FINAL
Win Some Lose Some: Women in Court
1) Coger v. The North Western Union Packet Company, Supreme Court of Iowa, 1873 1873- Emma Coger, mixed race teacher, tried to buy a first-class ticket on a steamboat. she refused to buy a ticket that did not entitle her ride with other ladies traveling alone and had a white man purchase a ticket on her behalf. when she boarded they told her to move, she refused, and they moved her by force. she sued for assault and battery. she won. the company appealed. court decided that she, as a black woman, should have equal rights as any other passenger. Ida B Wells, death with a similar scenario in 1883.she sued and won in the lower court but lost when the railroad company appealed to the Tennessee Supreme Court. tested claims re: "separate but equal" Plessy v. Ferguson ruled that separation of races was not labeling on as inferior and wasn't overturned until 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education 2) Bradwell v. Illinois, 1873 Myra Bradwell most notable female lawyer of 19th men 1868 published the Chicago Legal News and ran as own business received a special charter from the state legislature to act w/o usual legal disabilities of married women passed bar in 1869 but her application was rejected by the Illinois supreme court o the grounds that she was married and therefore not a free agent. she appealed to the Supreme Court arguing that the 14th amendment allowed for the right to pursue any honorable profession decision was in two parts: 1) the right to practice law was up to the individual state NOT a privilege of citizenship 2) ideological justification of the inherent differences between men and women used to defend exclusion of women from professional careers while her case was pending se and Alta M. Hulett (another woman refused entrance to the bar) successfully lobbied for a state law that granted freedom of occupational choice in Illinois passed in 1872 1890 the Illinois Supreme Court admitted Bradwell in 1884 she was admitted to practice before the Supreme Court 3) Minor v. Happersett, 1874 1872 suffragists tested the 14th amendment by showing up to vote virginia minor went to polls in St. Louis in 1872 when she was refused she and her husband sued him for denying her a privilege of citizenship they lost but appealed to Supreme Court Supreme Court unanimously decided that women did not have the right to vote because it was not explicitly stated. this meant that women's suffrage could not be easily slipped in but would require an explicit amendment to the constitution
Tera W. Hunter, "Reconstruction and the Meanings of Freedom"
13th amendment ended slavery but said nothing about equality and did not provide a definition of "citizenship" AA's rushed into Atlanta, between 1860-70 amount doubled from ,1900 now 46% or population black women found jobs as household workers and struggled to assert new terms for their labor housing shortage (contracts couldn't keep up with demand)--> high prices-->ex slaves assembled shanty owns but evicted at 1865 white yeomen fled to city to find wage labor disproportionate amount of women/children to men (men sent to agricultural fields leaving women behind in city) government could/would not meet needs of poor Freedman's Bureau 1865- distribute rations to ex-slaves, monitor transition to wage-labor protect rights- failed AA moved to cities for economic self-sufficiency men relegated to unskilled/service labor, women barred from working in manufacturing plants that hired white women AA willing to quit and find new work (denied to them as slaves) and did so frequently (labor mobility) black codes passed in 1865 to obstruct blacks full participation in the marketplace and politics 1866 made it more difficult to switch jobs by requiring letters of recommendation kkk founded 1866 harassed successful black workers and political actors women were particularly politically active moved to city for protection from KKK (safer but still not safe) rape of black women ignored, perpetuation of myth of predatory black men against white women use of orphaned/seperated children as labor source preventing rebuilding of families importance of Marital bonds custody issues desire for literacy and education
The Working Girls of Boston
1884 report by Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor result of investigation into the moral, sanitary, physical, and economical conditions of women working in jobs other than domestic service based on 1,032 of 20,000 working girls in Boston girls living in limited quarters--not conducive to good sanitary conditions few cases where girls reported health as poor, complained of the poor board provided one house there was no elevator forcing girls to go up 5 flights of stairs, upper story had no heat long hours, standing all day principal reasons for loss of health do to work workers on any material that gives off a "dust" complain of effect on health of poor air quality restaurant workers complain of long hours, no dinner hour, all day on feet trade workers- ruined eyes by reading he books home at nights to work saleswoman- standing all day b/c no stools are provided one store did not allow talking, not enough time for dinner, walking at one at night manufactures- being overworked, feet all day, get fingers jammed in machines, must pay for expenses if need on-call doctor to patch them up food preparations- salt packing inhaled into lungs, packing fish fingers get b;isted from caustic solution, damp atmosphere from steam
Union Women in Wartime
3 examples of experiences of union women: 1)widow whose son is in army-Mary Herrick wrote to secretary of war Edwin Stanton (10s of thousands of women wrote to him and Lincoln asking the whereabouts of their husbands/sons and/or asking for them to be released from service) as a widow with her son gone, she is very poor and asking for gov to find someway to help her and others like her so that she does not have to sell all of her things to pay volunteer tax received reply 2)former slave in Kentucky (union state)- Clarissa Burdett slaveholding states that stayed in the union were angry when former slaves joined the union army and took anger out on the women who stayed home married woman w/ 4 children, husband joined the army master bat her with handle of an axe when husband enlisted niece went to camp nelson and he whipped her and threatened more if she did not bring her back sold niece's parents and sisters ) to Knoxville and sold them ran away to avoids beatings to the camp but left 4 children behind 3)working wife and mother- Julia Undermill b.1841-1864 disowned by family for marrying a schooteacher husband enlisted and she moved to MA where 2 aunts lived and helped care for her children while she disguised herself as a man to find work at an iron works her identity was discovered by a doctor while she was dying of a fever husband heard of death as being discharged from an army hospital show range of consequences of war mobilization for women
Comstock Act, 1873
Act for the suppression of trade in and circulation of obscene literature and articles of immoral use passed at urging of Anthony Comstock- head of NY Society for the Suppression of Vice 1st section-- banned sale of these materials in DC and the territories subsequent sections--banned the sending of these materials through the mail or through importation into the US enforcement via special agents in the USPS who could confiscate materials and arrest those who sent it 1870 many states passed similar version of the federal law law reflected a belief that contraception and abortion were acts of interference with god's will drugs for abortion, contraception, porn for masturbation all treated the same banned writings on sexual reform and free love punishment 6 months to 5 years of hard labor in the penitentiary for each offense OR fined $100-$2000 and costs of court
The Story of Aunt Easter
African american midwives regularly delivered black and white babies in the rural south (even as urban women switched to doctors) Sudie Campbell-daughter of slaves, practiced in Kentucky By 1930's ideas re: ghosts and prenatal markings were viewed as superstitious but still believed in rural areas makes own herbal medicines women carries more to middle=girl to the left and high up=boy if get scared can cause babies to get markings (woman burnt leg, daughter had birthmark in same spot) sees ghosts(?) premonitions(?) of death
Glenda Gilmore, "Forging Interracial Links in the Jim Crow South"
Anna Julia Cooper- 1892 colored women confronted by a woman question and a race problem women should not be subordinate to their husbands and black men should not criticize women's fight for equal rights growing back middle class in the South prepared by education, professional training, and volunteer work disfranchisement of black men in 1890s--> women became activists and ambassadors to the white community Charlotte Hawkins Brown- b.1883 attended Massachusetts State Normal School in Salem Alice Freeman Palmar- first female president of Wellesley College got Brown free tuition Brown met with American Missionary Association (AMA) & went back to the south to team Palmer Memorial Institute taught practical vocational skills to its students "good master" myth Lula Martin McIver-outspoken feminist, helped Brown connect with prominent white men/women for funding, publicly referred to her as a friend Mammy- novel published in 1919--> interracial summit of women in Memphis, TN
"Died in Jaffrey, N. H. May 8, M. A. L., Aged 27," Friend of Virtue, 1 August 1841
Another tactic of moral reformers was the exposure of male sexual predators by name. This practice was taken over from John R. McDowall and defended in the very first issue of the Advocate of Moral Reform as part of its duty "to make a fearless exposure of facts". 1841 article is actually a combination of the exposure narrative and another moral reform genre - the story of the fall and untimely demise of a female victim. probably written by Eliza S. Ripley, single woman, school teacher, secretary of the Jaffrey, N.H., female moral reform society, The woman was Mary Ann Lawrence, daughter and sister of prosperous farmers in this southwestern New Hampshire town. J. D. Pease, by whom she became pregnant, is identified as a tailor in Winchendon, Massachusetts in a time of increasing geographic mobility and denominational options, these forms of discipline were becoming less effective. Moral reformers would also experience frustration with social pressure tactics, which is why in the 1840s, they turned their attention to a legal remedy.
Women's Evolution from Economic Dependence
Charlotte Perkins Gilman- (b.1860-1935) women's rights activist focus on women'w economic dependence as reason for women's inferior position, before the vote criticized the "sexuo-economic" relation holding women in thrall to men Book: Women and Economics (1898) international impact change in education--> leading to advancements for women's rights there is no female mind, mind has no gender woman's progress in the arts and sciences, trades and processions is steady but it is not equality in fields let alone superiority new development of racial qualities in the sex economic relation-great sociological change most women still only work if "have to" until they can marry and be supported increasing desire of young women to be independent 3 million women working outside of the home women are growing increasingly specialized and are chafing against the standard expectations for them that no longer fit economic independence necessitates change in the home./family life the family- is a social phenomenon economic independence allows for a home life that is true, healthful, and beautiful
Gerda Lerner, "The Meanings of Seneca Falls, 1848-1998"
Elizabeth Cady Stanton was 33 when wrote manifesto gathering of less than 300 people Seneca falls convention marked beginning of women's rights movement Stanto left detailed account of convention in autobiography and in her History of Woman Suffrage came up idea with Lucretia Mott when women were denied seating and voting rights at the 1840 world anti-slavery convention 5 women issued call: 1)Lucretia Mott- quaker minister longtime abolitionist 2) Stanton 3)Martha Wright 4)Jane Hunt, 5) Mary Ann McClintock- all separatist quakers looking to improve women;s position within church, antislavery and reform veterans not a national audience- all from upstate NY most were abolitionists and reformers with organizational experience first truly national convention was in MA in 1850 by 1860 ten national women's rights conventions had been organized (also several local ones) Seneca Falls: debated declaration, created resolutions 68 men, 32 men signed Arguments: modeled after declaration of independence main argument on democratic rights guaranteed in document 2nd main argument was that equality of women was religious (ie quaker argument, Sarah Grimke, etc.) named men as tyrants to women demand women have immediate admission to all rights and privileges issues of voting, coverture, work discrimination, divorce discrimination, access to education, sexual oppression (not explicitly included) women's emancipation is from oppressive restrictions based on sex, and grants them self-determination and autonomy
Roda Ann Childs, "I was more dead than alive"
January 1865 13th amendment ratified ending slavery former confederacy was creative in creating systems to maintain racial subordination (ie vagrancy laws that lead to involuntary servitude) civil rights act of 1866 meant to protect freepeople but vetoed by Andrew Johnson freedmen's bureau charged with protecting rights of former slaves but always under budgeted and understaffed 1871 KKK act fining vigilante justice Congressional Committee conduct traveling inquiry into "the Condition of Affairs in the late Insurrectionary States"-12 Jan 1 1866 worked on plantation husband was not there so beat her and was raped by a former confederate, threatened her with a gun husband was in the union army swore they would kill every back men they saw beat her daughters and took items from her home
Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors
Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All its Phases- 1892 pamphlet statistical refutation of rape charges against black men used to justify lynching shows how "rape" and "race" were tied to power relations in the administration of justice, the media, and everyday life shows racial and class dimensions of sexual double standard parents died in 1878 leaving Wells to care for her 5 siblings moved to Memphis, TN for better wages and to be closer to extended family first newspaper article in 1883 describing how she had been kicked out of a first-class ladies railway coach white racist backlash followed achievements of AAs after reconstruction--> Jim Crow segregation 8 pamphlets between 1892-1920 documented the ways that AA's were deprived of their rights through mob and police violence, negative propaganda campaigns in the media, and the elimination of economic opportunity and political rights had to leave south, settled in Chicago in 1895 1892-1893 organized antilynching communities and women's clubs across. the US and helped create the National Association of Colored People (NAAP) Women's roles essential to building of black communities and resistance work ran for public office in 1930 commitment to full equality for every citizen practical list of strategies for "self-help": education, boycotts, migration, agitation for protective legislation, suing, armed self defense 1022, 1937, 1940 attempts to make lynching illegal blocked in Congress
Mother Survey 1892-1913
What knowledge of sexual physiology had you before marriage? conception by choice or accident? habit of intercourse? intercourse during pregnancy? did you desire it? desire for intercourse? how often? what time in relation to period? is itercourse agreeable to you? do you have a venereal orgasm? what do you believe to be the purpose of invercourse? necessity to men? to women? reproduction? have you ever used contraception? what? what was the effect?
Sarah Moore Grimke Sarah Grimke on the Condition of Women in the United States (1838)
b. 1792-1873 born into wealthy slave owning family in SC left south, joined quakers in Phil. younger sister Angelina antislavery movement book was first by US woman to examine women's status around the world written in form of letters to friend anticipated many arguments for women's rights during next decades types of women: 1)fashionable women- don't want education b/c scared won't get men 2)marriage women- marriage best and only option, only serve families 3)enslaved women- at mercy of tyrants, cannot protect virtue, property of master believes women are not inferior to men points out inconsistencies in wages between men and women for same labor calling for increased female education whatsoever it is morally right for a man to do it is morally right for a woman to do women have same rights and duties as men
Sojourner Truth's Visiting Card, 1864
b.1797-1883 born into slavery in Albany, NY achieved freedom 6 months before NY's gradual emancipation act when into effect on July 4, 1827 but her 5 children remained bound her 5 year old child was sold to Alabama where slavery was permanent with support of quaker and dutch men she worked for sued and won his freedom 1828 moved to NYC and worked as domestic servant joined unorthodox methodist church 1843 had divine inspiration to change name to sojourner truth and preach joined an abolitionist commune met Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Harrison and began to speak at abolitionist and women's rights lectures 1850 dictated her life and published a biography which she supported herself by selling aint' I a woman-- added after the fact for dramatization embraced union cause during civil war raised money door-to-dor for AA regiment helped freepeople find jobs, worked to get former enslaved people land in Kansas, campaigned for Lincoln's reelection
Louisa McCord on EnFranchisement of Woman
b.1810, SC to elite family well educated with interest in political economy single until 30 husband David McCord-lawyer rejected northern woman's rights and defended antebellum south way of life published response to 3rd women's rights convention in the southern quarterly review god may not have given women the best position in life but he has given them a clear position good must be brought about by working with nature's laws not against women's love is to love and suffer because men and women are different it is impossible to view them as equal or unequal women throw away their strength when she brings herself down to men's level intelligence of women related to men is irrelevant because it would not change roles of sexes--if anything the smarter the woman the better suited for her role let women be free by working out of her mission liberty is duty not license
Frances Willard Heralds "The Dawn of Woman's Day"
b.1839-1898 built organization dedicated to reforming society according to protestant women's values president of Woman's Christian temperance union (WCTU) 1879-89 advocated prohibition, women's suffrage, social purity, peace, arbitration summarized her vision of women's political and moral role in `888 address to the Chicago Woman's League (which she was also president of) "mother-love" don't have to be mother to have mother love, something intrinsic to women (but some women don't have it?) created national women's organization based on more conservative ideas largest national women's organization advocates for all institutions of learning be open equally to women equal pay for equal work, an ideal standard of personal purity and morality for men and women unification/organization of women to be stronger at national but also at local level advocates tolerance between different groups (ie catholics and protestants) local organizations should seek to secure women admission to all school committees, library associations, and boards, all professional associations, and all colleges wants laws better protecting women, tasing the age of consent, teaching of hygiene in school, work as humans rather than women
Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi on Female Invalidism
b.1842-1906 earned MD in 1864 from Female Medical College of PA + further training in Paris nation's leading woman physician private practice + publishing papers 1876 commentary on issues raised by Dr. Edward Clarke defender of women's career choices and suffragist reasons for women's ill health: utero-overran disease from imperfect development NO link to the cause being "over-education" more likely: inadequate food, no exercise, too long of work hours, high-pressure competition ill-health found least among highly educated women woman are insufficiently prepared to be individuals
Zitkala-Sa (Gertrude Simmons Bonnin), "...this semblance of civilization..."
b.1876-1938 Sioux mother, white father one of first American Indian women with a career as a writer left home to go to White's Indiana Manual Labor Institute in Wabash, Indiana--> teacher training school close to home--> Earlham College--> New England Conservatory of Music in Boston for violin Married Raymond Bonnin 1901 who worked for Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) advocated for citizenship for all Indians, exposed corruption in BIA, defending dignity of American Indian religions wrote memoir of childhood in 1900 @ 24 worked at Carlisle Indian School in PA-- exposed corruption in school's directors, and its harsh promotion of "americanization" tight fitting clothes of school=immodest cut hair- cultural difference (in Sioux short hair is for mourners and cowards)
The Women's Centennial Agenda, 1876
capstone of centennial celebration was a public reading of declaration of independence in independence square, philadepkhia Elizabeth cady stanton requested right to silently present a women's protest and a written declaration of rights but was refused susan b Anthony and four other women distributed copies of their declaration during the event and then went to other side of independence hall where they staged a counter reading "all women still suffer the degradation of disenfranchisement" "the history of our country the past hundred years has been a series of assumptions and usurpations of power over women" read articles of impeachment: 1)bills of attainder- inclusion of word "male" into all state constitutions denying women the right to vote and criminalizing sex 2)the right of trail by a jury of one's peers-women are tried by a jury of all men 3)taxation without representation-without the vote have no say over taxes 4)unequal codes for men and women- women are denied equality of rights, sex decides pay and position, codes of morals unequally punish women for being alone on the streets or in public places of resort at certain hours, but men can go free 5)representation of woman- 24 additional states have been admitted and not one of them has recognize women's right of self-government 6)judiciary above the nation- uphold and enforce laws opposed to the spirit of the constitution. courts decided slaves were not citizens because they could not vote, yet when the constitution was amended to to make all citizens, they decided women although a citizen could not vote
Susan B. Anthony, "Woman Want Bread, Not the Ballot!"
disfranchisement is not only political degradation but also moral social educational and industrial degradation show me a disfranchised class and I will show you a degraded class of labor men protesting did not get heard until given the right to vote, same to for women by nature men are no more unjust than women women doing same work getting paid less the power is the ballot, the symbol of freedom and equality women are peers of men in education, arts, sciences, industries, and professions--take the next step and make them peers in government
The Sweating System, Charity, and Organization
end of 19th cen only 3% women in industrial occupations were organized in trade unions Ida Van Etten- union advocate, woman of independent means, tried convincing AFL to organize women she and Eva Valesh (another union advocate) succeeded in getting the AFL to create an office for a national women's organizer in the 1890s sweating system- thrives on the ignorance of newly arrived immigrants, the poor, and the helplessness of women and children rents a room in a tenement house, rents/buys few machines and charges workers $3/month to use with incredibly low pay w/o oversight of factory inspectors able to get away with abuse unchecked employment of very young children not paid for day unless task is completed male workers are passive on-lookers to this abuse workmen do not have to depend on charity b/c they can turn to their unions but women are dependent uncharity and philanthropy charities have become powerful ally of of the competitive system of industry and makes it easier for employers to exploit them safely and respectably (ie building board for them to allow them to pay wages below living point) woman workers need to organize and receive equal pay for equal work and equal opportunity for work or they will become an inferior class in every trade they enter
The Grimke Sisters, Sarah and Angelina, Talk Truth to Power
first women agents of the American anti-slavery society to tour and speak to mixed-gender audiences first women to defend heir rights as a woman to free speech Sarah taught slaves to read & Angelina held prayer meetings 1821- Sarah joined quakers, 1829 Angelina joined Sarah boycotted slave products Angelina joined Philadelphia female antislavery society Angelina letter published in Liberator by William Lloyd Garrison Angelina published "An Appeal to the Christian Woman of the South" speaking tour in late 1836 founded antislavery societies, organized anti-slavery petitions, published speeches a pamphlets 1837- moved to Boston Sarah published "Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women" 1837 MA ministers published letter attacking Grimkes as unwomanly 1838-advocated for women's right to vote and hold office
Victoria Woodhull "And the Truth Shall Make You Free: A Speech on the Principles of Social Freedom," November 20, 1871
if religious and political freedom exist, perfected, social freedom is guaranteed principle of individual freedom was ignored until arguing against religious persecution 16th cen battle for individual freedom no such thing as self-government in its political aspects male citizens ruling over women is not self-government it is despotism freedom has resulted in political arena but has not been applied to the social domain women's movement creates compete social and political enfranchisement for all of mankind suffering of men/women comes more from social issues than political gov is based on idea that all men and women are born free and equal-- demanding social freedom is asking government to follow the spirit of this laws of marriage and divorce are despotic because they are limiting the right of individuals to pursue happiness to love is a right higher than constitutions or laws unhappy marriage=legalized prostitution the legitimate sequence of social freedom: free love
"Signatures of Citizenship: Debating Women's Antislavery Petitions" by Susan Zaeske
in the decades before the civil war activist women working together presented US Congress with a radically innovative document: the large-scale collective petition often backlash for petitioning from men more than just signing: have to bring petition to people and convince them to sign (walking door to door), debating John Quincy Adams & John Dickson & Levi Lincoln- allies of women's right to petition JQA- Suggested women have right to vote Feb 1834- Ohio women become first to collectively petition Congress on a political issue at first did not view as political but as time went on asserted right to be political 1831-1863 aprox. 3 mil signatures against slavery June 1836-House tables issue of slavery petition viewed as subordinate asking superior for something (humble=good for women) women threw off cover of men in life when signing majority of women signed w/o marriage titles signature gathering gave self confidence and assertiveness women's moral superiority, motivated by benevolence not political gain, makes them suited to petition Angelina Grimke- if women cannot petition AND vote, congress is guilty of taxation w/o representation Women attacked: for leaving "sphere" by clergy- attacking character of women as bad mothers and wives by newspapers for "melding" by Catharine E Beecher- not proper, would lose special protected status by legislators
"The Importance of Petitions," Letter from N. H. of Westmoreland, New York, October 26, 1838, Advocate of Moral Reform, 15 November 1838
limitations of shunning led activists in the NYFMRS to mount petition campaigns urging the state legislature to criminalize seduction and prostitution. Document 19 is a letter of encouragement to the NYFMRS as it began its campaign in 1838. accuses New York legislators of focusing on public works projects to the neglect of public morals. makes a case for punishing the libertine on the same terms as the thief or other common criminal. The writer is undoubtedly Rev. Nathaniel Hurd. Notably absent from his support for petitions is any argument on the propriety of women engaging in this form of political activity. Rev. Hurd's wife Amanda soon became secretary of the female moral reform society and in 1840 this group had forwarded a petition to the legislature with some 400 signatures.
Maureen Fitzgerald, "Habits of Compassion: Irish American Nuns in New York City"
potato famine 1945 1840s Irish population decreased by 20% nearly half of all immigrants to the US in 1840s were Irish and more than half of those were women Irish women were the only significant group of foreign born women who outnumbered men Sister Mary Irene Fitzgibbon Foundling Asylum-housed 600 women and 1800 infants at a time, provided day care for working mothers, children's hospital, maternity hospital for poor women, shelter for unwed mothers. received care regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, martial status, economic status Annual budget of $250,000 from city taxes 1830-1900 catholic women established 106 new foundations of women religious with a collective workforce of 50,000 in the US transformed convents from being run by elite women to being composed of and run by women who had been poor/working class American nuns quickly did away with class distinctions between us (ie "lay nuns") gained public power NOT public voice as women able to articulate and manifest political agendas and social vision dealt with strong anti-catholic bias commitment to Catholicism, vows of Chasity, lack of family made them incomprehensible as women b/c denounced role as mother/wife allowed them to maintain individual rights as women girl's dowry absorbed into convent as a larger collective while placing it out of the control of men nuns housed 15,000 children at a time with a revolving door policy allowing parents to take and return children as circumstances dictated (as opposed to them being taken away entirely a la Protestants) formed religious institutions sanctioned by the pope but not under direct control of the Vatican female leadership
Angelina Grimke, "An Appeal to the Christian Woman of the South" (1836)
sold widely in the north & made her known banned in the south (burned in Charleston) calling on christianity of southern women tells women to : 1) read on subject (slavery and scripture), 2) pray on subject, 3) speak on subject (to relatives, friends, etc.) , 4) act on subject (free slaves and pay them, teach them-- if laws do not allow, ignore them!
A Freedwoman Before the Southern Claims Commission
spring of 1865 brought freedom to many slaves but b/c viewed as confederate property, many were taken from their homes and had their property taken 1871 federal government set up the claims commission to hear requests for compensation for land taken by the union former slaves were required to present detailed information to prove ownership Nancy Johnson and her Husband home wasn't burnt down but took everything they owned befriend poor deserters white soldiers who didn't own slaves she was present at time property was taken but they didn't believe that it belonged to her items taken: 1 mare, 7 hogs, 1/2 barrel of lard, 4-5 bushels of corm, rice, tubs, kettles, 11 hogs, 30-40 chickens
Judy Yung, "Unbound Feet: From China to San Francisco's Chinatown"
traces the experiences of 3 women from Guangdong Province who arrived in San Francisco in 1922 1) Wong Ah So- came in 1922 from impoverished village to join husband in arranged marriage. $450 Mexican dollars for arranged marriage when arrived discovered she had been sold into forced prostitution 2) Law Shee-came in 1922 from impoverished village to join husband in arranged marriage women indispensable partners in economic survival believed women place was at home eventually worked in sewing factories immigrant women ruled the household, disciplinarian, culture-bearer 3) Jane Kwong Lee- urbanized, unmarried, "new woman", who came in 1922 to further her education. she endured many oft he same gender and racial restrictions as the other 2 when, her class and education made her experiences and opportunities significantly different to the majority of Chinese women in the 1920s. frustrated by lack of work options open to her as a Chinese woman enrolled at Mills College earned a BA and masters in sociology and economics Sieh King King- 18 year old student from china and ardent reformer 1902-brought women's emancipation to chinatown advocated for unbound feet, education, equal rights, and public participation as a result of nationalism and women's emancipation in China, reform work of protestant missionary women in chinatown, and Chinese women's entry into the urban economy
Speak-out on Domestic Service
women preferred the factory over the security of domestic service Helen Campbell-journalist investigated circumstances of working women in 1880s, stories of "prisoners of poverty" unable to support themselves with industrial employment Why?: freedom when day is over (never off the clock in domestic service) women harder to work for then men did not like working with 'uneducated Irish" dislike term "servant" belittling, came to country to improve station not to be subservient to somebody constant monitering lower status, people don't want to associate with you forced to wear clothes showing their lower status no hours, must always look busy no privacy
Declaration of Sentiments, 1848
Document based on the Declaration of Independence that called for gender equality, written primarily by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and signed by Seneca Falls Convention delegates. one 17 day period in 1855 they held 16 political meetings in 14 different counties in NY 1864- seemed possible that end to slavery might mean universal equal citizenship sent petitions of 100,000 signatures to the senate gathered complaints re: the way American law and custom defined gender relations into a manifesto and offered an agenda for change denounced exclusion of women from learned professions 2/3 of signers were women, ages 14-68 most âme from local Seneca falls and Waterloo
Mary Church Terrell Greets the National Congress of Mothers
b.1863-1954 1896- first president of national association of colored women message to the national congress of mothers (mostly white women) had four children, 3 died within a few days of birth which she blamed on the inferior medical care they received in a segregated hospital in DC guiding next generation to be in duty to country, race kindergarden, domestic science, teaching children to be skilled workmen, honest, industrious, etc. women of color cannot be excited about future for their children because of current conditions-- no matter what there will be a cap on what he can achieve asking women to give equal opportunity to black children in childhood and after
Stephane McCurry, "Women Numerous and Armed: Politics and Policy on the Confederate Home Front"
civil war involved civilians around 400 women disguised themselves as men to join war effort handful of women crossed lines acting as spies thousands acted as hospital workers in North and South Union recruited hundreds of freedwomen for hospital work bureaucracy of government vastly expanded--personal shortage solved by hiring women to work alongside men in offices for first time in US history familiar patterns of gender relations were disrupted (especially in the south leading to a closer relationship between white women and the southern government) new political class- soldier's wife-- is created when men were called away, unfranchised dependents (women, children, slaves) were left behind reconfiguration of southern political life--> women emerged into authority and leadership roles penetrate of the state into their household business key actors: mostly Southern yeoman/poor/urban laborer women 1863 food riots- dozens of violent attacks on stores, gov. warehouses, army convoys, granaries by mobs of 12-300 women armed in the broad daylight, new in boldness, organization, and violence multiple attempts by poor women to alert leaders to the consequences of conscription-- women mainly from farms and could not make living without male labor--> food crisis rich men (with 20+ slaves could stay behind) pushing fighting off to the poor--> anger in December 1862 almost led to mass desertion women sent petitions and letters to gov during food crisis, claiming entitlement for their sacrifice as soldier's wives demanding government policy change 40% adult male pop. enslaved mobilized 75-85% of adult white men (contrast to Union 50%) adopted highly centralized tax system to fund army April 1863--> congressed tax called for citizens to surrender 1/10 of everything grown/raised on farm Atlanta, march 1863- first food riot, then North Carolina, Alabama, and Virginia-Richmond food riot-largest (5 or more in 2 weeks) Richmond planned by Mary Jackson (+300 women) held meeting at baptist church, went up to the pulpit to lecture immediate direct response at state level 1866 NC wiped women's crimes from records, describing them as political acts
Ellen F. Watkins Goes on the Lecture Circuit
Frances Ellen Wakins/Harper b.1854-1911 orphaned at age 3, attended Watkins academy (founded by her uncle) lectured and published on anti-slavery (first lecture summer of 1854) prolific poet, essayist, novelist--> revered literary figure after civil war- active reformer for AA rights, temperance, peace, women's rights held one of the few leadership roles as black woman in organizations by white reformers praised free produce movement (in reality very hard to follow--oh could slavery exist long if it did not sit on a commercial throne?) letters act as journal of travels insulted on several railway cars in Pennsylvania
Rescued Cheese Prostitutes Testify at the Industrial Commission
federal laws 1882, 1892, 1902, and 1904 virtually closed immigration from China and left sex ratio of Chinese population heavily skewed 1901 report by US Industrial Commission with testimony of Chinese women "saved" from prostitution by Donaldina Cameron Donaldina Cameron operated the Presbyterian Chinese Mission Home in San Francisco Cameron's work was similar to moral reformers in 1840s except cross-cultural cause drew analogy of forced prostitution and slavery 1) Lee Yow Chun- 1898 16 years old $380 to family from husband to be realized something was off on journey over and did not want to get off ship, was threatened with being in prison for 5 months before going back and only making it to Japan but still insisted did not want to get off ship collector allowed her to go to rescue home and remain there until she could be returned to china 2)Chun Ho- 1898 24 years old, came over at 19 $200 to family burned face to create scar to match dummy certificate, was jailed for few days but eventually released was coached on how to lie was sold for $1,950 to man with a written promise that after 4 years they would release her. instead confiscated her earnings and sold her to another after 2 years and the nod again a friend saw her and reported it to Cameron leading to her rescue men continued to threaten her for owning them money and she fears for her life
Married Women's Property Acts, New York State, 1848 and 1860
first married women's property acts in Mississippi in 1839 and in new york in 1848 were supported by male legislators to preserve the estates of married daughters against sons-in-law. 4/5 sections of Mississippi's broadened married women's rights over their own slaves acts were narrowly interpreted to limit women as much as possible women may now: 1)transfer her separate personal property 2)carry on an trade/business, perform any labor/service, and earnings of any married woman from her trade shall be her sole property 3)sue and be sued in all matters related to her sole and separate property 4)no contract by a woman will be binding to her husband 5)declared join guardian of children with equal powers rights and duties in regard to them
Peggy Pascoe, "Ophelia Paquet, a Tillamook of Oregon, Challenges Miscegenation Laws"
husband died in 1919 after married for 30 years- county recognized her as his widow, w/ no children Ophelia stood to inherit his property used her money to purchase the land and pay taxes on it John Paquet, Fred's brother took her to court, and won gaining the estate and leaving Ophelia with nothing illuminates many issues: purpose of miscegenation laws, the role of marriage in the transmission of property, the "invisibility of married women's economic contributions, and the way race can command gender disadvantage got married in a traditional tillamook marriage ceremony to try and circumvent miscegenation laws and legitimize the marriage majority of cases re:miscenegation were ex post facto-- meaning couples had been in established relationships with little to no objects, and only when began trying to inherit things did it become a problem Fred did not leave proper will, leaving his estate in the hands of the state who enforced miscegenation laws brother was a known rapist and bad character but still won b/c a white man case went to Oregon Supreme Court but was dismissed hyper sexuality of women of color--> dismissing relationships as "just sex" rather than committed marriage pastoralization of housework + invisibility of women's economic contributions-- ophelia payed for the land and its taxes but refused to view it as hers or acknowledge her contributions Indian officials represented ophelia in federal courts but did not even try to get all land back (1/2 the land), court suggested cash settlement but to get it she had to relinquish all claims to the land not even clear that she received the money
Keziah Kendall Protests Coverture
know nothing except from letter to Simon Greenleaf, Harvard law professor greeneleaf gave lecture in 1839 saying that women were well protected by the as it existed at the time (excluding women from politics avoided "uproar" and men absorbing women's property did not matter whose name it was under b/c was shared , said that except for restriction in political matters, there was little difference between men and women rights) Kendall demanded he do another lecture acknowledging the "legal wrongs" of women such as: 1) has no voice about taxation, 2)if she had been able to keep her property in marriage, she would have married Joe, and he wouldn't have died at sea, 3) women get into debt less than men but men are responsible for money, 4) if wife dies- husband gets all of the money, etc but if husband dies-women only gets 1/3
First Annual Report of the Female Moral Reform Society of the City of New York, "Hope of Reclaiming the Abandoned."
narrates the society's largely futile efforts at reforming prostitutes in the city. new course of action, enshrined in Article II of the 1834 constitution: prevention NOT reclamation moral reform leadership in Boston never did leave off the hope of reclamation entirely and opened a home for reformed prostitutes Nevertheless, "prevention" remained the primary focus for the New Englanders as much as it was for the New Yorkers.
Abortion in New York
prior to 1840s abortion before "quickening" (4th-5th month) was not a crime abortionists advertised in newspapersand practiced openly if woman died during abortion, person operating was liable for murder physicians + journalists--> anti-abortion crusade mid-century 1880s both state laws and federal Comstock law made abortion illegal Comstock law- prohibited advertising or sending obscene material through the mail Madame Restell-abortionist 1871-traveling trunk abandoned at railway depot, when opened contained body of dead woman (Alice Bowlsby), killed during an abortion attempt Dr. Rosenzweig arrested, tried, and convicted large number of female abortionists- popular b/c women rather go to another than a man, usually foreign born and trained as nurses idea of married women repeatedly getting abortions is horrifying women doing in the name of "fashion" to control family size claims native population is "dying out"
Effeminate Men, Masculine Women
turn of 20th cen. dr's argued that homosexuality was better understood as sexual "inversion"-adpoting the expected behavior of the other sex dr.'s increasingly believed "inversion" required medical intervention weak physiological/moral traits can be increased or decreased by education, training, and example environment key in development should confine child swing "inversion" solely to its own sex to learn normal attributes a masculine girl= amusing and often pitiable but an effeminate boy=always be pitied masculine woman- does not embrace motherhood, interested in academic pursuits, feminist is a form of degeneracy and will effect any children she has
Harriet Tubman and the Fight for Freedom
underground movement based in free black communities (formal urban vigilant committees and informal networks of people acting on belief that slavery is moral) actively involved in antislavery movement, the civil war, struggle for black equality and women's rights relationship with William Lloyd Garrison. Frederick Douglass, Thomas Garret, William Still, John Brown civil war nurse, spy and scout established home for elderly freed people decades-long pursuit of a military pension escaped slavery in 1849 in Maryland 1793 Eli Whitney's cotton gin--> increase importance of slavery at 15 hid in head with weight giving her epilepsy married a free man in 1844 gradual emancipation laws 1784-1804 Canada abolished slavery in 1834 federal fugitive slave law 1793 William Lloyd garrison-- the liberator 1840s- 1,000 antislavery organizations with 500,000 members life long friends with Thomas Garrett (quaker) and William Still (escaped slave) 1850- new federal fugitive state law (1 of 5 laws known as the compromise of 1850) Craft family fiercely protected when tried to be forced back into slavery John Brown- just before Christmas 1858 freed 10 slaves from plantations at force of arms; led an attack on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia in 1859 May 1861- General Benjamin Butler declared slaves contraband off war and granted them refuge August 1861-First Confiscation Act= slaves not returned to Confederates July 1862- Second Confiscation Act=slaves held by traitors/supports of rebellion are freed May 1862- Governor Andrew instructed Army to use her to work as a spy/military scout behind emery lines General David Hunter December 31, 1862-Emancipation Proclimation headed band of ten local south and river pilots recieved one payment of $200 Colonel ames Montgomery--comrade in arms (friend/ally to John Brown) June 1, 1863 raid through rice fields up the Combahee River, carried 700-800 people from slavery April 9, 1865- war over
James C. Mohr, "Abortion in America, 1800-1880"
19th cen women shared experience with child birth, gave birth at home surrounded by women in the 20th cen moved to hospitals lost female support most married and unmarried women felt considerable physical and psychological burdens from repeated pregnancies, childbirths, and postpartum recoveries 19th cen sharp decline in birthrate--not from birth control, from choices: later marriage age, abstinence from sexual intercourse, etc. 18th cen: 8-9 births 19th cen: 6-4 births when unable to avoid pregnancies attempted abortion which was acceptable when done before the quickening married couples using it as a way of family planning--no longer sympathetic b/c viewed as trying to avoid natural state of motherhood as opposed to trying to avoid scandal as an unmarried woman (Decided usually together NOT woman sneaking off and doing it herself to the disappointment of her husband) Lester Frank Ward and Lizzie Ward--frank discussion of putting off children until in better place of careers, economics, etc. men blame women and feminism women/feminists blame tyranny of men Henry C. Wright, The Unwelcome Child--asserted women's right to choice, and blamed increase in abortion on selfish sensuality of men Elizabeth Cady Stanto agreed between 1840-1860 law-makers in several states began to respond to the increase in abortion
Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, "Women's Political Future" May 20, 1893
address to world's congress of representative women at the Chicago columbian exposition world needs all the spiritual aid that women can give for social advancement and moral development so close is the bond between men and women that you cannot lift one and not the other 19th cen. women discovering herself giving women social & political rights will society better and will not make the home less happy we don't need more voters, we need better voters does not believe in unrestricted and universal suffrage for men OR women-- believes in moral and educational tests lynchers and others using violence against AA's should be excuded women will find 3 great evils that she should overthrow: 1)intemperance ruining families, politics, and social life, 2)women in prostitution? 3)lawlessness
Gertrude Clanton Thomas's Civil War Diary
b. 1834-1907 daughter of Southern privilage journal between 1848-1889 worried about home being invaded by Union soldiers has doubts re slavery- does not want to free slaves but considering selling them to man who will take care of them and willing to pay household slaves after civil war engaging in household work for first time she can remember in ages almost all workers have left
Maria W. Millar Stewart Lecture Delivered at the Franklin Hall, Boston, 9/21 1832 Maria Stewart Sees Chains on the Soul
b.1803 Connecticut one of first women to public speak to men AND women 4 speeches all published in the Liberator reinterpreted bible to justify women political activity encourages A.A's to "lift themselves up" and prove they can be educated and respectible calling for improved conditions of free A.A's conditions little better than slavery
Sex in Education, by Dr. Edward H. Clarke
prominent physician and Harvard professor book "Sex in Education; or A Fair Chance for Girls" (1873) relation of sexes is equal girl's schools are imposing boy's schedules on them harming their heath walking every where, being on a strict scheme, studying difficult subjects draws the blood away from her reproductive system to the brain should not have identical education systems for girls and boys better for girls to do hard work than to study because is not drawing blood to the brain
Virginia Ladies' Petition to Eliminate Slavery 1832
sent to Virginia General Assembly after Nat Turner's Rebellion rebellion caused reassessment of slavery by many virginians 215 signers assert women's right to petition labor without slaves cannot be worse than fear of slaves revolting call on domestic sphere for reason to use political voice "what is a nation but a family on a large scale?"
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, "The Solitude of Self"
the individuality of the human soul women should be considered 1)an individual in control of her own destiny, 2) a citizen with the same rights as all other citizens, 3) a woman, 4)a mother, wife, sister, daughter necessity of self dependence must give the individual to choose their own surroundings give women higher education opportunities to fully develop her faculties which will give her the most freedom of thought and action ask complete individual development for the general good to prevent education is like putting out the eyes; to deny rights of property is like citing of the hands. to deny political equality is to rob them of self-respect women have already made such advancements so why hold them to antiquated standards in regards to politics
A.S. Hitchcock, "Young women particularly flock back and forth..."
union army established base camps and expected former slaves to continue working on their plantations as contract laborers but freepeople believed freedom meant that they should be able to travel freely and chose new forms of work tried to make it as difficult as possible for them to get to cities ban all peddling around camps stop rationing and introduce the poor house system those without work are vagabonds and must either go to poor house or be placed in work (work house, chain gang) wandering black women should be arrested and forced to work at a plantation
