Final Exam cumulative and chapters 11 and 13

4 Functions of Stereotypes

- Conservation of cognitive resources - System justification - Self-esteem maintenance- - Social adjustment

Three types of workplace interventions

- affirmative action -valuing diversity -managing diversity

Cardiovascular threat

-Cardiovascular threat measures the amount of prejudice one demonstrates during interpersonal interactions with members of a stigmatized group(s) -Individuals who exhibit a threat response show an increase in total peripheral resistance (TP) which means there is greater pressure going against the flow of blood due to vasoconstriction and little-to-no change in cardiac output (CO) which means the heart is not being efficient. -Research has demonstrated that interactions with people with facial birthmarks, low SES, and African Americans typically elicit threat responses despite what self-report measures indicate; -prior contact with African Americans moderates the latter effect (more contact = less threat)

what characteristics are gay men and lesbians believed to possess? And what gender are they more similar to?

-Gay men are believed to possess feminine characteristics ------lesbians are assumed to possess masculine characteristics − Gay men are rated as more similar to heterosexual females than to heterosexual males. −Lesbians are seen as more similar to heterosexual men than to heterosexual women

How to Reduce Other People's Prejudices?

-Help people become aware of their attitudes and behavior • Encourage intergroup contact • Help others become better informed about key findings from the field (e.g., stereotype threat) • Be a role model for children or younger siblings • Confront prejudice & discrimination when possible

greater perceived dangerousness predictor

-How threatening or dangerous do you think this stigma is-Perceive it to be controllable and dangerous-False perception that one race is more dangerous than the other

3 Indirect Contacts

-Imagined contact -Media contact -Extended contact

Perceived Controllability predictor

-Is the person responsible for the stigma or not? -Higher amount of controllability = higher amount of stigma-For instance: sexual orientation: cant they control just not being gay

Theories about the Origins/Causes of Stereotypes

-Outgroup homogeneity effect - Attributional biases and errors - Observations of social roles - Illusory correlations

3 Intergroup Contact Processes

-Personalization -Attitude generalization -Recategorization

Valuing Diversity:

-Programs that aim to establish quality interpersonal relationships through understanding, respecting, and valuing differences. May not be effective due to one or more of the following: - May reinforce and emphasize differences between groups - Can lead to resistance on the part of trainees (change creates anxiety, pressure to change may cause boomerang effect, training may be seen as irrelevant) - The training may be poorly conducted.

How to Reduce Your Own Level of Prejudice?

-Reflect on your thoughts and behaviors • Do not become defensive if others suggest your behavior may have been biased • Develop self-regulatory strategies until they become automatic • Put intergroup contact theory into practice • Try to learn about cultures and come to appreciate the value of diversity

Key Theories of Prejudice

-Scientific Racism -Psychodynamic theory -Sociocultural theory -Intergroup Relations -Cognitive theory -Evolutionary psychology -Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Visability predictor of stigma

-The more visible the more severe the stigma-More noticeable and easy to detect to judge-Darker skin receives harsher sentences because darker skin is more visible than lighter

Notable changes in gender perceptions

-Women are viewed as having more agentic characteristics nowadays (compared to 20 years ago) -most people predict even more change in female agency in the future -the predictions for 2050 believe that females will outdo males in terms of their agency -Perceptions of womens communality had not changed much and neither has mens perceived agency

Physiological measures

-assess the body's response to a stimulus; avoid social desirability issues since most people cannot disguise or control their bodily responses Types of measures: -Heart rate -blood pressure -skin conductance -Facial muscle movements (via facial EMG) -Brain imaging techniques -Cortisol reactivity -Cardiovascular threat -measurement of CO and TPR (Impedance cardiography)

Ways to Improve Women's Chances of Success:

-expose girls to role models, -teach girls about gender-based occupational discrimination; --this can lead to greater self-confidence and willingness to pursue STEM careers, -encourage women to identify and speak out against gender bias

interpersonal discrimination

-one on one level -girl clutches her purse when black man walks by or talks to her

rebound effects is less likely in?

-people low in prejudice, -when prejudice is proscribed/prohibited by society -when cognitive load is low

Media contact:

-people observe members of other groups through TV, movies, news, etc.

Common stereotypes about bisexuality:

-represents temporary behavior that is the result of curiosity, ---occurs when people who are gay are in denial and/or fearful of coming out, -results from confusion about one's sexual identity -Research suggests that heterosexuals, gay men, and lesbians all hold negative attitudes towards bisexuals.

evolutionary psychology Theory

-some prejudices are adaptations or mechanisms that help us survive and or reproduce; explains the stigma of cheaters, the disabled, the ill, and other universal stigmas -They served to protect us from "dangerous" people, including the diseased, cheaters, and other non-reciprocators -Evolutionary based forms of prejudice are typically universal

Hyper-masculinity:

-the idea that men should be strong and tough and not possess any feminine traits; -adverse consequences include low self-esteem, substance abuse, and higher levels of anti-gay prejudice.

10) A _________ develops when ingroup and outgroup members to recategorize themselves into a single group with one identity. (A) common ingroup identity (B) personalization (C) salient categorization (D) group deunification

A.

Prejudice

Affective/attitudinal component; defined as a biased attitude toward people based on their group membership and/or a stigmatized attribute - Involves positive, negative, and/or ambivalent (i.e., mixed) emotions-common types of prejudicial emotions include anger, disgust, anxiety, and discomfort; -many people harbor hidden/subconscious prejudice known as implicit prejudice -Can be explicit and/or implicit

Entity theorists:

Believe personality does NOT change. -As a result, they selectively attend to and remember stereotype -consistent behavior and information and rarely change their stereotypes.

3) People with which of the following characteristics are more likely to be transphobic? A. female B. politically liberal C. high in authoritarianism D. high in egalitarianism

C.

What are the rebound effects?

Can also lead to: -increased application -decreased memory for individuating information -increased distancing and other biased behaviors

stereotype content model

Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, + Xu (2002) argue that beliefs and emotions stem from our classification of groups on two dimensions - warmth and competence; -for example, a group that is low warmth/high competence (e.g.,Jews) elicits anger and envy -Cottrell + Neuberg. (2005) argue that emotions stem from our specific beliefs about a group; -for example, economic threat is linked with anger while value threat with disgust.

Effects of Intergroup Contact

Increases: - knowledge about and empathy towards outgroup, -interest in other cultures -motivation to control prejudice Reduces -stereotyping -diminished expectations of negative intergroup interactions -decreased perception of outgroup as a threat -decreased intergroup anxiety − May not work for those who have very strong pre-existing attitudes and/or those who suffer from high levels of intergroup anxiety

The Process of Stereotyping:

Target is categorized → stereotype gets activated → stereotype is applied 1.Categorization of target 2 .Activation of stereotype: 3.Application of stereotype:

stigma

a physical or mental attribute that leads others to make negative dispositional inferences (i.e., stereotype) and to respond with prejudice and discrimination (i.e., biased attitudes and behaviors)

hyper vigilance

a tendency to constantly monitor the environment for potential threats - this means a person is always on edge it is linked with hypertension -means high blood pressure so this is a consequence that can lead to some serious illness

Conservation of cognitive resources:

allow us to make judgments about people without much effort

Self-report measures

ask participants to provide information about their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors; may want to use bogus pipeline method (i.e., fake lie detector) to prevent social desirability issues Discrimination: survey of past discriminatory behaviors or experiences with discrimination, social distance scale, reactions to hypothetical scenarios/vignettes

gender stereotypes

beliefs about sexual orientation, beliefs about one's own gender role, and judgments about those who violate gender roles and norms

Incremental theorists:

believe that personality can change over time. -They pay attention to both consistent + inconsistent information and are much more likely to change their beliefs.

Cortisol reactivity

can measure how much of the stress hormone known as cortisol is released by stigmatized individuals during mixed interactions; can be measured by taking saliva samples; higher levels = greater levels of distress Cardiovascular threat

Brain imaging techniques

can measure the level of activation of threat areas of brain (e.g., amygdala); more prejudice is typically associated with greater amygdala activation

Social adjustment:

endorsing stereotypes is one way we can fit in with society; may be act of conformity, obedience, and/or role-fulfillment-Research has demonstrated that a desire to fulfill one's social role can lead immoral treatment of others (e.g., Zimbardo, 1971)

Descriptive stereotypes

explain the characteristics and behaviors of group members

Facial muscle movements (via facial EMG)

measure the electrical activity in the brow, cheek, and other key regions; -prejudice is associated with less cheek activity and greater furrowing of one's brow (i.e., an angry face) during mixed interactions

Heterosexism:

nonheterosexual behaviors, identities, relationships, and communities are typically met with negative affect and held at in lower regard/status

Categorization of target

occurs when we identify the individual as a member of a particular group; although a target will belong to several different groups, usually one group is more salient than the others -Research demonstrates that we tend to use basic social categories (race, gender, age), -use categories that best differentiate the target from others, -use the category for which the target is a prototypical example, -categorize a person based on the his/her current behavior

Cultural discrimination level

one group dominates the system-imposes their value system as better than others Ex: music, art, norms, values, content of art and literature

Linguistic intergroup bias:

our choice of words reflects these underlying attributional biases and can serve to transmit these biases; -we use abstract (global/character) terms for outgroups' negative behavior -yet concrete (specific/contextual) terms for ingroup negative behavior

Sexual Orientation Hypothesis:.

people are more likely to assume feminine men are gay than assume that masculine women are lesbians.

Glass ceiling

refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women in professional jobs from reaching the highest levels.

Sticky floor phenomenon

refers to fact that traditionally female jobs do not offer many advancements.

Descriptive gender sterotypes aspect

tell us what most men and women are like

prescriptive gender sterotype aspect

tells us how men and women should be

System justification:

tereotyping the outgroup can serve as justification (rationale) for disliking + discriminating against the outgroup (e.g., stereotypes of welfare recipients are used to justify budget cuts)

Gender polarization:

the phenomenon in which people believe that masculinity and femininity are antithetical or oppositional to one another -when an individual is viewed as masculine (or feminine) on one trait, he/she is seen as masculine (or feminine) on other characteristics -Must be one or the other meaning feminine or masculine, you cant be pieces of both -which suggests that many people are viewing these things as mutually exclusive categories

Key predictors of a stigma's severity:

visibility, controllability, and greater perceived dangerousness

Communal:

warmth-expressive cluster that represents female traits; includes emotional, helpful, and kind

Self-esteem maintenance:

when our ego is threatened, we use stereotypes to make ourselves feel better since part of our esteem is determined by our group memberships (Social Identity Theory by Tajfel) -Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to stereotype a target after receiving bogus negative feedback.

cognitive obsession

which is a tendency to ruminate and worry about the stigmatized identity

General Strategies for Reducing Prejudice & Discrimination: Racial Color-Blindness

• Involves denying that race, skin color, or other factors exist • Problems: - Inconsistent with people's automatic categorization of others using basic social categories - Suppression can have rebound effects - Can desensitize nonstigmatized persons to racial bias - Makes nonstigmatized persons less willing to mention race

cognitive theory

- stereotypes represent schemas or tools we use to organize the world around us with the least amount of effort in a simple way -can help us conserve cognitive resources-may also be thought of as mental heuristics (shortcuts) -also argues that certain cognitive styles, or tendencies to think in a certain manner, can predispose someone to stereotype and perhaps be prejudicial -high need for closure is associated with greater stereotyping -whereas high need for cognition is associated with less stereotyping

Organizational Discrimination level

-(businesses and government) -hiring discrimination -pay discrimination-treated differently discrimination -Purposely set up for failure

What are the strongest direct predictors of poor physical health and what health symnptoms?

-(measured via symptoms such as cough, nausea) -Anticipated stigma (expectation of stigmatization) -Depth of cultural stigma (negativity of societal views)

Institutional Discrimination level

-Criminal Justice system -education system -schools -law/court

Managing Diversity

-Focus on changing policies and procedures within organizations, not just intergroup attitudes and behaviors • Two main goals: - Making organizational systems more responsive to needs of women and members of other underrepresented groups -Ex: targeting groups for recruitment, ensuring that members of underrepresented groups receive training for success) - Creating climate where diversity is normative and valued -Ex: rewarding people who value diversity, making diversity compliance part of performance reviews

General Strategies for Reducing Prejudice & Discrimination: Assimilation

-Idea that racial/ethnic minority group members should give up their own cultures and replace them with majority culture. -Based on the assumption that if everyone has the same culture, then group differences and prejudice will disappear - Implies disrespect for all cultures except the dominant one; positively correlated with prejudice!

Extended contact:

-having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice; -This can be effective in reducing many types of prejudice (especially for those who have little opportunity for direct intergroup contact); -leads to reduced intergroup anxiety -a belief that outgroup members are open to intergroup relationships -Perception that intergroup relations are permissable

Subtypes vary in what terms and how do people categorize them?

-identified over 200 different subtypes and most vary in terms of occupation, family roles, ideologies, physical features, and sexuality -categorize by gender, then if they are traditional or modern, and then by their age

Disclosing a concealable stigma to others can lead to

-increased self-esteem, -greater self-acceptance, -positive interactions with others, -less intrusive thoughts, - less distress; Must be careful to disclose to safe others and someone you trust

Personalization:

-involves focusing on the outgroup members as individuals; the outgroup member(s) must be seen in non-stereotypical terms

Priming

-is not a measure but rather a way to implicitly manipulate whether participants are exposed to prejudice-related stimuli and constructs; -involves the subliminal presentation of relevant stimuli (e.g., Black + White faces); -when images are presented very quickly, the retina encodes the image but that information does not reach conscious awareness; -research has demonstrated that the priming of Black faces before reading an ambiguous scenario about a character named Donald leads to higher ratings of hostility than the priming of White faces.

Imagined contact:

-mentally practicing a "positive, relaxed" meeting with an outgroup member -mental rehearsal can lead to : -the development of a script that guides future interactions -reduced negative intergroup emotions -lower physiological arousal and anxiety when in an intergroup context, -increased perspective-taking

Recategorization:

-must find a "common identity" or use "dual identities" (i.e., retain current identity while taking on higher-order, common identity)

Attitude generalization:

-must view outgroup members as "typical" of the outgroup (otherwise, the individual(s) will be subtyped, and positive attributes will be considered exceptions.)

intrusive thoughts,

-obsessions usually take this form -are unwanted unwelcome thoughts that suddenly appear at high frequency in a person's mind they are very distressing and can impact performance and things like working memories

Activation of stereotype

-occurs when the content of a stereotypes becomes accessible in the mind Is more likely to occur when the perceiver: -has been primed with stereotypic content, has received negative feedback, -has self-enhancement goals, -is high in prejudice and/or low in humanitarianism and egalitarianism goals. - is also more likely when the target is prototypical and social norms permit stereotyping

terror management theory (TMT)

-our belief systems, including stereotypes and prejudice, protect us from death-related anxiety -when we are reminded of death we vigorously defend our beliefs -For example: we stereotype and punish those who violate our beliefs while rewarding those who uphold our beliefs -These beliefs make us have a sense of immortality, control, and meaning in an otherwise chaotic world. When people are reminded of death (known as "mortality salience"), they tend to: -derogate outgroups more. - identify more strongly with in-groups. - prefer outgroup members who adhere to stereotypes.

Sociocultural theory

-our sociocultural context creates norms and these determine prejudice; also, our observations as we navigate through society can influence our views (example: division of labor) -Some forms of prejudice originate from a cultural emphasis on using certain social categories and on promoting certain values, ideals, and standards. -Culture often plays an important role in the use of race as a category, in determining gender roles and expectations, and in establishing beauty ideals and acceptable sexual practices. -These prejudices are often transmitted implicitly via social norms, to which people are highly motivated to conform culture

Lays theories

-specifically our ideas about the stability of personality, can sometimes perpetuate stereotypes -Entity theorists -Incremental theorists:

Factors that make a workplace more accepting include

-the presence of other gay people, -gay-friendly policies - anti-discrimination legislation is within a jurisdiction. -Gay and bisexual men made 11-27 percent less than heterosexual menwith same experience, education, occupation and marriage status

Three characteristics of gender sterotypes

1. people tend to believe that a person's gender-related traits are stable over time -so if a child demonstrates very feminine behavior early on it is believed that that child will go on to become a highly feminine adult woman 2. status is often confounded with masculinity -For example people assume that someone of a higher status is assertive and independent and they essentially ascribe more agentic traits to that person and of course they assume that if someone's a man that they probably have or are more likely to have a high status job like a ceo than a woman 3. stereotypes seem to be consistant across different age groups, geographic regions, and time

6) In a conversation with a lesbian, which of the following behaviors may be well-intended, but still communicates prejudicial thinking? A. asking her personal questions about her sex life B. failing to assume that everyone is heterosexual C. admitting that you have a lot to learn about gay issues D. discussing the impact that being lesbian has on her life.

A.

7) Which of the following is NOT one of the factors essential to the success of intergroup contact as a prejudice reduction technique? A. One group must be higher status than the other. B. The groups must work cooperatively toward a common goal. C. The situation must have acquaintance potential. D. The intergroup effort must have the support of authority figures.

A.

Research on attitudes toward women and men shows that A. women are liked better than men on traditional evaluation measures. B. discrimination against women is, for the most part, a thing of the past. C. today's college students have no clear preference for either women or men. D. people consistently associate more positive characteristics with female subtypes than with male subtypes.

A.

Self report measures advantages and disadadvatges

ADV: -Efficient, -easy to administer because many people can complete it at the same time -cover multiple topics - ask about behavior in a variety of situations -less costly - most direct way to find out people's opinions DSV: -easy to conceal true attitudes and opinions Solution: it being anonymous and includes unobtrusive and implicit cognition measures so that people do not realize prejudice is being measured

Unobtrusive measures adv and disv

Adv: -It is cost-effective. -It is easier than other methods to correct mistakes in data collection. -They are are conducive to examining processes that occur over time or in the past. Dsv: -There is limited availability of topics or questions that can be investigated; -There may be problems with validity.

psychological measures adv and dsv

Adv: -psychological responses not under voluntary control so it is difficult for people to edit them - strong validity the psychological measures are indicators of positive and negative emoion and intensity Disv: lack of training in psychological psychology, expensive research because of specific instruments

Attitude Change:

Attitudes are highly resistant to change -prejudice may be especially difficult to reduce since it serves important psychological functions, -is tied to people's ideologies and worldviews, -often operates at a subconscious or unconscious level, -woven into social norms

5) The cluster of traits that represent stereotypes of women is called A. agentic. B. communal. C. analytical. D. angry.

B.

9) Stereotype suppression A. has cognitive, but not behavioral effects. B. makes stereotypes come to mind more easily later. C. decreases an individual's motivation. D. leads people to attend to individuating information

B.

Helen sees herself as gender-conforming; thus, Helen is A. androgynous. B. cisgender. C. transgender. D. transphobic.

B.

General Strategies for Reducing Prejudice & Discrimination: Polyculturalism

Based on belief that there is no such thing as "pure culture"; instead, all people are interconnected • Like multicultural approaches, it recognizes and celebrates individual cultures. • However, it emphasizes links among cultures rather than differences between them • Has negative correlation with prejudice • Problems: -Fails to recognize that some intergroup interactions will inevitably be negative; does not provide framework for how to deal with this and prevent this from generalizing -Not much empirical work has been done on this strategy

Discrimination

Behavioral component; differential treatment based on group membership -May take various forms including verbal and passive (e.g., avoidance) -operates at the interpersonal, organizational (businesses and government), institutional (criminal justice system, schools), and cultural (norms, values, content of art and literature)

General Strategies for Reducing Prejudice & Discrimination: Multiculturalism

Belief that race/ethnicity should be given attention rather than ignored -Negatively correlated with prejudice • Problems: - May emphasize and lead to the endorsement of the idea that real, meaningful differences exist between groups - Can be used as legitimizing myth to justify inequality (i.e., people may blame outcome disparities to "deficiencies" in stigmatized persons)

8) The __________ model of prejudice reduction proposes that people who see themselves as unprejudiced become sensitized to environmental cues that warn them when they might respond in a prejudiced manner. A. stereotype rebound B. value confrontation C. self-regulation D. personalization.

C.

4) The ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes sexual minority groups is called A. homophobia. B. sexual orientation bias. C. sexism D. heterosexism.

D.

Which groups get stereotyped the most?

Greater stereotyping occurs for groups in which its members tend to have: -shared visible features, -membership is perceived as unalterable (i.e., a person cannot change the group to which they belong), -the group is perceived as high in essentialism (i.e., members are believed to share a common core), -the group is perceived as high in entitativity (i.e., members are believed to interact often hold similar views, strongly identify with the group, etc.)

What are concealable stigmas associated with?

Lane and Wagner's Preoccupation model of secrecy suggests: -cognitive obsession, -intrusive thoughts, -hypervigilance, -self-monitoring, -conversation management, -projection of stigma onto others -low self esteem -anxiety -depression -guilt -shame -distrust of others

The following characteristics predict greater acceptance and more positive attitudes towards gay men and lesbians, transgenders

More positive attitudes toward gay men, lesbians, and transgender individuals are seen in people who are -younger, -educated, -female, -less conservative, -less authoritarian

What is the Best Approach to Reducing Prejudice?

Not assimilation!!! • Color-blindness also has a lot of drawbacks! • Other two strategies have some shortcomings as well. • Best approach may be combination: - Start with multicultural approach to foster knowledge of and respect for other cultures - Use colorblind approach to offset multiculturalism's focus on differences - Use polycultural approach to to unify and expand on the other two

Stereotype Suppression:

One way people may try to reduce prejudice is by pushing stereotypes and other unwanted, biased thoughts out of their mind. − Can lead to "rebound effects," or the increased accessibility of stereotypes

Self-Regulation Model:

People who view themselves as nonprejudiced can develop cues for controlling their prejudicial responses − Involves learning what situations/contexts are likely to elicit prejudice and then using cues from those contexts as signals to control their responses −can cause anxiety for the regulator during mixed interactions, even if they successfully avoid acting in a discriminatory manner Ex: White persons who are motivated to avoid prejudice (compared to those who are not motivated) are better liked by Black interaction partners, but they report enjoying the interaction less and feeling more anxiety.

Intergroup relations Theory

Prejudice results from perceived threats and competition with other groups -may also result from our need to see our in group in a positive light (social identity Theory) -can also result from our mere tendency to create an ingroup and an outgroup (Tajfel's research on the minimal group paradigm which shows that people favor fellow ingroup members even when the group is based on trivial, unimportant commonalities)

psychodynamic theory

Prejudice stems from hidden motivations and conflicts -Prejudice may be the result of internal motivational conflicts, hidden desires, irrational thoughts, and/or ego defense (i.e., selfesteem maintenance). - may represent a defense mechanism - may be linked to a personality type that evolves throughout childhood (e.g., Adorno's work on authoritarianism)

self regulation model sequence of events

Sequence of events: stereotype activation due to outgroup visual features → prejudice response → contradiction between behavior and self-concept → guilt and other negative affect → memory storage of contextual cues for subsequent use -Eventually, the person responds to these cues automatically in a non-prejudiced manner

sexual minorities are stigmatized on what two levels?

Sexual minorities are stigmatized at both a societal level (through biased legislation) and a personal level (anti-gay prejudice).

Illusory correlations:

Stereotypes may result from biased memory which causes us to believe two things are related when, in fact, they are not; The logic is as follows: -We have better memory for rare, distinctive events. -Negative behaviors are rarer than positive ones. -Also, members of minority groups are rarer than the majority. Taken together, when a minority member commits a negative behavior, this is a VERY rare event. -Thus, negative behaviors of minority members are more easily remembered which leads us to overestimate and misconstrue the negativity of minorities.(e.g., Black + aggressive)

Attributional biases:

Stereotypes may result from our tendency to attribute the causes of behavior in a distorted, self-serving manner. -With respect to the outgroup, we make: - dispositional/internal attributions for negative behavior -(e.g., the outgroup member failed the math exam because he/she is unintelligent) -situational/external attributions for positive behavior -(e.g., he/she passed the physics exam because the exam was too easy). -With respect to the ingroup, we exhibit the reverse attributional pattern. -We make situational attributions for negative behavior and dispositional ones for positive behavior.

Outgroup homogeneity effect:

Stereotypes may result from our tendency to view outgroup members as highly similar; -this tendency results from a lack of contact with outgroup, -not seeing outgroup act in various contexts/roles -,Our desire for personal uniqueness can bias us towards thinking that in-group members vary from one another.

Intergroup Contact Theory:

Under proper conditions, interactions between ingroup and outgroup members can lead to positive changes − Necessary conditions (Allport, 1954): equal status, superordinate goals, close contact (high acquaintance potential), support from society − Factors increasing positive effects: equal status extends outside of situation, groups have similar values and attitudes and have equal ability on cooperative task, interactions extend beyond situation and are long-term, contact is voluntary, and equal number of members from each group

Why do stereotypes rebound? find in book too

Wegner (1994) believed that thought suppression leads to unconscious priming of the unwanted thought - This may occur because a person must be aware of the thought to be able to monitor the mind for its presence -Other researchers (e.g., Gordijn et al., 2004) argue that suppression causes self-regulatory resources to become depleted, thereby reducing people's ability to suppress the stereotype in the future. -Or, it may be the case that suppression produces an increased desire/need to use the stereotype in the future

Implicit measures

assess how strongly two or more concepts are associated with one another in the mind typically involve making quick judgments/decisions during a computer task; - key advantage is that the social desirability bias is minimized since participants cannot disguise or sculpt their responses -key disadvantage is that they have questionable construct validity (i.e., many theorists are unsure what exactly these measures are measuring)

Prejudice self report measures

attitude questionnaires, feeling thermometer very favorable to not very favorable, and modern racism scale where agree or disagree to statements

sterotyping self report measures

checklist method where one checks off traits that are typical or related to a target group, stereotype endorsement scale where one rating the likelihood of group members' traits

Stereotypes:

cognitive component; beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of group members -can be positive and/or negative -can be descriptive and prescriptive -Stigmas lead to negative dispositional inferences (i.e., assumptions about one's character or essence) -is a set of traits and tendencies believed to be shared by all (or most) members of a stigmatized group Ex: All Asians are bad drivers

Agentic:

competence cluster that represents male traits; includes independent, strong, and selfconfident; females' perceived agency has increased in recent years while male's has remained constant

Unobtrusive measures

conceal their true nature or intention; participants may not know when, why, and/or how they are being evaluated Scales: -observing -Willingness to help a stigmatized (vs. non-stigmatized) target - Psychological + physical distance (e.g., level of agreement with target, how far one sits away) - Judgments about suitability as potential employee

Prescriptive stereotypes

describe how group members should behave

Concealable Stigmas:

devalued identity that can be kept hidden from others -Examples: include sexual orientation, mental illness, rape victim, epilepsy, domestic violence, previous incarceration, HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse, having had an abortion, eating disorders -Not disclosing means that even casual details about one's life must be kept secret, part of heterosexual privledge -Disclosing homosexual orientation t could lead to assumptions about ones personality and lifestyle -Many fear social rejection, loss of employment, and physical violence if they were to disclose their concealed identity they carry a unique set of problems problems like deciding whether or not to disclose to others or ones that are even more severe which are capable of causing the person to become psychologically and physically distressed or even ill

Scientific racism

idea that some groups are superior to others and that prejudice is justified when it is directed at the inferior groups; uses "scientific data" to support argument. -Prejudice (especially racism) can result from the erroneous belief that certain groups are inferior. -Involves the misinterpretation of existing data and/or highlyflawed "experimentation -"For example, some people use low SAT scores in disadvantaged groups as evidence of inferiority when, in reality, these scores can be accounted for by a phenomenon known as stereotype threat

What else do gender stereotypes include and what are examples for both men and woman:

include information about the roles and responsibilities, the physical characteristics, and also the cognitive capabilities of each gender Roles Ex: -(Women) housewife, she cooks, cleans, is fashion conscious, takes care of the children, source of emotional support, -(Men) include Financial providers, head of household, leader repairman Physical Ex: -Women: more likely to be described in terms such as beautiful, cute, dainty, graceful, pretty, petite, sexy, -Men: typically athletic, brawny, muscular, strong, vigorous, and tall Cognitive abilities Ex: -Women: often described as being artistic, creative, expressive, imaginative, intuitive, and verbally skilled -Men:described in terms of being analytical, exact, mathematical, problem solving, and abstract

Heterosexual men are less accepting of who?

less accepting of homosexuals (especially gay men) compared to heterosexual women

Application

occurs when we use a stereotype to make judgments about the target • Activated stereotypes will always be applied UNLESS the perceiver is 1) motivated to prevent stereotyping (This occurs when the perceiver is low in prejudice, has a high need for cognition, and/or a low need for closure.) 2) cognitively capable of preventing stereotyping (This requires that the perceiver has adequate cognitive resources (e.g., no time constraints or distractions or other tasks to perform).

Affirmative action:

programs designed to combat discrimination and provide equal opportunity in employment - Race and gender can be considered as factors when making hiring decisions such that if two candidates are relatively equal, preference may be given to the minority or female candidate. - Focuses on creation of a diverse workforce - Not intended to reduce prejudice or improve intergroup relations although it can lead to more positive attitudes. -(However, some research finds that ingroup members may hold negative attitudes toward beneficiaries of affirmative action, and these attitudes can generalize to entire group.

Gender Belief System:

set of beliefs about men and women that includes ideas about the traits and roles each gender should possess (gender stereotypes) − Descriptive and prescriptive − Typically transmitted via media, parents, and peers -Ex: Parents buying their daughter makeup and a doll is more likely to make the daughter more stereotype feminine. -Ex: female protagnists in video games are rare and when they are in the games they are hypersexualized, non combat roles or games, have sterotypical traits

Sterotypes

set of traits and tendencies believed to be shared by all (or most) of those who belong to a specific category- Black Americans: lazy, athletic, street-smart- Mentally-ill individuals: awkward, insecure, unpredictable, violent

Discrimination self report measures

survey of past discriminatory behaviors or experiences with discrimination (e.g., verbal insults, racist jokes), social distance scale (measuring the extent of how much one wants to distance themselves from stigmatized groups), reactions to hypothetical scenarios/vignettes

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

test for racism measures the relative strengths of Black-good, Whitegood, Black-bad, White-bad associations by examining error patterns and response times

self-monitoring

which means having to watch how one dresses how they behave, what one says in all of the interactions that one has with other people -very exhausting

STEROTYPE THREAT:

which occurs when fear of and preoccupation with confirming the stereotype hinders performance.

Discrimination-Affection Paradox:

women are viewed more positively (on both implicit and explicit attitude measures) than men, yet they still experience high levels of discrimination (e.g., the wage gap); may be due to the following: − Only certain subtypes of women are viewed positively; females who occupy traditional roles (housewives) are better liked that those in nontraditional roles (career women) − Views of women are truly a mix of benevolence and hostility with hostility being directed toward women in nontraditional roles

Role Congruity Theory:

women may not pursue high-level positions due to the belief that -women are less likely than men to be successful in leadership roles -the tendency for women to receive negative evaluations when in high-level positions Female leaders often violate expecations about what -leaders should be like -women should be like -research reveals that being too similar to men or trying to be very agentic such as having an unstructured more independent style core setup can actually work against those female academics since it violates gender expectancies -thus females in high status roles must play a delicate dance between agency and communality between expectations of leaders and those of women.

Two Clusters of Gender Stereotypical Traits

− Agentic − Communal

women in the work place and two phenomenons that can happen to women in the work place

− The number of women in higher education and the workplace has increased over the years, yet many jobs remain gender-segregated -Sticky floor − Glass ceiling