Fagen et al (Elephant training)

Describe (not just name) the four steps of a trunk wash. [4]

(Trunk) HERE - Elephant had to place trunk in trainer's hand and allow the insertion of 60 ML of saline solution. (Trunk) UP - Elephant had to lift trunk so the fluid ran to the base and hold it there (Steady) BUCKET - Elephant had to lower trunk into collection bucket (without spilling fluid) BLOW - Elephant had to blow solution out into bucket

Describe the logistics of the training time. [3]

-7:30-10am and 4pm-7pm each day -Not every elephant trained every day, but none went more than 2 days without a training session -Trained while chained in their stall, but could walk away if they did not want to participate -Mahouts were present for safety purposes -but stayed to the side and instructed not to speak to or signal in any way to the elephant

Describe the results for the 4 juvenile elephants.

-All 4 successfully learned the trunk wash procedure. -Number 2 passed after 25 sessions (the fewest). -Numbers 3 and 4 passed after 35 sessions (the longest). -The elephants' performance improved from a mean success rate of 39.0% after 10 sessions of training to 89.3% after 35 sessions of training. -2 and 4 never passed steady test, but it was not a required part of the trunk wash.

Describe how the elephants were maintained in the Fagen study. [5]

-Grazed in the jungle under control of their mahouts from 5-7am and 10:30am-4pm each day -Leg-chained to posts in open stalls at all other times, including night -Leg chain allowed for 6-8 feet of movement -Diet consisted mainly of fresh grasses and dhana (packets of grain, nutritional supplements, and grasses) -Access to water at river during grazing time, but not offered water outside of training protocol -Standard husbandry conditions at the stable with no changes made for the study

Describe protected contact. [3]

-Maintaining a barrier between the handler and elephants -Relying solely on positive reinforcement or reward-based training -Better for captive animal welfare and handler safety

Describe the results for the adult elephant. [2]

-Never tested on full trunk wash because she never learned the behaviours -Never passed blow into bucket, desensitization, or steady

Outline three explanations offered for why Elephant 5 was never successfully trained on the trunk wash. [3]

-Stall was next to a 2 month old calf that continually wandered into and interrupted training sessions, often reaching into the reward bucket -For 1 week toward the end, she had an abscess (swelling) in her foot and was noticeably impatient and distracted -May have had visual impairment and trunk weakness, according to the mahouts -Because she was the only adult being trained, the trainers were unable to learn from the trial-and-error with other Es the way that they did with the juveniles

Describe how Es were tested and assessed in the Fagen study. [6]

-Starting after session 10 -Tested approximately every 5 sessions -Tested on all previously taught behaviours -Score calculated by number of successful behaviours divided by offers (# of times requested to perform behaviour) -Given 8-16 offers (opportunities) for each behaviour per test -Except for Elephant 1 who got bored and performed worse, so hers was cut down to 5) -Passing score was 80% -If a sequence/chain of behaviours was "passed," each behaviour within that chain was given a median score of 90%

Name 2 of the behaviours that were initially trained but then abandoned as not being part of the trunk wash. [1]

-Trunk out -Trunk down -Targeting

Describe three INCLUSION criteria used to select animals for the Fagen study. [3]

-docile (easily trainable) -not pregnant or caring for a calf -Mahouts willing to participate -No previous exposure to SPR training

Describe the use of verbal cues in the Fagen training. [2]

-monosyllabic, distinctive words created -meant nothing in either English or Nepali -so as to avoid any misconception on the mahouts' part that the elephants could potentially comprehend the language

Describe the sample. [4]

-n=5 -All females -Housed at same elephant stable in Nepal -Four were juveniles/aged 5-7 years -One was an adult/aged in her 50s -Elderly elephant had foot abscess/impaired vision -Selected for docility -Not pregnant/no calf -Mahout was willing to participate too -All had been trained using traditional methods -No experience of secondary positive reinforcement training.

Describe three advantages of secondary positive reinforcement training for elephants. [3]

1. Increased creativity, choice, control, and problem solving on the animal's part (as they figure out what is desired from them) 2. Safer conditions for the handlers because no direct contact or punishment is used. 3. Generally improved psychological well being of the elephants by removing fear- and dominance-based training.

Explain one similarity between the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) and the study by Bandura et al. (aggression). Do not refer to the sample in your answer. [4]

Both the Fagen study and the Bandura study used observation as part of their data collection techniques. This means that specific behaviours could be operationalised to improve validity (explanation). For example, in Fagen there was trunk down which meant the trunk was hanging loose and in Bandura gun play was pretending to shoot at an object in the room.

Describe the 3 training methods used on the elephants. [6]

Capture - simply waiting for the animal to perform this natural behavior and then "capturing" it by marking and rewarding it repeatedly - works well for behaviours the animal naturally performs (e.g. BLOW) Lure - animal is initially drawn into a wanted body position by strategic placement of a reward. This body position is rewarded and is used as the starting point from which to work on the desired behavior (all other behaviours) Shaping - rewarding only the behaviors offered that are closer to the eventual goal. This rewarding of the "best" behaviors offered incrementally brings the average response closer to the desired goal

Outline one result in relation to the number of sessions it took for the elephants to pass the full trunk wash test. You must use data in your answer. [3]

Elephant 2 took fewer sessions (25) to pass the trunk wash compared to any of the other juveniles. All the juvenile elephants passed within 35 sessions whereas as the older elephant never passed.

Describe the very first step of SPR training. [2]

Es had to be taught the bridge between the primary and secondary reinforcer, repeatedly pairing the whistle blow with a follow-up banana reward.

Explain one difference between the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) and the study by Bandura et al. (aggression). Do not refer to the sample in your answer. [4]

In the Fagen study, the elephants were specifically being trained using operant conditioning to perform a behavior that was beneficial for their health. In Bandura, on the other hand, the researchers used a confederate model to teach the children aggressive behavior.

Define a secondary reinforcer in secondary positive reinforcement training, and explain its purpose. [2]

In this case, a whistle (though often a clicker) which the animal is trained to associate with the coming treat (the primary reinforcer). Allows the trainer to more precisely indicate the moment the animal performs the expected behavior better than food treats alone by minimizing the delay in reinforcement due to the retrieval and presentation of treats.

Outline a conclusion of the Fagen study. [2]

Juvenile traditionally-trained free contact elephants can be taught to perform a trunk wash using only secondary positive reinforcement training

Describe three ways animal ethical guidelines were UPHELD in this study. [6]

Numbers: Researchers only used FIVE animals - just enough to ensure the results were reliable Reward, deprivation, and aversive stimuli: The whole point of the study was to reduce the use of aversive stimuli such as pain from a sharp stick in training elephants, and this specifically focused on training using only positive reinforcement (rewards). Were not deprived but provided regular food. Pain, suffering, and distress: Designed to minimize pain, and specifically to facilitate a veterinary procedure that will prevent the spread of tuberculosis among captive animal populations

Identify the primary and secondary reinforcers in the Fagen study. [2]

Primary - chopped banana Secondary - short whistle blow

Explain another real-world application for the results of the Fagen study. [2]

Secondary positive reinforcement could be used to train other animals to voluntarily take part in veterinary procedures, which would reduce the need for sedation, which can be dangerous for animals.

Describe two STRENGTHS of the Fagen study, other than ethics. [3 points for each strength, including for I, D, and GRAVE]

The elephant's handler (or mahout) was present for training sessions for safety's sake, but was instructed not to speak or signal to the elephants, which was important for ensuring validity - that the elephants were performing the new, learned behaviours solely because of the SPR training and not because of any cues or demand characteristics from the mahout. The observation and data collection were highly structured, with quantitative data collected in a very specific way (8-16 offers per behaviour, with an 80% score required for passing). This allowed the improvements of the Es over time and prove that they had learned the new skill, which was the aim of the study.

Outline what is meant by the term 'positive reinforcement'. [2]

This is the addition of something nice/reward after a behaviour (positive = adding on) to increase the probability of repeating a behaviour (reinforcement)

Describe the purpose of the trunk wash procedure. [2]

To collect a sputum sample -to monitor for elephant tuberculosis -which spreads quickly among captive elephant populations

Outline the aim of the Fagen study. [2]

To investigate whether traditionally-trained, free-contact elephants can be taught to perform a trunk wash using secondary positive reinforcement (and no aversive stimuli)

Describe the next step after an elephant had mastered each of the four individual behaviours required.

Trainers began behaviour chaining, linking key behaviours together, beginning with bucket and blow. From then on, Es were only rewarded for bucket AND blowing into it. This was continued until the E could perform the entire chain of behaviours required for the trunk wash.

Describe at least two methodological WEAKNESSES of the Fagen et al study. [3 points for each strength, including for I, D, and GRAVE]

While the procedures were straightforward and easy to replicate, the effectiveness of the training would likely vary according to certain factors, including individual trainer experience and stress levels of the elephant, so the results not necessarily be reliable. The sample was still relatively small, at 5 elephants, all of whom were specifically chosen for docility, so the results may not be generalisable to the wider population, specifically of male elephants and those who are averse to the trunk-touching necessary for the trunk here behaviour. A "passing" performance was subjectively determined by the trainer rather than rigorously operationalised, which may have allowed researcher bias to interfere with the results, decreasing validity. Rs suggested it would have been better to establish required minimums (such as for trunk height) or have an independent third-party observer watch training sessions (or recordings) to ensure reliability of results.

Define aversive stimuli and explain how it relates to the Fagen study. [2]

aversive stimuli - an unpleasant event that is intended to decrease the probability of a behavior when it is presented as a punishment, usually pain or fear of pain Previously, the traditionally-trained FREE contact elephants had been trained using aversive stimuli, such as using the pain inflicted by the sharp end of a whittled bamboo stick, known as the kocha in Nepal, as a motivator to perform behaviors, such as turning right when the point is pressed into the back of the left ear.

Define desensitization and explain how it was used in the Fagen study [3]

desensitization - a new, potentially negative experience is introduced incrementally and paired with a reward to make the experience less aversive to the elephant Used to introduce the syringe used to insert saline solution First brought near trunk, then touching trunk, then inserted into trunk, then eventually inserting full amount of liquid