make comparisons between or within groups they ask questions concerning what is the difference? This type of question tends to be associated with experimental research we're at the simplest level a researcher is comparing and experimental group that has been exposed to some treatment to a control group that has not received the treatment. Different questions may also be the basis of four non-experimental research in which the researcher is interested in comparing one group to another on the basis of existing characteristics.

Independent variables

The experimental or treatment variable in a study it is the variable that is purposely manipulated or selected by the researcher in order to determine its effect on some observed phenomenon it is antecedent to the dependent variable Mother sometimes confusing for beginning research students recognizing the distinction between independent and dependent variables being able to properly identify each in a research study is critically important and understanding the research process. The treatment or independent variable will not change during the research or as a result of the research. There are two types of independent variables active and attribute. An active variable is one that is usually manipulated or selected by the researchers such as method of training forming the reinforcements or type of nutritional supplement. An attribute variable is one that cannot be actively manipulated or altered by the researcher since it represents a pre-existing attribute or traits such as gender race age or grade level.

Types of researchQuestions

The foundation of scientific inquiry and first stage of research process is the identification of the research question. While the research question will inevitably be refined and transformed into a specific statement of the problem that is amenable to investigation. There are three basic categories 1 descriptive 2 relationship 3 difference Being able to identify the basic type of question being asked helps in understanding the very nature of the research they preferred research design and methodology and the appropriate methods for analyzing the data. It is worth noting that the most research studies especially those that are ultimately published usually contain multiple questions including different types of questions.

Steps in the research process

The research process procedure founded upon the scientific method for investigating research problems that involves systematic progression through a series of necessary steps. 1. Identify the question 2. Formulating hypotheses 3. Developing the research plan 4. Collecting and analyzing the data 5. Forming conclusions Each stage is undergirded by certain necessary steps and from each step definite results can be expected. Many of these steps combined mental activities such as reflective thinking and the physical activities of searching evaluating and interpreting and writing Order and importance of steps will vary according to the type of research being conducted the purpose for doing the study and the whims of the researcher in many instances various steps will be combined or accomplished concurrently.

Statement of the problem

The statement of the problem is a definitive statement that indicates precisely the question or issue to be addressed in the research project. Problem statement normally follows the distillation process described above. The resultant problem statement should be stated clearly concisely and definitively. The statement should identify the key variables to the studied and should provide some information about the scope of the study for example research participants setting and treatment. Remember the problem statement tells what is to be done in the study. The statement of the problem may take a variety of forms but usually begins in a manner similar to one of the following 1. The problem of the study is to 2. The purpose of this investigation is to 3. This study is designed to 4. The focus of This research is on the 5. The goal of this study is to Note that this point in the research process the statement of the problem is written in the present tense When the final report of the research is written such as a dissertation thesis or published manuscript the statement of the problem is written in past tense

Equating or matching buy some Criterion

The subjects are paired on some characteristics such as age 6 height weight ability were the results of preliminary testing. After the pairing is completed the members of each pair are assigned at random. Buy matching subjects it is also possible to reduce the variation among them because of chance of difference in initial ability. It is relatively simple matter to match on one or more characteristics. As the number of traits to match increases so does difficulty in obtaining accurate pairs.

Continuous variables

This type of variable can be divided into fractional amounts in a large or small degree. Strength and endurance scores track and field times height weight growth measures are considered to be continuous variables.

Discrete variables

This type of variable is usually thought of as being a whole unit one that cannot be fractionated or divided into smaller parts examples of a discrete variable are football scores and the number of correct answers on a test

Designing data collection plan

the techniques for the experimental protocols if required as well as the methodological approach for Gathering research data