FAMILIES AND HOUSEHOLDS - TOPIC 5 **CHANGING FAMILY PATTERNS**

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >'LIVING APART TOGETHER' -public attitudes towards 'LATS' are favourable -a majority believe that 'a couple do not need to live together to have a strong relationship', while 20% see LATS as their..

'ideal relationship'. (more than the number who prefer cohabitation).

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES -McCARTHY ET AL (2003) -conclude that there is diversity among these families and so we should speak of stepfamilies plural rather than 'the stepfamily'. -some have few tensions, while for those that do, the tensions are not so different from those in..

'intact' families.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -as ALLAN AND CROW (2001) put it..

'love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the cornerstones of marriage. the absence of these feelings is itself justification for ending the relationship.'

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 5. WOMENS INCREASED FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE -these developments mean that women are more likely to be able to support themselves in the event of divorce. -ALLAN AND CROW put forward a similar view. -they argue that..

'marriage is less embedded within the economic system' now. -there are fewer family firms and and family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not so dependent on each other financially.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 5. WOMENS INCREASED FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE -Improvements in womens financial position include..

- women today much more likely to be in paid work. the proportion of women working rose from 1971 = 53% 2013 = 67% -although women generally still earn less than men, equal pay and anti - discrimination laws have helped to narrow the pay gap. -girls greater success in education now helps them to achieve better paid jobs than previous generations. -the availability of welfare benefits means that women no longer have to remain financially dependent on their husbands.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -although divorce is the legal termination of a marriage. -couples can and do find other solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage. -these can include...

-DESERTION -where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married. -LEGAL SEPARATION -where a court separate the financial and legal affairs of the couple but where they remain married and are not free to re - marry. -'EMPTY SHELL' MARRIAGE -where the couple continue to live under the same roof but remain married in name only.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -divorce was very difficult to obtain in 19th century britain (especially for women). -gradually changes in the law have made divorce easier. -there have been 3 kinds of changes in law...

-EQUALISING THE GROUNDS (1923) -(the legal reasons) for divorce -WIDENING THE GROUNDS for divorce (1971) -MAKING DIVORCE CHEAPER (1949) (legal aid)

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >THE BEANPOLE FAMILY -beanpole families may partly be the result of 2 demographic changes...

-INCREASED LIFE EXPECTANCY -means more surviving grandparents and great - grandparents. -SMALLER FAMILY SIZES -mean people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE -first marriages -many of the reasons for a fall in the number of 1st marriages are similar to the reasons for the increase in divorce examined earlier. -they include the following...

-changing attitudes to marriage -secularisation -declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage -changes in position of women -fear of divorce

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE (first marriages) >DECLINING STIGMA ATTACHED TO ALTERNATIVES TO MARRIAGE

-cohabitation, remaining single, and having children outside marriage are all now widely regarded as acceptable, so that pregnancy no longer automatically leads to a 'shotgun wedding'. -1989 = 70% believed couples who want kids should get married. -2012 = only 42% though this.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION -while the number of marriages has been falling the number of couples cohabiting continues to increase...

-cohabiting couples with children are a fast - growing family type. -there are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in BRITAIN. (about 1 in 8 adults are now cohabiting - double the number in 1996) -estimated 69,000 same sex cohabiting couples. -about a fifth of all those cohabiting are 'serial cohabitants' who have had one or more previous cohabitations.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE -reasons for other changes in patterns of marriage include the following... >CHURCH WEDDINGS

-couples nowadays are less likely to marry in church for 2 main reasons: 1. SECULARISATION -fewer people see the relevance of religious ceremony. 2. MANY CHURCHES REFUSE TO MARRY DIVORCEES. -who make up a growing proportion of those marrying. -and divorcees may in any case have less desire to marry in church.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS -fewer people today are living in couples...

-has been a big rise in the number of people living alone. 2013 = almost 3 in 10 households (7.7 million people) contained only one person. (nearly 3x figure for 1961.) -40% of all one person households are over 65's. -pensioner one person households have doubled since 1961, while those of non - pensioners tripled. -men under 65 were the group most likely to live alone. -by 2033 = over 30% of the adult population will be single (unpartnered or never - married)

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >LONE PARENTHOOD, THE WELFARE STATE AND POVERTY -however critics of the NEW RIGHT argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are much more likely to be in poverty. -reasons for this include...

-lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parents from working (60% of them are unemplolyed). -this is twice as high as among mothers with partners. -inadequate welfare benefits -most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men. -failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE -there have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years...

-less people marrying -more re - marriages -people are marrying later -couples less likely to marry in church

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** -as CHAMBERLAIN suggests, the extended family survives because it performs important functions for its members. -e.g. BELL's (1968) earlier research in swansea found that both w/c and m/c families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on them for support. -e.g...

-m/c = there was more financial help from the father to son. -w/c = more frequent contact (they lived closer) and there was more domestic help from mothers to daughters.

in this topic we shall examine the changes in patterns of family life in britain and the reasons for them. -these changes include..

-marriage -cohabitation -divorce -such changes are contributing to greater family diversity, and we examine how sociologists have interpreted them.

in the past 40 or 50 years there have been some major changes in family and household patterns. -for example...

-number of traditional nuclear family households (married couple with dependent children) has fallen -divorce rates increased -fewer 1st marriages, but more re - marriages -people marrying later in life -more couples cohabiting -same sex relationships can be legally recognised through civil partnerships or marriages -women having fewer kids and having them later -more births outside marriage -more lone parent families -more people live alone -more stepfamilies, and more couples without children

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE -reasons for other changes in patterns of marriage include the following...

-re - marriages -age on marrying -church weddings

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >REASONS FOR THE INCREASE IN COHABITATION -reasons include..

-result of the decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage. 1989 = only 44% agreed that pre - marital sex is not wrong 2012 = 65% took this view -young are more likely to accept cohabitation -increased career opportunities for women may mean that they have less needfor the financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation. -secularisation = young people with no religion more likely to cohabit than those with a religion. -no religion = 3% marry -religion = 17% marry

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -FEMINISTS

-see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE -reasons for other changes in patterns of marriage include the following... >AGE ON MARRYING

-the age at which couples marry is rising because young people are postponing marriage in order to spend longer in full - time education, and perhaps to establish themselves in a career first. -another reason is that more couples are now cohabiting for a period before they marry.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE -there have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years... >PEOPLE MARRYING LATER

-the average age of the first marriage rose by 7yrs between 1971 - 2012 -when it stood at 32 yrs for men -30 for women.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE (first marriages) >SECULARISATION

-the churches are in favour of marriage, but as their influence declines people feel freer to choose not to marry. -e.g. according to the CENSUS (2001) -only 3% young people with no religion were married -as against 17% with a religion.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE -reasons for other changes in patterns of marriage include the following... >RE - MARRIAGES

-the main reason for the increase in re - marriages is the rise in the number of divorces. -the two have grown together so that the rising number of divorcees provides a supply of people available to re - marry.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS -lone parent families tend to be female headed for several reasons, these include...

-the widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an 'expressive' or nurturing role. -the fact that divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers. -the fact that men ma be less willing than women to give up work to care fore children.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE (first marriages) >CHANGING ATTITUDES TO MARRIAGE

-there is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. -there is now a widespread belief that the quality of a couples relationship is more important than its legal status. -the norm that everyone ought to get married has greatly weakened.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >'LIVING APART TOGETHER' -however DUNCAN AND PHILLIPS (2013) found that both choice and constraint play a part in whether couples live together. -e.g. some said they could not afford to. -however a minority actively chose to live apart,e.g. because..

-they wanted to keep their own home. -because of a previous troubled relationship -or because it was 'too early' to cohabit.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -some couples are more likely than others to divorce. -couples whose marriages are at greatest risk include..

-those who marry young -have a child before they marry or cohabit before marriage -those where one or both partners have been married before.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE (first marriages) >CHANGES IN WOMENS POSITION

-with better educational and career prospects, many women are now less economically dependent on men. -this gives them greater freedom not to marry. -the feminist view that marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution may also dissuade some women from marrying.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE >REASONS FOR CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE (first marriages) >FEAR OF DIVORCE

-with rising divorce rate, some may be put off marrying because they see the increased likelihood of marriage ending in divorce.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE sociologists have identified the following explanations for the increase in divorce... (7 POINTS)

1. changes in law 2. declining stigma and changing attitudes 3. secularisation 4.rising expectations of marriage 5. womens increased financial independence 6. feminist explanations 7. modernity and individualisation

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING -women are having fewer children than in the 20th century. -though the number increased slightly in the early 21st century. -the average number of children per woman fell from a peak of 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of..

1.63 in 2001 -rising somewhat to a peak of 1.94 in 2010.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -since the 1990's there has been a great increase in the number of divorces in the UK. -the number of divorces doubled between 1961 and 1969. -this upward trend continued, peaking in...

1993 at 165,000

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES -a child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with..

2 parents. (more incomes and women earn less)

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING -women are having children later: -between 1971 and 2012, their average age at the birth of their 1st child rose by 4 yrs to...

28.1 yrs.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -since then numbers have fallen somewhat but still stood at 118,000 in 2012 (about 6x higher than in 1961) -this rate means that about..

40% of marriages will end in divorce.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING -more women are remaining childless -it is predicted that a quarter of those born in 1973 will be childless when they reach the age of..

45.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -we should also note that, although most adults do marry, marriage rates have fallen significantly in the past...

50 years.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** -immigration into britain since the 1950's has helped to create greater ethnic diversity. -analysis of the 2011 CENSUS shows that..

86% of the uk population were white. -of the 14% belonging to an ethnic minority, the main groups were ASIAN and ASIAN BRITISH (7.5%), -BLACK AND BLACK BRITISH (3.3.%) -MIXED (2.2%) -greater ethnic diversity has contributed to changing family patterns in the UK.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES -lone parent families now make up 22% of all families with children. -1 child in 4 lives in..

a lone parent family.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 2. DECLINING STIGMA AND CHANGING ATTITUDES -in turn the fact that divorce is now more common begins to 'normalise' it and reduces the stigma attached to it. -rather than being seen as shameful, today it is more likely to be regarded simply as..

a misfortune.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS -stepparents are at greater risk of poverty because there are often more children and because the stepfather may also have to support children from..

a previous relationship.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >'LIVING APART TOGETHER' -it is often assumed that those not living with a partner do not have one, whether from choice or not. -however research by DUNCAN AND PHILLIPS (2013) found that...

about 1 in 10 adults are 'living apart together' or 'LATS' (that is, in a significant relationship, but not married or cohabiting.) -this is about half of all people officially classified as single. -it has been suggested that this may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships and 'families of choice'.

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -THE PERSONAL LIFE PERSPECTIVE ON FAMILIES

accepts that divorce can cause problems, such as financial difficulties (especially for women) and lack of daily contact between children and non - resident parents. -however writers from this perspective, such as CAROL SMART (2011) -argue that divorce has become 'normalised' and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating. -rather than seeing divorce as a major social problem, we should see it as just 'one transition amongst other in the life course.'

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -INTERACTIONISTS

aim to understand what divorce means to the individual. -MORGAN (1996) -argues that we cannot simply generalise about the meaning of divorce, because every individuals interpretation of it is different.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 2. DECLINING STIGMA AND CHANGING ATTITUDES MITCHELL AND GOODY (1997) note that...

an important change since the 1960's has been the rapid decline in stigma attached to divorce.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -however despite todays high divorce rates, functionalists such as FLETCHER (1966) take an optimistic view, -they point to the continuing popularity of marriage. -most adults marry, and the high rate of re - marriage after divorce shows that although divorcees may have become dissatisfied with a particular , they have not rejected marriage as..

an institution.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION -cohabitation involves...

an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>BLACK FAMILIES -REYNOLDS (2010) argues that the statistics...

are misleading, in that many apparently 'lone' parents are in fact in stable, supportive but non - cohabiting relationships.

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -FUNCTIONALISTS

argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution. -it is simply the result of peoples higher expectations of marriage today. -the high rate of re - marriage shows peoples continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>ASIAN FAMILIES -larger asian households also to some extent reflect the value placed on the extended family in..

asian cultures. -however practical considerations, such as the need for assistance when migrating into britain, are also important. -e.g. BALLARD (1982) found that extended family ties provided an important source of support among ASIAN migrants during the 1950's and 1960's.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -other sociologists have noted the effect on same - sex relationships of a legal framework such as civil partnerships and marriage. -e.g. ALLEN AND CROW argue that..

because of the absence of such a framework until recently, same sex partners have had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples. -this may have made same sex relationships both more flexible and less stable than heterosexual relationships.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING -nearly ha;f (47%) of all children are now born outside marriage. -over twice as many as in 1986 -however nearly all these births are jointly registered by..

both parents. -in most cases the parents are cohabiting.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES -stepfamilies (often called reconstituted families) account for over 10% of all families with dependent children in..

britain.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -however as divorce has become easier to obtain, these solutions have become less popular. -yet although changes in the law have given people the freedom to divorce more easily, this does not in itself explain why more people should choose to take advantage of this freedom. -to fully explain the rise in divorce rates we must therefore look at other changes too. -these include..

changes in public attitudes towards divorce.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>ASIAN FAMILIES -such households sometimes contain 3 generations, but most are in fact nuclear rather than extended. -larger household sizes are partly a result of the younger age profile of british asians , since a higher proportion are in the..

childbearing age groups compared with the population as a whole.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS -more children in stepfamilies are from the womans previous relationship than the mans because when marriages and cohabitations break up..

children are more likely to remain with their mother.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS - the number of lone parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation and more recently, due to the increase in the number of never - married women having...

children. -this is linked to the decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage. -in the past the death of one parent was a common cause of lone parent families, but this is no longer very significant.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE (a trial marriage?) -on the other hand, some couples see cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage. -BEJIN (1985) argues that..

cohabitation among some young people represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship than conventional patriarchal marriage. -e.g. SHELTON AND JOHN (1993) -found that women who cohabit do less housework than their married counterparts.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE (a trial marriage?) -many see cohabitation as a trial marriage and intend to marry if it goes well. -most cohabiting couples decide to marry if they have children. -in some cases..

cohabitation is a temporary phase before marriage because one or both partners are awaiting divorce.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -feminists argue that married women today bear a dual burden, they are required to take on paid work in addition to performing domestic labour (housework and childcare). -in the view of feminists, this has created a new source of..

conflict between husbands and wives and this is leading to a higher divorce rate than in the past.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 5. WOMENS INCREASED FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE -in particular women now have their own separate source of income from paid work. -not having to rely on their husband financially, women therefore do not have to tolerate..

conflict or the absence of love, and in such circumstances they are more willing to seek divorce.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 3. SECULARISATION -at the same time, many churches have also begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees, perhaps because they fear losing..

credibility with large sections of the public and with their own members.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 3. SECULARISATION -secularisation refers to the..

declining influence of religion in society.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 7. MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION -relationships thus become more fragile, because individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to..

deliver personal fulfilment. -instead they seek what GIDDENS calls the 'PURE RELATIONSHIP' (one that exists solely to satisfy each partners needs and not out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of the children). -this results in higher divorce rates.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** -similarly CHAMBERLAIN's (1999) study of caribbean families in britain found that..

despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support. -she describes them as 'multiple nuclear families' with close and frequent contact between siblings, uncles, aunts and cousins, who often make a big contribution to childrearing.

**SUMMARY** -there are also ethnic differences in household composition. -the extended family survives mainly in..

dispersed form.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE (a trial marriage?) -clearly then, cohabitation does not mean the same thing to every couple. -the term covers a..

diverse range of partnerships and the relationship between marriage and cohabitation is a complex and variable one.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -today on the other hand, marriage is increasingly viewed not as a binding contract, but as a relationship in which individuals seek personal fulfilment, and this encourages couples to..

divorce if they do not find it.

**DIVORCE** -we look first at divorce because divorce is a major cause of changing family patterns and greater family diversity. -e.g. most re - marriages involve a..

divorcee, and divorce creates both lone parent families and one person households.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 2. DECLINING STIGMA AND CHANGING ATTITUDES -in the past, divorce and divorcees have been stigmatised. -e.g. churches tended to condemn divorce and often refused to conduct marriage services involving..

divorcees.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -similarly the widening of grounds in 1971 to 'irretrievable breakdown' made divorce easier to obtain and produced a..

doubling of the divorce rate almost overnight.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -in the past by contrast, individuals often had little choice in who they married, and at a time when the family was also a unit of production, marriages were often contracted largely for..

economic reasons or out of duty to ones family.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >THE BEANPOLE FAMILY -BELL's findings suggest the importance of the so - called 'beanpole' family. -the beanpole is a particular type of..

extended family, which BRANNEN (2003) describes as 'long and thin'. -it is extended vertically (up and down) through 3 or more generations (grandparents, parents and children.) -but it is not extended horizontally (sideways) it doesnt involve aunts, uncles and cousins.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>BLACK FAMILIES -under slavery when couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. -it is argued that this established a pattern of family life that persists today. -it is also argued that male unemployment and poverty have meant that black men are less able to provide for their..

family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.

**SUMMARY** -recent decades have seen some major changes in family patterns. -changes in partnerships include..

fewer 1st marriages, more divorces, re- marriages and cohabitations.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -one reason for the fall in the number of divorces since the 1990's is that fewer people are marrying in the..

first place and are choosing to cohabit instead.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE - CHESTER argues that

for most people, cohabitation is part of the process of getting married. -e.g. according to COAST (2006) -75% of cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -similarly HOCHSCHILD (1997) argues that for many women, the home compares unfavourably with work. -at work women feel valued. -at home mens continuing resistance to doing housework is a source of..

frustration and makes marriage less stable. -in addition the fact that both partners now go out to work leaves less time and energy for the emotion work needed to address the problems that arise. -both these factors may contribute to a higher divorce rate.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -the commonest reason for a woman to be granted a divorce is the unreasonable behaviour of..

her husband.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE -there have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years... >COUPLES LESS LIKELY TO MARRY IN CHURCH

in 1981 = 60% weddings were conducted with religious ceremonies, but by 2012 this had fallen to 30%.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 7. MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION -sociologists such as BECK AND GIDDENS (1992) argue that..

in modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals. -as a result each individual becomes free to pursue his or her own self - interest, -this view has become known as the individualisation thesis.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>BLACK FAMILIES -however MIRZA (1997) -argues that the higher rate of lone parent families among blacks is not the result of disorganisation, but rather reflects the high value that black women place on..

independence.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >LONE PARENTHOOD, THE WELFARE STATE AND POVERTY -MURRAY (1984) argues that this has created a 'perverse incentive', that is it rewards..

irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them. -the welfare state creates a 'dependency culture' in which people assume that the state will support them and their children.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** -however while the extended family may have declined, it has not entirely disappeared. -instead as WILLMOTT (1988) argues...

it continues to exist as a 'dispersed extended family', where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -the introduction of legal aid for divorce cases in 1949 lowered the cost of divorcing. -divorce rates have risen with each change in..

law.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >REASONS FOR THE CHANGES -the increase in separation and divorce has created more one person households, especially among men under 65. -this is because, following divorce, any children are more likely to live with their mother; their father is more likely to..

leave the family home.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -while there may have been big improvements in womens position in the public sphere of employment, education and politics etc, feminists argue that in the private sphere of family and personal relationships, change has been..

limited and slow. -they argue that marriage remains patriarchal with men benefiting from their wives 'triple shift' as described by DUNCOMBE AND MARSDEN (1995) of paid work, domestic work and emotion work.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >REASONS FOR THE CHANGES -the decline in the numbers marrying and the trend towards marrying later, also mean more people are remaining single. -the proportion of adults who are single has risen by half since 1971. -many of these are...

living alone. -it is possible to argue that a growing number are opting for 'creative singlehood'. (the deliberate choice to live alone)

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES -over 90% of these families are headed by..

lone mothers.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES -until the early 1990's divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers. -from the early 1990's single never married women became the biggest group of...

lone mothers.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -however FEMINIST CRITICS argue that this is too rosy a view. -they argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this. -although functionalists offer an explanation of rising divorce rates, they fail to explain why it is..

mainly women rather than men who seek divorce.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -fuctionalist sociologists such as FLETCHER (1966) argue that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a..

major cause of rising divorce rates. -higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage. -this is linked to the ideology of romantic love (an idea that has become dominant over the last couple of centuries) -this is the belief that marriage should be based solely on love, and that for each individual there is a mr or miss right out there.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 3. SECULARISATION -as a result of secularisation the traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when...

making decisions about personal matters such as whether or not to file for a divorce.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -there is evidence of increased social acceptance of the same - sex relationships in recent years. 1967...

male homosexual acts were decriminalised for consenting adults over 21. -more recently, the age of consent has been equalised with heterosexuals. -opinion polls shows more tolerance of homosexuality.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES -in 85% of stepfamilies at least one child is from the womans previous relationship, while in 11% there is at least one child from the..

mans previous relationship. -in 4% stepfamilies there are children from both partners previous relationships.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -radical feminists such as BERNARD (1976) observe that...

many women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage. -she sees the rising divorce rate and the fact that most petitions come from women, as evidence of their growing acceptance of feminist ideas: women are becoming conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about rejecting it.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 2. DECLINING STIGMA AND CHANGING ATTITUDES -as stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their.,,

marital problems.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE -there have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years... >LESS PEOPLE MARRYING

marriage rates are at their lowest since 1920's. -in 2012 = were 175,000 1st marriages for both partners (less than half the number for 1970).

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING >REASONS FOR CHANGES -reasons for the increase in births outside marriage include a decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation. -e.g. only 28% of 25 - 34 yr olds now think..

marriage should come before parenthood.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >LONE PARENTHOOD, THE WELFARE STATE AND POVERTY -for MURRAY the solution is to abolish welfare benefits. -this would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside..

marriage.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -romantic love follows that if love dies, there is no longer any justification for remaining..

married and every reason to divorce so as to be able to renew the search for ones true soulmate.

**SUMMARY** -changes in parenting include..

more births outside marriage, lone parents and stepfamilies.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -according to SIGL - RUSHTON (ESRC 2007)

mothers who have a dual burden of paid work and domestic work are more likely to divorce than non - working mothers in marriages with a traditional division of labour. -but where the husband of a working wife is actively involved in housework, the divorce rate is the same as for couples with a traditional division of labour.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >OBLIGATIONS TO RELATIVES -but while daughters are more likely than sons to take responsibility for the care of elderly relatives, not all the daughters in a family necessarily play an equal part. -as MASON (2011) found..

much depends on the history of the relationship, the particular obligations women fell towards their relatives and what other responsibilities they have that would give them 'legitimate excuses' not to be involved.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 2. DECLINING STIGMA AND CHANGING ATTITUDES -stigma refers to the..

negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 6. FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS -however COOKE AND GASH (2010) found..

no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce. -they argue that this is because working has now become the accepted norm for married women.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES -according to ALLEN AND CROW (2001) -stepfamilies may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the..

non - resident parent can cause tensions.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >REASONS FOR THE CHANGES -however while many of these choose to remain single and live alone, some are alone because there are too few..

partners available in their age group. -these are mainly older widows.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>COHABITATION >THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE -although cohabitation is increasing as marriage decreases, the relationship between the 2 is not clear cut. -for some couples, cohabitation is just a step on the way to getting married, whereas for others it is a..

permanent alternative to marriage.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >OBLIGATIONS TO RELATIVES -similarly FINCH AND MASON found that the principle of reciprocity or balance is also important, (people felt help received should be returned to avoid any feelings of indebtedness. -overall, evidence suggests that the extended family continues to..

play an important role for many people today, providing both practical and emotional support when called upon. -however this is very different from PARSONS classic extended family, whose members lived and worked together, and who were bound by strong mutual obligations. -nevertheless some sense of obligation does remain, at least to some kin and as a last resort in times of crisis.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>BLACK FAMILIES -black carribean and black african people have a higher proportion of lone - parent households. -2012 = just over half of families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone parent families. -this compared with only 1 in 9 ASIAN families and just under a quarter for the..

population as a whole.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES -FERRI AND SMITH (1998) -found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects, and that the involvement of stepparents in childcare and childrearing is a positive one. -however they found that stepfamilies are at a greater risk of..

poverty.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 7. MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION -some sociologists also argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a neoliberal, consumerist identity based on the idea of freedom to follow ones own self interest. -this pursuit of self - interest is likely to..

pull spouses apart.

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -INTERACTIONISTS -MITCHELL AND GOODY provide a good example of this. -one of their interviewees described the day her father left as the best day of her life, whereas another said that she had never..

recovered from her father deserting the family.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS >CHOSEN FAMILIES -WEEKS (1999) -argues that increased social acceptance may explain a trend towards..

same sex cohabitation and stable relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals. -WEEKS (1999) -sees gays as creating families based on the idea of 'friendship as kinship'. -where friendships become a type of kinship network. -he describes these as 'chosen families' and argues that they offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -social policy now treats all couples more equally. -e.g. since 2002 cohabiting couples have had the same right to adopt as married couples. -in 2004 the CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT gave..

same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance , tenancies and property. -since 2014 = same sex ouples have been able to marry.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 3. SECULARISATION -many sociologists argue that religious institutions and ideas are losing their influence and society is becoming more..

secular. -e.g. church attendance rates continue to decline.

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -POSTMODERNISTS AND THE INDIVIDUALISATION THESIS

see a high divorce rate as showing that individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. -they see it as a major cause of greater family diversity.

**DIVORCE** >>THE MEANING OF A HIGH DIVORCE RATE -sociologists disagree about the effects of todays high divorce rate on society and on individual family members. -THE NEW RIGHT

see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family, which they regard as vital to social stability. -in their view, a high divorce rate creates a growing underclass of welfare - dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state and it leaves boys without the adult role model they need. -they believe it also results in poorer health and educational outcomes for children. (as less income made by woman who is likely to be responsible/ have custody over them)

**SUMMARY** -there are more 1 person households and same..

sex families.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS (single by choice) equally CASHMORE (1985) found that..

some w/c mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often because they had experienced abuse. -feminist ideas and greater opportunities for women, may also have encouraged an increase in the number of never married lone mothers.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -similarly, -WESTERN (1992) -describes same sex cohabitation as 'quasi marriage' and notes that many gay couples are now deciding to cohabit as..

stable partners. -she contrasts this with the gay lifestyle of the 1970's which largely rejected monogamy and family life in favour of casual relationships.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS -stepfamilies are formed when lone parents form new partenerships. -thus the factors causing an increase in the number of lone parents , such as divorce and separation are also responsible for the creation of..

stepfamilies.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>STEPFAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS -some of the tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in..

such families.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >THE BEANPOLE FAMILY -e.g. CHARLES found the same high level of contact between mothers and adult daughters that BELL had found in the 1960's. -however in the case of brothers and sisters there had been a sharp decline in both..

support and contact. -this suggests a 'beanpole' structure.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>ASIAN FAMILIES -in this early period of migration (1950's and 60's) houses were often shared by extended families. -later although most asian households were now nuclear, relatives often lived nearby. -there was frequent visiting and kinship networks continued to be a source of..

support. -today SIKHS, MUSLIMS AND HINDUS are still more likely than other ethnic or religious groups to live in extended family units.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >OBLIGATIONS TO RELATIVES -yet despite the rise of the beanpole family, many people still feel a sense of obligation to help their extended kin. -e.g. FINCH AND MASON (1993) found...

that over 90% of people had given or received financial help and about half had cared for a sick relative. -however there is some variability in what can be expected of different relatives. e.g. FINCH AND MASON (1993) found that more is expected of females than males.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -STONEWALL (2012)

the campaign for lesbian, gay and bisexual rights estimates that about 5 -7% of the adult population today have same sex relationships. -it is impossible to judge whether this represents an increase because in the past, stigma and illegality meant that such relationships were more likely to be hidden.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >REASONS FOR THE PATTERNS (single by choice) -many lone parent families are female headed because the mothers are single by choice. -they may not wish to cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the fathers involvement with..

the child.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** -for example as CHARLES' (2008) study of swansea found...

the classic 3 generation family all living together under one roof is now "all but extinct". -the only significant exceptions she found were among the city's bangladeshi community.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING >REASONS FOR CHANGES -the later age at which women are having children, smaller family sizes and the fact that more women are remaining childless all reflect...

the fact that women now have more options than just motherhood. -many are seeking to establish themselves in a career before starting a family, or instead of having children at all.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >OBLIGATIONS TO RELATIVES -CHEAL (2002) notes that where personal care for an elderly woman is needed, a daughter or daughter in law is preferred if..

the husband is not available. -sons are rarely chosen as caregivers for an elderly woman. -on the other hand, daughters are rarely chosen as appropriate people to provide money.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>CHILDBEARING childbearing is...

the process of giving birth to children.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 5. WOMENS INCREASED FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE -one reason for womens increased willingness to seek divorce is that improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependent on..

their husband and therefore freer to end an unsatisfactory marriage.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>MARRIAGE -there have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years... >HOWEVER THERE ARE MORE RE- MARRIAGES

these are marriages where one or both partners have been married before. -in 2012 = one third of all marriages were re - marriages for one or both partners. -e.g. many people, this is leading to 'serial monogamy' (a pattern of marriage, divorce, re - marriage.)

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** -the existence of the extended family among minority ethnic groups raises the question of how widespread or important this kind of family is in the uk..

today. -as we saw according to functionalists such as PARSONS, the extended family is the dominant family type in pre - industrial society, but in modern industrial society it is replaced by the nuclear family.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 4. RISING EXPECTATIONS OR MARRIAGE -under these circumstances individuals were unlikely to have the high expectations about marriage as a romantic union of 2 souls that many couples have..

today. -entering marriage with lower expectations, they were therefore less likely to be dissatisfied by the absence of romance and intimacy.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>BLACK FAMILIES -the high rate of female headed, lone parent black families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganisation that can be traced back to slavery or, more recently, to high rates of..

unemployment among black males.

**PARENTS AND CHILDREN** >>LONE PARENT FAMILIES >LONE PARENTHOOD, THE WELFARE STATE AND POVERTY -the new right thinker MURRAY (1984) -sees the growth of lone parent families as resulting from an over generous welfare state providing benefits for..

unmarried mothers and their children.

**THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY** >OBLIGATIONS TO RELATIVES -similarly CHEAL (2002) argues that...

when it comes to help with household tasks: 'a systematic set of rules exists for deciding who has the greatest obligation to assist. help should be given 1st by a spouse 2nd by a daughter 3rd by a daughter in law 4th by a son 5th by other relatives 6th by non relatives.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>ONE - PERSON HOUSEHOLDS >'LIVING APART TOGETHER' -DUNCAN AND PHILLIPS (2013) conclude that..

while being a LAT is no longer seen as abnormal, it probably does not amount to a rejection of more traditional relationships.

**PARTNERSHIPS** >>SAME SEX RELATIONSHIPS -similarly, EINASDOTTIR (2011) notes that..

while many gays and lesbians welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised, others fear that it may limit the flexibiltity and negotiability of relationships. -rather than adopt what they see as heterosexual relationship norms, they wish their relationship to be different.

**ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN FAMILY PATTERNS** >>ASIAN FAMILIES -bangladeshi, pakistani, and indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups, at 4.4, 4.3 and 3 persons per household respectively, compared with 2.4 for both black carribean and..

white british households.

**DIVORCE** >>CHANGING PATTERNS OF DIVORCE -about 65% of petitions (applications) for divorce now come from women. -this is in sharp contrast t the situation in the past. -e.g. in 1946 only 37% of petitions came from..

women (barely half of todays figure).

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 1. CHANGES IN LAW -when the grounds were equalised for men and women in 1923, this was followed by a sharp rise in the number of divorce petitions from..

women.

**SUMMARY** -reasons for these changes include greater individualism, secularisation, reduced stigma and changes in attitudes, changes in the law (e.g. regarding divorce and homosexuality) and in the position of..

women.

**DIVORCE** >>EXPLANATIONS FOR THE INCREASE IN DIVORCE 7. MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION -at the same time, the rising divorce rate 'normalises' divorce and further strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely to provide personal fulfilment. -modern society also encourages individualism in other ways. -e.g. women as well as men are now expected to..

work and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions, -this can cause conflicts of interest between spouses and contribute to marital breakdown.