Final Exam - every study guide combined into 1 (missing 7/23 lecture)

You first notice growth on the blood agar plate growing in the candle jar. What is one of the first tests you would perform on the specimen? Antibiotic susceptibility Optochin Test Mouse Virulence Gram Stain

Gram Stain

What does IGG do?

It gives you long lasting immunity. (If you get measels once you will never get it again)

Describe a Durham Tube

It has a little glass tube inside to capture gas that could possibly be made from microorganisms.

How does penicillin work?

It interferes with cross linking of peptidoglycan and is most effective for gram positives.

How does HPV cause cancer?

It is a DNA virus that transforms a normal cell into a cancer cell. Allows cells to continue to divide when they should have already stoped dividing.

We used methylene blue for our simple stain. It is a basic dye. Why does this work well to stain bacterial cells?

It is a cationic (positively charge) dye and is attracted to the negatively charged cell.

What does autoclave mean?

It is a machine that sterilizes. Auto= self Clave=Key/Lock

What is a frameshift?

It is a mutation that occurs along a DNA chain due to a deletion mutation. The dna reads as gibberish.

What stain is for Mycobacterium and what does this mean?

It is a special stain for mycobacterium (aka tuberculosis). It is needed because TB bacteria is termed "acid-fast" because it is able to resist decolorization due to its waxy outer coating.

What is a binomial system of classification?

It is a system in which you use two names to classify something. The genus always comes first followed by the specific epithet. It is usually shortened in scientific text as the Genus abbreviated to one letter which is always an uppercase letter and the epithet always being fully spelled out and lowercase. The text written should be italicized.

Why do we heat fix slides?

It is done to get a dry smear, so that bacterial enzymes get denatured, preventing them from digesting cell parts, which would break the cells.

Why does E. coli give a green metallic sheen on EMB agar?

It makes a lot of lactose, which produces a lot of acid that reacts with the eosin methanol blue

What is the purpose of long conjugation pili?

It makes a path to another cell and allows for a transfer of DNA.

What does the candle jar do?

It produces an environment high in carbon dioxide. Candle goes in jar with petri dish in jar as well, light candle, put lid on jar. Flame eats up the O2. Creates an anaerobic environment.

Why does E. Coli give a green sheen?

It produces by fermentation and a lot of acid from lactose and that acid causes a reaction with the eosin and methylene blue to make the green metalic sheen

What does capnophilic bacteria do? Example?

It requires an environment low in oxygen but rich in carbon dioxide to grow. Ex. Campylobacter

Explain the Hershey-Chase Experiment.

It was done in two parts. Part A- 1. Radioactive sulfur proteins were put into the virus capsule 2. Virus then attacked cells. 3. Cells were then centrifuged. 4. When a florescent light was put on the tube, it glowed at the top. This meant since viruses are lighter than cells the radioactive sulfur proteins on the virus capsule did not contain the genetic material of the cell. Part B- 1. Radioactive phosphorus proteins were put into the virus head 2. Virus then attacked cells. 3. Cells were then centrifuged. 4. When a florescent light was put on the tube, it glowed at the bottom This meant since viruses are lighter than cells the radioactive phosphorus proteins of the virus were injected into the cells proving that DNA was the genetic material of the cell.

Draw and describe what Staphylococcus epidermis would look like.

It would appear to look like grapes and be purple. It is a gram positive bacterial

Draw and describe what Bacillus subtilis would look like. Gram positive ?

It would be long rods and purple. Spores may be available for viewing. It would be gram positive.

Draw and describe what E. coli would look like.

It would be short rods and reddish. It would be gram negative

What happens to the Hydrogen atoms that goes up ATP synthase?

It's energy is enough when released to cause ADP and P to come together and form ATP

What makes the antibodies?

Lymphocyte B Cells

What is ATP Synthase?

The channel that protons flow through and ATP is made

What is expression repair?

a way of fixing a "thymine dimer"

What is an epidemic?

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a (local) community at a particular time.

What is a pandemic?

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease over continents

Who is Henrietta Lacks?

a woman who died in '51 as a result of cervical cancer. HPV 18 cells called Hela cells named after here.

Cells in the body responsible for long term immunity are b cells t cells macrophages killer cells

b cells

These prokaryotes have the ability to live in extreme conditions of temperature and pH due to unique cell wall or cell membrane composition. proteobactria cyanobacteria archebacteria viruses protozoa

archaebacteria

What did Watson and Crick work out in 1953? xray diffraction of DNA That DNA was the genetic material The double-helix structure of DNA PCR

The double-helix structure of DNA

What happens in the death phase/decline of the growth curve?

There is a greater number of dead cells than living cells.

What happens in the stationary phase of the growth curve?

There starts to become an equal number of live and dead cells, because nutrients have become limited and waste products have increased.

A phage infects a virus, so when growing the phage in the lab, what would a plate infected by ecoli look like?

There would be holes called "plaques" in the agar where the ecoli was infected by the virus.

in the PCR experiment in lab, one of the most important ingredients was: DNA Poly III Reverse transcriptase Thermus Aquaticus Poly All of the above none of the above

Thermus aquaticus polymerase

IGM antibodies: are mostly seen early in infection come up after 6 weeks are usually assc with allergic reactions have no effect against viruses

are mostly seen early in infection

IGG antibodies: usually come up early in infection only come up during the second infection with the same virus are the reason we only get measles once, if at all must bind igm to be effective

are the reason we only get measles once, if at al

An organism having pili has the advantage over which lack pili because it can: move actively obtain nutrients from beef broth stain easy attach to various surfaces including tissue synthesize glycoproteins.

attach to various surfaces including tissue

The process by which bacteria are attracted to chemical nutrients and move toward it is called

chemiosmosis

DNA can be transferred from one bacterial cell to another through a pilus. This process is known as: transduction transformation translation transcription conjugation

conjugation

Which one of the following sequences is not a palindrome? cccggg gggccc gaacta cttgat ctgcag gacgtc all of the above are palindromes

gaacta cttgat

the deletion or insertion of nucleotides during chromosomal replication would most likely cause: a missence mutation plasmid replication a slient mutation a reading frameshift mutation.

a reading frameshift mutation

What is EcoR1?

a restriction endonuclease that is most famous. It was the first found. It cuts with staggered ends.

the EMB agar plate is: a synthetic media a selective media a selective and differential media a media which induces mutations

a selective and differential media

What is clostridium tetani

the cause of tetanus, comes from rusty metal

What is clostridium perfingens?

gas gangrene

A DNA sequence of nucleotide bases which contains the code for synthesizing a protein or determining a trait is called a ribosome codon mutation plasmid gene

gene

Which statement is true? hepatitis is a disease of the kidney hepatitis c can be acquired by sharing needles or a crack pipe hepatitis A must be treated with interferon Harvoni only reduces symptoms it doesn't cure

hepatitis c can be acquired by sharing needles or a crack pipe

fuzeon and norvir are treatments for: hepatitis A lyme disease syphilis hiv

hiv

for Crutzfeldt-Jakob disease: the disease can only be acquired by eating bad meat medical instruments have no part in transmitting the disease hospitals must insure that medical instruments are disinfected properly it is impossible to destroy a prion

hospitals must insure that medical instruments are disinfected properly

Aerobic respiration includes several reactions which can be referred to as: metabolic pathways fermentation protein synthesis transcription translation

metabolic pathways

The sum of all biochemical processes that take place in a living cell: replication survival metabolism anabolism sporulation

metabolism

Name 2 inclusion bodies

metachromatic granules gas vessicles Others: glycogen, starch, gas vesicles, sulfur, lipid, metachromatic granules and magnetosomes Goofy sniffed green vittles since liars make gross munchies

Name the obligate aerobe we worked with in lab

micrococcus

What is normal flora?

microorganisms which normally inhabit the body.

Sarah Nelmes

milkmaid

Being able to see one colony of bacterial growth is referred to as? miasma pure culture contamination transformation

pure culture

The HIV virus is this type of virus DNA virus retrovirus respiratory disease

retrovirus

Where can staphylococcus epidermis can be found?

skin (normal flora)

ATP releases its stored energy by? activating its protons to form ions converting to a carbohydrate combining with other ATP molecules Splitting into a phosphate ion and ADP absorbing heat from the environment.

splitting into a phosphate ion and ADP

Mutations arising from chance events in the environments are known as: point mutations spontaneous mutations environmental mutations induced mutations

spontaneous mutations

What does aseptic mean?

sterile

A mutation at a single base on the DNA where an incorrect base is found is called a: substitution insertion deletion

substitution

List antibiotics that inhibit DNA synthesis

sulfadrugs quinolones-ciprofloxacin

What animals can be infected with Influenza?

swine, avian species

Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of: shingles cowpox german measles syphilis

syphilis

Cells in the body responsible for killing virus infected cells are b cells t cells macrophages killer cells

t cells

The competence of a bacterium refers to its ability to: support viral replication take up extracellular DNA from the environment conjugate with other competent bacteria change from an F+ cell to an F- cell

take up extracellular DNA from the environment

The production of RNA using DNA as a template is known as: transduction transformation translation transcription

transcription

How does Electrophoresis of PCR work?

you use gel electrophoresis to separate PCR products using an electric current. Electrophoresis means "carry with current". DNA is negatively charged, so when current applied it is pulled towards the positive anode.

In the ELISA experiment in lab, if you forgot to add the substrate you would expect: no change in the final result all results would turn positive your reaction would appear colorless substrate is not part of the ELISA assay

your reaction would appear colorless

In the lac Operon what is responsible for keeping the operon "off"

the repressor

What are the three steps that make up one PCR cycle?

1. denaturation 2. annealing 3. extension

What is considered a suppressed immune system?

When a T cell CD4 counts are below 200 cells/mm3

What is considered immune suppressed?

When a T cell CD4 counts are below 200 cells/mm3

Treatment for herpes simplex?

Antiviral such as Acyclovir (valtrex). Can't be cured, only suppressed. Can transmit at anytime.

What is mismatch repair?

"Proof reads"

Carolus Linnaeus

"Sistema natura" book, classification of plants and animals. Binomial system nomenclature and hierarchical organization.

What is miasma? Is it true?

"bad air". It is the chemical quality of the air. There is some truth to this theory, as poor quality of air can make you sick, however it is not the only and primary reason as to making you sick. The passing of good and bad microorganisms, is shown through germ theory of disease work that was first done by Girolamo Fracastoro, theorized by Pasteur and confirmed by Koch.

How do you activate the repressor so that you can turn on the operon?

"something specific to the repressor" binds to the repressor which removes it.

What is peptidoglycan? What does the word mean?

A polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria, forming a cell wall. Peptio- Peptides/Proteins Glycan - sugars

Does chlamydia allow for increased HIV transmission?

(****Google Search Answer*** http://www.aidsmap.com/Chlamydia/page/1044825/) Yes

Which Neisseria grows genitally and which in cerebrospinal fluid?

(****Google Search Answer***) Cerebrospinal fluid: Neisseria meningitidis, often referred to as meningococcus Genitally: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as gonococcus (singular), or gonococci (plural)

What are the main HIV proteins we are interested in when testing for HIV?

(****Google Search Answer***) a core antigen called p24 which is produced even before antibodies develop --------- ALSO: GP120 GP41 Core antigen P24 GP= Glycoprotien #= molecular weight These are antigens and their corresponding antibody

What body sites might you test for gonorrhea?

(****Google Search Answer***) Urine Mouth Anus

What is beta lactamase?

(***Google Search Answer** ) -Enzymes that can split the β-lactam ring •Splitting the β-lactam ring inactivates the antibiotic (it can cause resistance) A bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the lactam ring in some penicillin antibiotics, rendering them ineffective. Beta-lactamase is also known as penicillinase

What is a retrovirus?

(***Google Search Answer** ) Any of a group of RNA viruses that insert a DNA copy of their genome into the host cell in order to replicate, e.g., HIV.

True of False - Antibiotics work always work well for a sore throat?

(***Google Search Answer** ) False, most sore throats are viral. Antibiotics would only work for bacterial infection reasons causing a sore throat in cases such as strep throat.

What does IMViC stand for?

(***Google Search Answer** ) Indole, Methyl Red, Voges-Proskauer, Citrate Utilization

What is viral load?

(***Google Search Answer** ) a measurement of the amount of a virus in an organism, typically in the bloodstream, usually stated in virus particles per milliliter.

What is penicillinase?

(***Google Search Answer** ) main mechanism by which bacteria resist penicillin enzyme produced by bacteria that cleaves the beta-lactam ring of the penicillin molecule

How might a mom who is HIV positive give birth to a healthy child?

(***Google Search Answer** http://americanpregnancy.org/pregnancy-complications/hiv-aids-during-pregnancy/) Keeping viral counts low by taking medications Cesarean Baby receiving meds after birth

Does penicillin work best on gram positive of negative organisms? Why?

(***Google Search Answer** http://community.middlebury.edu/~sontum/chemistry/students/atteridge/penicillin/penicillin.html) Gram positive, due to the access and thick nature of the peptidoglycan. Gram negatives will die from penicillin, but it is harder due to the lipopolysaccharide outer layer that penicillin must penetrate before having access to the peptidoglycan where it can block the transpeptidase.

What is reverse transcriptase?

(***Google Search Answer** https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase) A reverse transcriptase is an enzyme used to generate complementary DNA from an RNA template, a process termed reverse transcription. It is mainly associated with retroviruses. However, non-retroviruses also use RT.

What does Treponema pallidum cause?

(***Google Search Answer** https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treponema_pallidum) A spirochaete bacterium with subspecies that cause the diseases: 1. syphilis, 2. bejel 3. yaws

Discuss antibiotic resistance in gonorrhea

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.cdc.gov/std/gonorrhea/arg/carb.htm) Thirty percent of new gonorrhea infections each year are resistant to at least one drug.

What is the treatment of syphilis?

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/treatment.htm) Benzathine penicillin G

What are the three ways HIV is generally treated?

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.hiv.va.gov/patient/basics/HIVtreatment.asp and https://www.webmd.com/hiv-aids/understanding-aids-hiv-treatment#2) 1. Most people who are getting treated for HIV take 3 or more drugs. This is called combination therapy or "the cocktail." It also has a longer name: highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Combination therapy is the most effective treatment for HIV. 2. CD4 count every 3-6 months to check how healthy an immune system is. 3. Viral load test every 3-4 months. To check how the medications are working

What is PCR?

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/a/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr Polymerase chain reaction is technique to make many copies of a specific DNA region in vitro (in a test tube rather than an organism). Big impact on 5 areas of biotechnology; gene mapping, cloning, DNA sequencing, gene detection and DNA profiling. Uses short fragments of DNA known as primers to target specific regions (loci) in a sample of DNA to be copied. Uses the power of discrimination to differentiate between two organisms or even individuals of the same type. Steps 1. Denaturation (96°C): Heat the reaction strongly to separate, or denature, the DNA strands. This provides single-stranded template for the next step. 2. Annealing (555555 - 656565°C): Cool the reaction so the primers can bind to their complementary sequences on the single-stranded template DNA. 3. Extension (72°C): Raise the reaction temperatures so Taq polymerase extends the primers, synthesizing new strands of DNA. 4. Repeat. This cycle repeats 252525 - 353535 times in a typical PCR reaction, which generally takes 222 - 444 hours, depending on the length of the DNA region being copied. If the reaction is efficient (works well), the target region can go from just one or a few copies to billions.

What is PPNG?

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6808016) penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Discuss how other infections might increase HIV infection.

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-do-other-stds-increase-hiv-risk-3133098) Since HIV prefers to infect immune cells, any disease that causes an increase in these cells also will make it easier for a person to become infected with HIV. STDs that increase HIV risk in this way include: Gonorrhea Chlamydia Trichomoniasis

HIV infectious process including viral load/T Cell curves

(***Google Search Answer** https://www.webmd.com/hiv-aids/hiv-viral-load-what-you-need-to-know#1) A high viral load is generally considered about 100,000 copies, but you could have 1 million or more. The virus is at work making copies of itself, and the disease may progress quickly. A lower HIV viral load is below 10,000 copies. The virus probably isn't actively reproducing as fast, and damage to your immune system may be slowed, but this is not optimal. A viral load that can't be detected -- less than 20 copies -- is always the goal of HIV treatment. This doesn't mean you're cured. Unfortunately, the virus is still able to survive in various cells in the body. But maintaining an undetectable viral load is compatible with a normal, or near-normal life span. Continuing to take your medicine as prescribed to keep the virus undetectable is very important. When your HIV viral load is undetectable, there is little to no risk of infecting others, but most doctors still advise using condoms to prevent acquiring other strains of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.

What is chlamydia treated with?

(***Google Search Answer**) Azithromycin (Zithromax) or Doxycycline

What is a differential stain?

(A gram stain) A stain that allows you to differentiate between types of bacteria based off of staining characteristics (for example color difference). It can tell you if it is positive or negative. A positive would be the color violet and a negative the color reddish orange. This helps in an initial identification process. Positives are positive due to the amount of lipids in the cell wall, vs the negatives which are negative due to the thinner cell membrane.

How is an Elisa test run? *essay nail!* - POSSIBLY WRONG, WAITING ON CONFIRM

(Assuming we are testing for measles immunity) 1. A blood sample from a pt and is drawn in a red top tube and put into a centrifuge and separated into serum, WBC and RBC's. A sample of the person's serum is removed. 2. A sample of measles is put into the Elisa test wells 3. 100 ul ( 100 ul = 0.1ml = microliters) of the pt's serum is put into the wells and left to incubate for 1 hour. If the person has antibodies her serum will bind to the measles. 4. Then Rabbit Anti Human Serum is added which will bind to the human serum 5. Then Goat Anti Rabbit Conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is added which will bind to the rabbit Anti Human Serum 6. Finally, a reagent/ substrate called OPD is added last as an indicator of a positive or negative presence of the antibodies. Blue is positive, Clear is negative. ___________ How to run an Elisa Test (Assuming we are testing for measles immunity) 1. A blood sample from a patient and is drawn in a red top tube and put into a centrifuge and separated into serum, WBC and RBC's. A sample of the person's serum is removed. (wash step?) 2. A sample of measles is put into the Elisa test wells (length of time?!) (wash step?) 3. 100 ul ( 100 ul = 0.1ml = microliters) of the patient's serum is put into the wells and left to incubate for 1 hour. If the person has antibodies her serum will bind to the measles. (wash step?) 4. Then Rabbit Anti Human Serum is added which will bind to the human serum (length of time?!) (wash step?) 5. Then Goat Anti Rabbit Conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is added which will bind to the rabbit Anti Human Serum (length of time?!) (wash step?) 6. Finally, a reagent/ substrate called OPD is added last as an indicator of a positive or negative presence of the antibodies. Blue is positive, Clear is negative.

Before entering the Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid is first converted into: succinic acid glucose-6 phosphate acetyl-CoA ethanol lactic acid

(transition step!) acetyl-CoA

What is the mechanism of action of penicillin? Receptor ?

**It interferes with cross linking of peptidoglycan and is most effective for gram positives.** https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4lVY9Gys164) Penicillin attacks the proteins that build bacterial cell walls by attaching to the "Penicillin Binding Proteins"/PCB. It then blocks the Transpeptidase a critical enzyme in the bacteria's peptidoglycan cross-linking in the cell wall. This causes the cell's osmotic pressure to rise ultimately causing it to burst. (***Google Search Answer** https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/29

What is fermentation?

*An organic electron acceptor.* It is used if no inorganic molecules are present (for example O2 or nitrate) to accept electrons. In this case the final acceptor would be organic.

The enzyme responsible for the synthesis of DNA from a DNA template is: DNA polymerase DNA ligase DNA helicase DNA reverse transcriptase

DNA polymerase

What is the primary end product of goal of glycolysis?

2 pyruvate molecules (also produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules)

Who invented the Condenser?

Ernst Abbe

Name some characteristics of bacteria (5!)

1. Does not have a membrane enclosed nucleus 2. It's DNA and chromosomes are (localized but not contained) within the nucleoid 3. It's ribosomes are for protein systhesis 4. It has extra chromosomal DNA called plasmids 5. Has inclusion bodies

Name a few enterobacteriaceae (8)...

1. E. coli 2. Salmonella 3. Shigella 4. Proteus 5. Citrobacter 6. Klebsiella 7. Enterobacter 8. Yersinia Eerie Spiders Prowled Celestes Kingdom Every Year.

What are the two parts of capsule staining?

1. congo red stain 2. maneval stain

Describe Hepatitis C

1. Blood borne pathogen 2. Causes Jaundice 3. Elevated liver enzymes AST/ALT 4. Old term: "Non A/Non B Hepatitis" 5. Elisa Test would be done for confirmation then a viral load test would be done. 6. Interferon treatment would be done. Takes about a year to complete 7. Harvoni is a new treatment, cures Hep C after 8 treatments, very expensive. 8. No vaccine.

Is Mycobacterium highly resistant to antibiotics?

yes

Compare HIV-1 and HIV-2

HIV1 Origin: Chimpanzee Transmission: Easier Prevalence: World Wide HIV2 Origin: Sooty Mangaby Transmission: More difficult Prevalence: West Africa

Is the flu host specific?

yes, usually

How did HIV seemingly spread?

From one patient who traveled from Cameroon to Hati to Florida

biggest to smallest ecoli giraffe nitrogen atom hepatitis virus paramecium

*virus infects cell *atoms make molecules girafe paramecium E. coli Hepatitis virus nitrogen atom

100 microliters is equivalent to 1 L 10 grams .1 mL 100 macroliters 1mm

.1 mL

At what temperature is psychrophiles growth rate optimal?

0-15 C. 10 C is optimal (ex. deep ocean bacteria)

There are many types of E. Coli. (Some normally inhibit the inhibit the human intestine) What is the serotype human pathogen version?

0157:H7 (from food born agent of disease) O= somatic antigen number H= the flagella antigen

What is a virion?

1 piece of a virus

What are the two types of pili?

1)short attachment pili 2) long conjugation pili (sex pili)

Know the use of the different objectives/magnifications. 1. 4x 2. 10x 3. 40x 5. 100x

1. 4x - Scanning/Focusing 2. 10x- Scanning/Focusing 3. 40x- Observation/viewing without oil 5. 100x- Observation/viewing with oil

1. Which Microscope allows light to pass through objects? 2. Which Microscope scatters light away from objects? 3. Which microscope makes objects glow? 4. Which microscope has the most magnification? 5. Which is best for we preps because of superior contrast?

1. A brightfield microscope. 2. A darkfield microscope. 3. Fluorescent Microscope 4. Electron Microscope 5. Phase Contrast Microscope

A mutation can be what 3 things?

1. Be silent- with no change 2. Missence- A form of point mutation resulting in a codon that codes for a different amino acid, and thus, causes the synthesis of a protein with an altered amino acid sequence during translation. 3. Be nonsense- a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a point-nonsense codon in the transcribed mRNA, and in a truncated, incomplete, and usually nonfunctional protein product.

What is a Maconkey Agar Plate?

1. A selective and differential medium designed to isolate and differentiate based on their ability to ferment lactose. 2. Bile salts and crystal violet inhibit the growth of Gram positive organisms. 3. Lactose provides a source of fermentable carbohydrate, allowing for differentiation. 4. Neutral red is a pH indicator that turns red at a pH below 6.8 and is colorless at any pH greater than 6.8. 5. Organisms that ferment lactose and thereby produce an acidic environment will appear pink because of the neutral red turning red. 6. Non-fermenters will produce normally-colored or colorless colonies. Neg Test 7. Gram positive organisms will not grow on MAC.

What is an EMB Agar Plate?

1. A selective and differential medium used to isolate fecal coliforms. 2. It contains pH indicator dyes which combine to form a dark purple precipitate at low pH; 3. they also serve to inhibit the growth of most Gram positive organisms. 4.Gram negative organisms will grow on this plate and gram positive organisms will not. 5. Vigorous fermenters of lactose or sucrose will produce quantities of acid sufficient to form the dark purple dye complex. The growth of these organisms will appear dark purple to black. 6. E. coli, a vigorous fermenter, however often produces a green metallic sheen. 7. Slow or weak fermenters will produce mucoid pink colonies. 8. Normally-colored or colorless colonies indicate that the organism ferments neither lactose nor sucrose and is not a fecal coliform. (Negative Test)

Give some characteristics of Streptococci A

1. AKA Streptococcus pyogenes 2. Susceptible to the antibotic bacitracin 3. Causes strep throat 4. Beta Hemolytic 5. Has an M protein on its surface, over 100 types, relates to pathogenicity 6. Some people don't have the M protein receptor in their nasopharynx so strep A will not infect them 7. Releases an erythrogenic toxin that can cause a red rash called scarlet fever. 8. Can cause the antibodies made during the infection to circulate in the body and lead to rheumatic fever (antibodies attack joints or heart valves). This reacting can also cause glomerular nephritis. 9. PANDAS can be gotten - causing rapid onset of obsessive compulsive isorder 10. can cause skin disease such as impetigo and can be considered a flesh eating bacteria

Hepatits A: Describe...

1. Almost always called/considered a food born virus. 2. Transmission is fecal to oral. Can be transmitted sexually 3. Doctor will run ALT/AST liver enzyme levels. Will be elevated 4. Dr. will run Elisa to see if antibodies against A are there. 5. Can be an opportunistic infection 6. Can "get over" make a recovery on your own 7. vaccines avaiable

What is a prion?

1. An infection particle of protein 2. Famous example: Mad Cow Disease, caused by a mis-folding of proteins/changes in structure. 3. Most famous human example: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

What is a viroid?

1. An infectious particle of RNA 2. Has no protein coat 3. Famous example: potato spindle tuber (PST), has 359 nucleotides of RNA *don't confuse with viron - 1 piece of virus!*

Name 4 versions of Clostridia

1. Clostridium botulinum - canning improperly also botox 2. Clostridium difficile- causes colitis, present in the gut and can overgrow during antibiotic therapy, especially in the elderly 3. Clostridium perfringens- gas gangrene 4. Clostridium tetani- causes tetanus

Match 1. Linnaeus 2. Hackel 3. Whittaker 4. Woese a. Five Kingdom B Three Domains C. Protists D. Binomial System

1. D 2. C 3. A 4. B

What is a capsule stain?

A stain that surrounds a cell/bacteria to protect it.

List the steps in heat fixing.

1. Flame loop 2. Get Sample 3. put on slide 4. flame loop 5. use tongs and passing through flame 2-3 times

What are the steps of gram staining?

1. Flame loop 2. Get Sample 3. put on slide, allow to air dry 4. use tongs and heat fix, by passing through flame 2-3 times 5. place slide on staining tray 6. Flood slide with crystal violet for 1 minute 7. rinse with distilled water 8. Flood slide with iodine and wait one minute 9. rinse with distilled water 10. use alcohol and flood for 15-30 seconds only. Color should wash out 11. rinse with distilled water 12. use counter stain safranin and flood for 1 minute 13. use distilled water and rinse. 14 allow slide to dry, including bottom. Blot with bibulous paper, do not rub. 15. view with oil

Describe an oil immersion technique

1. Focus slide specimen on the 40x objective. Once focused do not move adjustment knobs, and move objective to a lower power. 2. Place a drop of oil onto the slide, do not touch dropper to slide. 3. Move objective to 100x without moving through the 40x objective to avoid getting oil on that objective. Only use the fine tune knob at this point to refocus, if necessary.

Describe Clostridia..

1. Gram positive rods 2. form spores 3. obligate anaerobes 4. 4 species involved in human disease 5. highly resistant and produce exotoxins

Describe the HIV life cycle

1. HIV enters the cell by fusion, 2. then does reverse transcription through transcriptase and copies the gene 3. Leaves by budding off 4. Then completes its final protein processing to become infectious

What are the names of the common herpes virus types we discussed? What type of virus? Where physical symptoms? What drugs treat? How many people have HSV II? How test/what test for?

1. HSV-1, (Herpes Simplex Virus 1/ oral herpes/Cold Sores) 2. HSV-2, (Herpes Simplex Virus 2/ genital herpes) DNA viruses; highly contagious. Infections can be oral, eyes, genital. Anywhere! Blood testing can show exposure by detecting IGG Treatment is antiviral such as Acyclovir. Drugs interfere with the viral polymerase. Can not be cured only suppressed. Viral shedding means always contagious. 1:4 have HSV II

Describe the gram positive cell wall. *2 listed items definitely on test

1. Has a thick peptidoglycan wall 2. The NAG and NAM crosslinks with teichoic acid (It's big thick peptidoglycan wall that allows for Crystal Violet dye to penetrate all the way through. Since it is so dark the color when stained is a deep purple/blue. When being washed with alcohol the color doesn't run due to the deep penetration of the dye (and the iodine acting as a mordant). When Safranin is added it doesn't change the color due to the dye not having anywhere to absorb into.)

What is a flagella stain?

A stain that surrounds a flagella

What is a spore stain?

A stain that surrounds a spore to protect it

Describe Stage 1 of HIV

1. Infection 2. Unexplained fever 3. enlarged lymph nodes 4. night sweats 5. immune response called seroconversion

What are the two ways Transposable Elements can work?

1. Insertion sequences 2. Transposon

Describe four things about the capsule of a glycocalyx.

1. Is thick and tightly bound 2. An agent against desiccation (drying out) 3. Helps cell to attach to surfaces 4. Evades Immune system. It almost always confers pathognomonic --> If it makes capsule = disease. If it doesn't make a capsule = healthly

Name 6 opportunistic infections

1. Karposi's sarcoma 2. Pneumonocystis carinii - pneumonia 3. Cytomegaloularas infection 4. Cyptococcus infection 5. Thrush 6. TB KP CC TT

Each phase of the growth curve we discussed in class. The names and what's going on. With a diagram.

1. Lag Phase 2. Log or exponential growth phase 3. Stationary phase 4. Death phase/decline

List the phases of the growth curve in order.

1. Lag Phase 2. Log or exponential growth phase 3. Stationary phase 4. Death phase/decline LESD

What does DNA ligase do? 2 things!

1. Links DNA together and 2. binds the Okazaki Fragments.

What are the two main components of the lipopolysaccharide which makes up the gram negative cell wall?

1. O-polysaccharide 2. Lipid A

Describe a transformation experiment.

1. Place ampicillin susceptible E. coli in a tube with 10ul of plasmids 2. Keep on ice at 4C 3. Heat Shock to 42C for 90 sec (doing so loosens up the plasmid and opens up the membrane) 4. put back into ice at 4c (done so E. coli grabs the plasmids) 5. Competent cell with membrane permeability will take up the DNA from the environment. 6. Grow on media to see if E. coli grabbed ampicillin.

What does DNA Polymerase III do?

1. Replicates the chromosome (ex. opposite of strand, so if an A lays down a T) 2. Lays down bases in a 5' to 3' direction 3. Requires a RNA primer to work

Describe Hepatitis B

1. STD/Blood Borne pathogen; transmitted by body fluids, needles, tattoo palors 2. Elevated AST/ALT liver enzyme levels 3. Would run and Elisa Test. No confirmation would be needed. 4. There is a vaccine 5. Chronic condition

Describe the gram negative cell wall *4 listed items definitely on test

1. Single layer of peptidoglycan 2. No crosslinking 3. no teichoic acid 4. Has a 2nd outer membrane. composed of lipopolysaccharides. It's thin wall that has two layers. The outer wall is the layer that contain peptidoglycan that allows for staining from Crystal Violet. When alcohol is added the outer layer is dissolved, thus when safranin is added the dye adheres to the inner wall making the cell appear red/orange.

What are the two types of mutations?

1. Spontaneous 2. Induced

What are Koch's postulates?

1. The same microorganisms are present in every case of the disease. 2. The microorganisms are isolated from the tissues of a dead animal and a pure culture is prepared 3. Microorganisms from the pure culture are incubated into a healthy susceptible animal and the disease is thus reproduced. 4. The identical microorganisms are isolated and recultivated from the tissue specimens of the experimental animal. (The new microorganisms are the same as the originally inoculated animal).

Explain transformation (3 things)

1. The uptake of free DNA fragments from the environment by a competent receptor cell. 2. A type of recombination (mixing of 2 species DNA!) 3. An example is the mice experiment by Griffith and S vs R strains of S. pneumoniae

List 3 types of recombination

1. Transformation (free DNA) 2. Conjugation (sex pili) 3. Transduction (viruses) *Mixing of two different types of DNA!

How is a spore made?

1. When nutrients needed are limited (nitrogen and carbon) the process of binary fission will still begin, but it is characterized by *asymmetry* during cell division. 2. Within the malformed cell *dipicolinic acid is made and it stabilizes the DNA* so it becomes very resistant to everything (heat, time, cold, ect.) 3. Then the cell *disintegrates* and dies leaving behind the spore.

Name 5-10 contributions of Louis Pasteur.

1. Worded with wine fermentation and wine souring. under a microscope he saw yeast and bacteria. He developed the process of parturition in order to ill pathogens (rapidly heat to kill, then rapidly cool). He heated grape juice before fermentation and added yeast. He then would heat it again before aging. He noted that the yeast and the bacteria were like little factories in which chemical changes take place. This was the official development of pasteurization. 2. He conducted the swan flask experiment and disproved spontaneous generation. 3. He made the important deduction that "Whatever is causing the wine to sour maybe responsible for disease." Bacteria makes wine bad, so maybe it makes people sick. From this deduction from what was causing wine to sour that may be responsible for making people sick he developed and published 1862 Germ Theory of disease, which states. Some microorganisms are responsible for infections and disease. This however wasn't proven until later by Koch. 4. He worked with Anthrax in chickens and discovered it was temperature sensitive. 5. He worked with a Cholera, making a vaccine for chickens using attenuated (acid treated) cholera bacteria. 6. He worked with An anthrax vaccine in children. (didn't work) 7. He did some work worked with rabies vaccines 8. He worked with silk worm disease called prebrine. He identified a protozoan infecting the worms and the mulberry leaves on which they ate. By separating the healthy from the sick he stopped the spread of the disease. This taught us isolation techniques. BIG Pasteur Saw VVV Chickens

Bacillus anthracis describe.

1. a lethal pathogen 2. used as a terrorist tool. 3. forms spores, but gram positive & not hemolytic 4. Gets its name from coal, because its lesions are black like coal. 5. mode of infection: skin, ingestion, inhalation 6. can be treated, often fatal due to late diagnosis

Describe where you would see in a broth culture growth based on the following: 1. Obligate anaerobes 2. Facultative anaerobes 3. microaerophiles 4. capnophilic bacteria 5. Obliate aerobes

1. at bottom of test tube 2. everywhere in tube 3. towards bottom, but not at bottom 4. towards the bottom, but not at the bottom 5. towards the top of the tube

Name two endospores

1. bacillus (ex. bacillus anthracis - anthrax) 2. clostridium (ex. botulinum)

Matching 1. complex media 2. selective media 3. differential media 4. synthetic media 5. enrichment media 6. thioglycollate 7. capnophilic 8. will not grow ever in oxygen 9. autotroph a. obligate anaerobe b. exact chemically defined media c. nutrient agar d. media with high salt e. requires carbon dioxide f. media with pH indicator on it g. synthesize all from CO2 and light h. blood agar plates i. media that reduces O2 content

1. c 2. d 3. f 4. b 5. h 6. i 7. e 8. a 9. g

What are the three main pathways for ATP production

1. glycolysis 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Oxidative phosphorylation/ETS

Bacillus subtilis describe

1. gram positive rod 2. aerobic 3. can form spores. 4. Not pathogenic. 5. Bacillus cereus is also related to this.

Describe following: 1. Halophile 2. Methanogen 3. Acidophile 4. Thermophile 5. Thermoacidophile

1. grows optimally in a high salt environment 2. produces methane gas 3. grows best in an acidic environment 4. grows best at very high temperatures 5. grows best in acidic and hot environments

Describe Stage 3 of HIV

1. immune system weakens 2. get opportunistic infections

How does a virion get into a cell?

1. lysosomes 2. plasma membrane

Positive or negative for catalyze? 1. Streptococcus pneumonial 2. S. epidermidis

1. negative 2. positive

What 2 things is Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport an example of?

1. proton motive force 2. chemiosmosis (using the power of proton movement across a membrane to conserve energy for ATP synthesis.)

Name two functions of the glycocalyx.

1. sticky helps with attachment to others to form colonies 2. usually means pathogenic, has an agent against desiccation (drying out)

Describe Stage 2 of HIV

1. symptomatic 2. early signs of immune failure 3. weight loss

What are the reactions of the tubed media? 1. Acid 2. Acid/gas 3. Positive citrate 4. NR

1. turns yellow, no bubble 2. turns yellow, bubble 3. turns blue 4. stays red

What is made during the 1. Glycolysis 2. Transition step? 3. Krebs Cycle

1.) Glycolysis (turns 2x) 4 made - 2 used= 2 ATP substrate level 2 NADH = 6 ATP (enters at complex II) Total: 2+6= 8 ATP 2) Transition Step (turns 2x) 1 NADH x two pyruvate= 2 NADH x 3= 6 ATP Total 6 ATP 3) Krebs Cycle 3 NADH x two pyruvate= 6 x 3= 18 ATP 1 ATP x two pyruvate= 2 ATP 1 FADH2 x two pyruvate= 2 FADH2 x2= 4 ATP Total 18+2+4= 24 ATP Full Total: 8+6+24= 38 ATP

If the recipe calls for 30 mg of nutrient agar powder added to one liter of distilled water, how many grams of powder would you use to make 350 ml of nutrient agar?

10.5g

When does the organism appear larger/smaller? 40x or 1000x?

1000x - organism larger 40x - organism looks smaller, but larger field of view

What is the total magnification for all the objectives we use in lab?

10x = 100 times magnification 20x = 200 times magnification 40x = 400 times magnification 100x = 1,000 times magnification

If the recipe calls for 20g of nutrient agar powder added to one liter of distilled water, how many grams of powder would you use to make 550 ml of nutrient agar?

11

At what temperature and pressure do we sterilize?

121 C, 15 lbs pressure for 15 minutes

At what temperature, pressure and time did we autoclave our nutrient agar?

121C 15 pressure 15 min

What is TB's doubling time?

15 hours

The proper protocol for using the autoclave is? 60 min, 121 F, 17 lbs p 30 min, 100 C, 15 lbs p 15 min, 121 C, 15 lbs p 15 min, 240 F, 18 lbs p

15 min, 121 C, 15 lbs p

What did the Hershey-Chase Experiment do?

1952 Proved DNA goes into the cell and that it was the genetic material.

Ignaz Semmelweis

1st study of epidemiology (transmission of disease), babies mothers dying.

What makes up the bacteria cell wall? (2 things!) *spelling counts!*

2 monosaccharides 1. N-Acetyl glucosamine (NAG) 2. n-Acetyl Muramic Acid (NAM)

During glycolysis ___ ATP are used to facilitate the reactions and ____ ATP are formed.

2, 4

In general terns, what would be the approximate doubling time of E. coli?

20-30 m inutes

What is E. coli's doubling time?

20-30 minutes

At what temperature is mesophiles growth rate optimal?

20-40 C. 37 C is optimal

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

200x microscope, grinding glass, animalcules

Robert Hooke

25x microscope, Cork Cells, "Micrographia", Naming of Cells

How many carbons in pyruvate?

3

How many infection Stages for HIV?

3

The mRNA that codes for a particular protein will have __(#)__ nucleotides for each amino acid in the protein

3

Carl Woese

3 domain system based ribosomal dna; archaea bacteria, eubacteria, eukarya

What was the lag time of E. coli for our classes experiment?

3 hours

Ernst Haeckel

3 kingdom classification; plant, animals, protista

Normal vaginal pH is?

3.0-4.0

What is the end product of cellular respiration?

38 ATP's

Complete the following: C6H1206+6O2+___ADP+38P=6C02+6H20+___ATP

38;38

Place the steps in the production of a genetically engineered insulin in the correct order. 1. Identifying and isolating clones carrying the insulin gene 2. splicing the insulin gene into a bacterial plasmid 3. screening for recombinant plasmids 4. placing the recombinant plasmid in bacterial cells to form clones 5. isolating the DNA containing human insulin gene and cutting the gene out

??? no idea - anyone!

At what temperature is thermophiles growth rate optimal?

40-70 C. 60 C is optimal

With our microscopes, if you use the 40x objective what magnification will you have?

400

You are looking at Bacillus subtilis under the 10x objective. Then you switch over to the 40 x objective. Under which magnification do the individual bacteria appear larger?

40x

Original HPV vaccine is directed against how many and what strains of HPV?

4; 6, 11, 16, 18

How many Antibody types are there?

5

Robert Whittaker and lynn Margulis

5 kingdom classification; plantae, animalia, monera, protista, fungi

In what direction does the lagging strand lay bases?

5' --> 3'

In what direction does the leading strand lay bases?

5' --> 3'

which one of the following in a base analog uv light DNA polymerase 5-bromouracil nitrous acid

5-bromouracil

If Lactobacilli are killed and the pH goes up to ____ or higher, _______ thrives causing a yeast infection.

5.0; Candida albicans

How many carbons in glucose?

6

When did the pandemic begin for HIV?

6/5/1981

1 mol of glucose has how many calories of energy?

686,000

If the recipe calls for 10 g in 1 L, how many grams are needed to make 763 ml?

7.63g

HPV 16 & 18 cause what?

70% of all cervical cancers

At what temperature is hyperthermophiles growth rate optimal?

70-110 C. 90 C is optimal

What was the doubling time of E. coli for our classes experiment?

90 min

HPV 6&11 cause what?

90% of all genital warts

What is the definition of AIDS?

A T cell count below 200 ul (Normal about 1000 ul)

Regarding the antibiotic susceptibility plates we used in lab, if you saw a 6 cm zone of inhibition for antibiotic A and no zone of inhibition for antibiotic B, which antibiotic worked better against the test organism?

A

What is an obligate aerobes? Name an example

A bacteria that requires the presence of oxygen to grow. Micrococcus

Which viral hepatitis is primarily a water or food born disease? A B C D

A

What is Lactobacillus?

A bacteria that thrives in acidic conditions that ferment and make lactic acid to maintain vaginal pH.

What does a F- Cell have

A bacterial cell that doesn't have the gene to make sex pilius for conjugation. A daughter cell of an F+

What does a F+ Cell have

A bacterial cell that has the gene to make sex pilius for conjugation

What is a simple stain?

A basic dye that is cationic, the cell is negatively charged and the dye is positively charged, so the dye sticks and is attracted to the cell. (Methylene blue)

What is Aseptic Transfer

A sterile technique. It is done in order to stop the contamination of a culture and a media from the microbes and bacteria that are in the environment.

What is a pathogen?

A biologic agent that causes disease or illness in its host.

What is Restriction Endonucleases?

A way of cutting specific short sequences of DNA

What is lyme disease caused by?

A deer tick disease called Borrelia burgdorferi. A gram negative spirohete.

What is a virus that infects a bacteria called?

Bacteriophage or phage

What is Taq DNA polymerase?

A DNA Polymerase that works in high heat. Used in PCR due to temperature shifts. Lives in high temp steam vents in Yellowstone Thermus aquaticus

Who is Ernst Haeckel?

A German who in 1866 came up with a 3 kingdom classification system. He created a category for microorganisms called protists. *name below* 1. Plants 2. Animals 3. Protista: a)bacteria b) fungi c)protozoans

What is recombination?

A change in an organisms DNA resulting in the acquisition and incorporation of another organisms DNA.

What is host specific?

A characteristic of a virus in which viruses usually only affect one particular species. However, there can be cases of crossover

What is nitrous acid?

A chemically induced mutation that causes adenine to convert to hypoxanthine which would pair with cytosine, rather than having the adenine stay put and pair with thymine.

What are base analogs?

A chemically induced mutation that mimics bases to such an extent that they can be incorporated into DNA in place of one of the normal bases but in doing so lead to an increase in the rate of mutation.

Who was John Needham?

A clergyman who believed that the "animalcules" came from the decay of more complex animals. He also believed that the microbes arose spontaneously in broth from a life force". To try to prove theis he boiled mutton gravy, put it in a jar and sealed it with cork stoppers. He then saw growth of bacteria and or mold. This was likely due to poor experimental procedures and dirty equipment. He did this experiment around 1748.

What is an endoflagella?

A flagella that is corkscrew shaped inside of a cell. One example is a spirochetes cell.

What is Facilitated Diffusion?

A form of passive transportation through a transport protein within cell wall where no energy (or ATP) is needed. The object moved goes from a area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

What is photosynthesis? What are its two parts?

A form on anabolism in which light energy is converted into chemical energy. Part 1: light reaction/light fixing Part 2: Dark Reaction/carbon fixing

Describe Neisseria 3 things!

A gram negative diplococci Coffee bean/kiss shaped Require Low O2 (C02) to grow

What is Branhamella catarrhalis (B CAT)?

A gram negative diplococci that requires a capsule stain.

What is the hunter theory regarding HIV?

A hunter in Cameroon 1920->1960 possibly contracted Simian Immune deficiency virus (SIV) and crossed it over.

How does a "gas pak" work?

A hydrogen gas generator creates hydrogen, which in the presence of a palladium catalyst combines with oxygen to form water.

What is a Blood Agar Plate?

A plate with nutrients and blood. It is useful for cultivating fastidious organisms and for determining the hemolytic capabilities of an organism. Some bacteria produce exoenzymes that break down red blood cells and degrade hemoglobin; these are called hemolysins. Bacteria can produce different types of hemolysins. Alpha, Beta and Gamma are all different types of hemolysins that may be seen on this plate.

What is Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing?

A means of determining which antibiotic will be most successful in treating a bacterial infection

What is antibiotic susceptibility testing?

A means of determining which antibiotic will be most successful in treating a bacterial infection.

What is an enrichment medium?

A media sometimes required by bacteria like blood and in a blood agar plate to stimulate the growth of fastidious organisms, such as streptococci or blood.

What is a selective media? Give an example.

A media that selects for a certain kind of bacteria. Example. High salt media would select for staphylococci, which can grown in high salt.

What is a differential media?

A media with some type of indicator in it. (like a PH indicator - phenol red) to differentiate between those that produce acid from sugar and those that do not.

What is transduction?

A mixing of 2 DNA's done with viruses in two ways 1. Lytic Cycle 2. Lysogenic Cycle

What is an example of a physical induced mutation?

A mutation on DNA that is caused by UV light. called a thymine dimer

What is nigrosin?

A negative stain that is acidic.

What is bigger a Paramecium or E. coli?

A paramecium (a living thing made of lots of cells - E. coli is a virus it infects cells)

What tests positive or negative for oxidase?

Bcat tests positive, everything else tests negative

What is a spore?

A product of asexual reproduction from asymmetric division that might be adapted for dispersal an or survival (in areas most other bacteria would die or for really long times)

What is an exotoxin? Example?

A protein made by a bacteria that is excreted or leached out from the bacteria that causes harm to its host. Botulinum toxin is an example

What is an Enterotube Test?

A rapid, multi test system used in identification of unknown oxidase- negative, gram- negative, rod shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It consists of a tube with a flat side and contains 12 compartments for different biochemical tests.

What is Safranin? (spelling counts!)

A red counter stain

What is excision?

A repair done by DNA polymerase to fix a mutation such as a thymine dimer.

What kind of virus is HIV (two!)?

A retrovirus. It's grouping is a Lentivirus. It is also a slow virus.

What is a codon?

A sequence of 3 nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.

What is cellular respiration?

A series of catabolic pathways for the production of ATP. Cells make the ATP by harvesting energy through this process.

What is methylene blue?

A simple stain that has a positive charge (cationic).

What should you NOT heat fix?

A slide with capsule stain. Must use oil immersion only.

What is a chemically defined media?

A synthetic media where each ingredient is known.

What is the "gas pak"?

A system to remove oxygen from the atmosphere.

What is an Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test or disk diffusion test?

A test is used to determine if an organism is susceptible or resistant to a selection of antimicrobial agents.

What is Insertion?

A type of mutation in which an extra letter of a base pair is added within a chain. What results is gibberish.

What is substution?

A type of mutation in which the a wrong letter of a base pair is put onto a chain. It may or may not result in incorrect codon reading.

What is deletion?

A type of mutation in which the letter of a base pair is skipped within a chain. What results is gibberish due to a frame shift.

What is is Reverse Transcriptase? Describe the steps...

A type of polymerase that HIV and Retrovirus can have. 1. Start with single stranded RNA 2. Then make RNA/DNA hybrid 3. Then Double Stranded DNA --> Nucleus

Explain the Lysogenic cycle

A type of transduction that is temperate and doesn't kill the cells. It incorporates the chromosome.

Explain Lytic cycle

A type of transduction that works as a virulent phage and kills the cell

What is oncogenic?

A type of virus that can cause cancer. Herpes is an example. 20% of viruses can cause cancer.

Describe Hepatitis generally..

A viral infection that infects the liver. There are many types, our class only concerned with A, B, and C

What is an oxidase test?

A way of identifying organisms that produce the enzyme cytochrome oxidase. Cytochrome oxidase participates in the electron transport chain by transferring electrons from a donor molecule to oxygen. The oxidase reagent contains a chromogenic reducing agent, which is a compound that changes color when it becomes oxidized. If the test organism produces cytochrome oxidase, the oxidase reagent will turn blue or purple within 20 seconds.

What is antigenic drift?

A way that the influenza virus make a new flu a little different from the previous flu

What are Transposable elements?

A way to make extra chromosomal DNA by making mutations in the cell.

What is an Ames Test? How do you do it? Draw.

A way to test a product without using animals or people. You are testing to see if you can mutate a mutant back to normal. You use a media without histidine. It is usually done with mutant salmonella. Steps: 1. Place a cut out well in the center of two agar plates. One with water in the well as a control the other with a suspected mutagen such as Benzene. 2. You then take the the salmonella, mix it with a liver enzyme (likely a rats) to stimulate being in a humans body, then inoculate the plates. 3. If you have no growth the Benzene doesn't mutate the salmonella into growing without histidine (as it should on the control plate as well). If you have growth than the Benzene caused the bacteria to mutate back to normal and it could now grow without histidine. Good link for explanation (fast forward to 2:53 to avoid watching what a mutagen is)! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=58oDmj2UCwY

What is micrococcus?

A yellow pigment that is an obligate aerobe. It requires oxygen. It needs a place to send its electrons at the end of the ETC which is why its an obligate aerobe.

What are the most common types of Streptococci that we encounter?

A, B, D

What is the main energy currency in the cell?

ATP

What is the name of the enzyme complex which allows protons to enter the cell making ATP? (at the end of electron transport?)

ATP Synthase

What does "acid fast" mean and is mycobacterium "acid fast"?

Acid will not decolorize during staining. Mycobacterium is not acid fast. Needs Ziehl-Neelsen or Kinyoun stain.

AIDS: Autoimmune induced debilitating syndrome Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Actively Induced Disease State None of the above

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

What is AIDS?

Acquired immune Deficiency Syndrome; caused by HIV

What do adhesins do?

Adhesins are on the ends of pili and help attach cells to surfaces and microcolonies.

In cellular respiration during oxidative phosphorylation what 2 types of respiration is there?

Aerobic and anaerobic

Contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration and fermentation.

Aerobic- oxygen is consumed during energy production. The citric acid cycle and ETC follows. Anaerobic- no oxygen is consumed during energy production. The citric acid cycle and ETC follows. Fermentation-used when oxygen and other alternative inorganic electron acceptors are unavailable, so organic material is used in its place. During energy production a pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide and ethanol by bacteria and yeast. The citric acid cycle and ETC does not follow.

List the Steps for Gram Staining *possible essay - nail wording!

After placing heat fixed slide on a staining tray 1. Flood your slide with Crystal violet (purple color) for 1 minute, then wash with distilled water. 2. Flood slide with Iodine (a mordant and a brown color) to cement the crystal violet . Let sit for 1 minute and wash with distilled water. 3. Decolorize with alcohol for 15 to 30 seconds (nothing more!) 4. Flood slide with safranin (counter stain) for 1 minute. Rinse with distilled water. Ensure bottom of slide is dry prior to viewing.

How do we perform a gram stain?

After placing heat fixed slide on a staining tray 1. Flood your slide with Crystal violet (purple color) for 1 minute, then wash with distilled water. 2. Flood slide with Iodine (a mordant and a brown color) to cement the crystal violet . Let sit for 1 minute and wash with distilled water. 3. Decolorize with alcohol for 15 to 30 seconds (nothing more!) 4. Flood slide with safranin for 1 minute. Rinse with distilled water. Ensure bottom of slide is dry prior to viewing. Positive- Purple/Blue Negative- Orange/Red

What are the steps of the gram stain? What color is positive and negative.

After placing heat fixed slide on a staining tray 1. Flood your slide with Crystal violet (purple color) for 1 minute, then wash with distilled water. 2. Flood slide with Iodine (a mordant and a brown color) to cement the crystal violet . Let sit for 1 minute and wash with distilled water. 3. Decolorize with alcohol for 15 to 30 seconds (nothing more!) 4. Flood slide with safranin for 1 minute. Rinse with distilled water. Ensure bottom of slide is dry prior to viewing. Positive- Purple/Blue Negative- Orange/Red

Three types of hemolysis?

Alpha Hemolysis (fish pic) Beta Hemolysis (B pic) Gamma Hemolysis (sorta looks like a v or a y)

What are the three types of hemolysis when culturing on a blood agar plate? Describe and give and example!?

Alpha Hemolysis (fish pic) Beta Hemolysis (B pic) Gamma Hemolysis (sorta looks like a v or a y)

What is western blot?

An Elisa test run on a gel Shows antibodies on a gel A Western blot test is used to confirm a diagnosis. During the test, a sample is taken and it is used to detect antibodies (not the virus itself). The Western blot test separates and detects the specific proteins (antibodies) that indicate an infection. The Western blot is used to confirm a positive ELISA, and the combined tests are 99.9% accurate.

What is a negative stain?

An acidic anionic dye that is repelled by the cell. So the cell is a light color surrounded by the darker dye.

Gram Neg or positive? E. coli?

Gram Neg

What is an Acidophile? Thermophile? Halophile?

An archaeabacteria (bacteria that can live in harsh conditions). Acidophile- Acid loving Thermophile- Heat loving Halophile- Salt loving

What is a thymine dimer?

An example of a physical induced mutation on DNA caused by UV light

What is a fluid mosaic model?

An explanation for the cell membrane, it is a combination of phosphate, lipids and proteins. It is not cemented in place, but continually moving.

What is a flagella?

An extension on some cells that is used for cell motility. It requires a special stain to see, because it is hard to stain. You can either stain the flagella itself, or use a flagellar negative stain. Flagella do not satin using the gram stain or simple stain.

Dr. Joseph Lister

Antisepsis, carbolic acid

What is a magnetosome?

An inclusion within bacteria that acts like a compass; it knows where north is.

What is herpes simplex?

An infectious disease caused by Herpes simples II or Herpes simplex II. Highly contagious. Causes sores orally, in the eye and genitals.

If oxygen is not available what would an inorganic like E. coli use as a terminal acceptor?

An organic substance such as nitrate. It would reduce it to nitrite. A good example of this is what happens in the bladder during an infection Other options include the use of sulfate and Carbonate

What is nutrient agar?

An undefined complex media. It is used in our lab. You don't know the exact chemical composition.

What is Bacillus Anthraces named from

Anthracite or coal

Gram Neg or positive? Enterobacteria

Gram Neg

Gram Neg or positive? Proteus

Gram Neg

Contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Autotrophs- can make everything they need (Co2 and energy ex. photosynthesis) Heterotrophs- need their nutrients supplied to them (humans and food)

Which viral hepatitis is primarily considered sexually transmitted? a b c d

B

Name two bacteria that produce spores or endospores in a process called sporulation.

Bacillus and clostridium

What is wool sorter's disease?

Bacillus anthracis infection due to spores being found in the skin or fur of animals

Which of these two is aerobic and which is anaerobic? Bacillus Clostridia

Bacillus-aerobic Clostridia-anaerobic

What are facultative anaerobes? Name an example

Bacteria that can grow with or without oxygen. Example: E. coli

How would you describe Archaebacteria?

Bacteria that can live in harsh conditions that most other bacteria wouldn't survive in.

What are Aerotolerant Bacteria?

Bacteria that can survive exposure to oxygen

What are microaerophiles?

Bacteria that grows best when oxygen is low.

What are obligate anaerobes? Name an example

Bacteria that will never grown in the presence of oxygen. (ex. Clostridium which is what makes an exotoxin. What happens in canning - think pickles in a jar)

What are viruses that can effect bacteria?

Bacteriophage or phage

Why does the process of gram staining work?

Because the gram positive cells have more lipids.

John Needham

Believed in spontaneous generation. "proved" it (incorrectly) mutton gravy in cork sealed tubes. Poor experimental procedures.

List antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis

aminoglycosides-amikacin marcoslides- zithromax, erythromycin tetracyclines- tetracycline,doxcycline

Which hemolysis is complete hemolysis?

Beta

Describe Staphylococcus aureus.

Beta hemolytic (full hemolysis), ferments mannitol, DNAse positive and coagulase positive

Which is bigger? E.coli, lambda phage, pyruvate, water molecule

Biggest to Smallest: E. coli - bacteria lambda phage - virus Pyruvate - chemical compound C3H3O3 water molecule- H20

An opportunistic infection, like a fungal infection is most often a concern with primary infection of: measles lyme disease HIV Aspergillus niger HPV

HIV

Name three ways HIV can be transmitted and prevented.

Bodily Fluid Transmission through: Contaminated needles, unprotected sex, a baby's birth

A lab might perform a western blot to detect antibodies directed against syphilis HPV Borrelia bugdorferi E. coli

Borrelia burgdorferi

Energy generated during the ETC reactions of aerobic respiration originates from? Only the Krebs cycle reactions. only the reactions of photosynthesis Only the reactions of glycolysis Both the Krebs cycle and glycolysis reactions both the Krebs cycle and photosynthesis reactions

Both the Krebs cycle and glycolysis reactions

James Phipps

Boy given smallpox vaccine

What is the type of HIV we see most in the US?

HIV 1

How would use prep a slide using a negative stain like nigrosin?

By flaming a loop, placing a sample on a slide, then putting a drop of nigrosin on the side of the slide and using another slide to drag the stain across the slide.

How are secondary antibodies prepared?

By injecting antibodies produced by one species of an animal into another species.

Give the equation for sugar

C6H12O6

Give the equation for cellular respiration

C6H12O6+6O2+38ADP+38P --> 6CO2+6H2O+38ATP

An infection with Chlamydia as well as other STD's can increase an infection with __________. Especially in females

HIV.

Who was Fanny Hesse?

Came to Koch's lab and gave jam to him. He got excited and wanted to know how she made her jam a semi solid. He learned it was from the use of Agar, which is from seaweed. So he used her recipe to add to his broth to get a stable heatable surface/ solid media.

What is a catalase?

Catalase is the enzyme that breaks hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into H2O and O2. H2O2 is a potent oxidizing agent that can wreak havoc in a cell; because of this, any cell that uses O2 or can live in the presence of O2 must have a way to get rid of the peroxide, to do this the cell makes catalase.

How do we perform a catalase test? What is a positive or negative test look like? Give an example of a positive and negative bacteria for catalase.

Catalase is the enzyme that breaks hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into H2O and O2. H2O2 is a potent oxidizing agent that can wreak havoc in a cell; because of this, any cell that uses O2 or can live in the presence of O2 must have a way to get rid of the peroxide, to do this the cell makes catalase. Perform with peroxide / bubbles if positive/ nothing if negative Positive or negative for catalyze? 1. Streptococcus pneumonial - negative 2. S. epidermidis - positive

What happens in a lag phase of the growth curve?

Cells adjust and decide what to do based off of its current condition and environment.

List antibiotics that inhibit/disrupt peptoglycan synthesis

Cephalosporins-keflex glycopeptides-vancomycin

What are the symptoms of syphilis?

Chancre sore is primary and a full body rash as a secondary symptoms. 3rd symptom from tertiary syphilis can be major neurologic symptoms.

Which is more prevalent... gonorrhea or chlamydia?

Chlamydia

There are many species of Chlamydia, but _______________ _____________ is the causative agent of the number one STD in the world, Chlamydia.

Chlamydia Trachomatis

What is a viral load test?

Class- Take blood, add master mix and make many copies. Use a probe with a marker, it then binds, then read it in a machine to find out the number of viral DNA. This is how you follow the infection. (***Google Search Answer** http://i-base.info/ttfa/section-2/8-what-is-a-viral-load-test/) A viral load test is a measurement of the amount of HIV virus in a sample of blood. This is usually reported as the number of copies per mL (copies/mL)

Describe Annealing in PCR

Complementary DNA strand hybridization via DNA primers. Determines the 5' to 3' of the target loci region of interest. Then used to make primers.

Beta Hemolysis is ________ and an example is _________

Complete hemolysis (ex. streptococcus pyogenes)

What type of microscope do we use?

Compound Light Microscope

Reverse transcriptase first: Copies DNA to make RNA Copies DNA to make DNA Copies RNA to make RNA Copies RNA to make DNA

Copies RNA to make DNA

Rosalind Franklin

Credited for deciphering the structure of the DNA, although not as recognized as Watson and Crick. Her discovery was possibly stolen by the male pair. She worked with x-ray refractions and her x-rays showed the double helix pattern.

How to protect from Lyme Disease?

DEET products and full coverage clothing.

What is the central dogma of biology?

DNA -- transcribes --> RNA -- translates --> Protein

What is the molecule that replicates the chromosome?

DNA Polymerase III

With Griffith and his transformation experiments, what he discovered was: streptococci have plasmids Rats are resistant to the smooth strain DNA from the dead smooth strain must have transformed from the rough strain none of the above

DNA from the dead smooth strain must have transformed from the rough strain

______ is used to seal the recombinant DNA segments DNA ligase EcoRi HGT The rolling-circle mechanism

DNA ligase

Describe Extension

DNA strand synthesis via DNA polymerase. A primer must be used here.

Other than gram testing and oxidase testing how else would you test for neisseria?

DNA testing

Who discovered Salmonella?

Daniel Salmon

When testing for oxidase in enzymes what color on the card will give you a positive? What color will be a negative? What is the test done on?

Dark blue/purple within 20 seconds is a positive No color changes with in 20 seconds is a negative Test is done on a dry slide.

When testing for oxidase in enzymes what color on the card will give you a positive? What color will be a negative? What is the test done on?

Dark blue/purple within 20 seconds is a positive No color changes with in 20 seconds is a negative Test is done on a dry slide.

How do we perform an oxidase test? What tests positive and what tests negative?

Dark blue/purple within 20 seconds is a positive No color changes with in 20 seconds is a negative Test is done on a dry slide. A way of identifying organisms that produce the enzyme cytochrome oxidase. Cytochrome oxidase participates in the electron transport chain by transferring electrons from a donor molecule to oxygen. The oxidase reagent contains a chromogenic reducing agent, which is a compound that changes color when it becomes oxidized. If the test organism produces cytochrome oxidase, the oxidase reagent will turn blue or purple within 20 seconds. Bcat tests positive, everything else tests negative!

Is Lyme Disease chronic?

Debated and controversial.

What is a key ingredient in spourlation?

Dipicolinic acid

What drug is used for Lyme disease treatment?

Doxycycline or amoxicillin

Why does E. coli give off a green sheen?

Due to the fact that E. coli ferments lactose and makes a large amount of acid from the lactic fermentation. The lactic acid reacts with the eosin and methylene blue to make the green metallic sheen.

Who discovered the use of the appendix?

Duke university in 2007

What is elongation?

During elongation, DNA Polymerase III lays down (synthesizes) bases in a 5' to 3' direction then using a RNA primer A sequence is added with complementary RNA nucleotides. During elongation the leading strand is made continuously, while the lagging strand is made in pieces called Okazaki fragments.

All of the following are eukaryotic except? E. coli plants animals molds protozoa

E. coli

If oxygen is not the terminal electron acceptor what else might work? In E.coli?

E. coli: Nitrate could be used, reduced to nitrite Others: Sulfate to hydrogen sulfate Carbonate to methane

How does one test the ticks for Borrelia?

ELISA test for IgM. Confirms with western blot

Name a restriction endonuclease

EcoR1

This English scientist made a significant contribution to medicine by developing the first vaccine against smallpox? Joseph lister Robert Koch Edward Jenner John Snow John Needham

Edward Jenner

Describe the development of the small pox vaccine and indicate the names of at lease 3 people involved.

Edward Jenner noted milkmaids don't get small pox. Theorized that cow pox exposure might be solution for small pox. Used milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes. who had contracted small pox to get sample of her small pox. Then took that sample inoculated a young by named James Phipps, waited 10 days and exposed the boy to small pox. Boy didn't get small pox. Hence vaccine for small pox discovered.

Of the pathways we discussed during the use of glucose by the cell, which pathway creates the most ATP?

Electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation

Why does EMB agar work?

Eosin Methylene Blue 1. A selective and differential medium used to isolate fecal coliforms. 2. It contains pH indicator dyes which combine to form a dark purple precipitate at low pH; 3. they also serve to inhibit the growth of most Gram positive organisms. 4.Gram negative organisms will grow on this plate and gram positive organisms will not. 5. Vigorous fermenters of lactose or sucrose will produce quantities of acid sufficient to form the dark purple dye complex. The growth of these organisms will appear dark purple to black. 6. E. coli, a vigorous fermenter, however often produces a green metallic sheen, due to the fact that E. coli ferments lactose and makes a large amount of acid from the lactic fermentation. The lactic acid reacts with the eosin and methylene blue to make the green metallic sheen. 7. Slow or weak fermenters will produce mucoid pink colonies. 8. Normally-colored or colorless colonies indicate that the organism ferments neither lactose nor sucrose and is not a fecal coliform. (Negative Test)

What is made through a process called sporulation?

Endospores or Spores

What does Elisa mean?

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay

What are polymerases?

Enzymes that hook things together ex. amino acids into polypetides. Viruses can have these.

What does the EMB in EMB Agar plate stand for?

Eosin Methylene Blue

Name 5-10 distinctions between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes are: 1. larger 2. Have thinner chromosomes 3. Have membrane bound organelles Prokaryotes are: 1. smaller 2. Have a circular chromosome 3. Have free ribosomes 4. Have extra chromosomal DNA

The end product(s) of glycolysis are: a. ATP b. acetyl-CoA c. pyruvic acid d. a and c e. a, b and c

d. a and c

Any movement of bacteria seen under the microscope is motility? T/F

F

Eukaryotes have a more complex cell structure than prokaryotes, and they are all multicellular. T/F?

F

if flagella are present they are easily seen with the gram stain? T/F

F

It was always clear that DNA was the genetic material T/F

False

Which of these people had the most to do with pure culture technique Louis Pasteur Girolamo Fracastoro Fanny Hesse James Watson

Fanny Hesse

Walter Hesse

Fanny's husband worked for pasteur

Describe Pasteur's swan neck flask experiment. with pics, views and criticisms of his conclusions.

Finally ended belief in spontaneous generation. 4 pics of broth in flask all over heat: 1 open air (bac growth) 1 with stopper (no growth -critics blocked life force/why expir done) 1 with swan neck flask (no growth) final swan neck tilted and back, growth.

Francesco Stelluti and Giovanni Faber

First used word "microscopio"

Describe a broth transfer technique.

Flame loop, flame cap, unscrew pinkie, flame tube top, collect sample, flame top of tube, close. Inoculate, flame loop, flame tube , cap

Describe a solid media tube transfer.

Flame loop, flame cap, unscrew pinkie, flame tube top, collect sample, flame top of tube, close. Inoculate, flame loop, flame tube , cap

What is genetic engineering?

Forced recombination

What are Okazaki Fragments and what binds them?

Found in 1968 they are small pieces of DNA on the lagging strand that are bound by DNA ligase.

What can help increase Lactobacilli counts?

eating yogurt and limiting sugar intake

List 3 HAART drugs

Fuzion - (stops fusion) AZT/Retrovir - (stops reverse transcription Norvir - (stops budding)

Name some important HIV proteins

GP120 GP41 Core antigen P24 GP= Glycoprotien #= molecular weight These are antigens and their corresponding antibody

What is an Operon? What is a Lac Operon? What is Trp Operon?

General Term! --> *An example of genetic regulation. * Lac Operon: The genes in the operon encode proteins that allow the bacteria to use lactose as an energy source. Trp Operon: Makes Tryptophan. Tryptophan, as all or most amino acids are essential for creating the polypeptides, the proteins that you use in your body Consists of three parts; structural genes, promoter (RNA polymerase binding site and initiation of transcription) and an operator (controls the transcription of the operon).

What is the primary/preferred nutrient of glycoloysis?

Glucose

Serratia Marcescens

Grew in our lab, put under UV light masks. Where exposed to light, didn't grow. If it did the uv light damage was fixed (or the thymine dimer was fixed!) Gram neg enterobacteriae

What is Hierarchical Organization?

Grouping together a species into a higher taxa based on shared characteristics. For example: Humans- Order:Primates Family: Humanoid Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens

How come when you put peroxide onto catalase positive cells it shows bubbles?

H20 is split

When the genes are on the F- chromosome side it is called?

HFR (high frequency recumbent)

What are Hela Cells?

HPV 18 cancer cells that have an active telomerase which causes them to be immortal.

Who was Francesco Redi?

He designed an experiment in which he covered one jar with meat and left another jar open to the air that also contained meat. The covered jar did not eventually contain maggots and the uncovered jar did. His experiment in the 1600's refuted spontaneous generation.

Who was Zacharias Janssen?

He invented the telescope, simple microscope and compound microscope. Sometime in the late 1500-1600's. His work is inconclusive in documents. He did the above by putting two convex lenses together to make things appear larger.

Who was Robert Hooke?

He made the first real microscope capable of viewing small objects with a view of 25x. He documented his viewing of cork cells and published a book called "micrographia". He is credited for naming cells, "cells". This all happened approximately 1665

Who was Carolus Linnaeus?

He published a book called "Systema Natura". In it he classified plants and animals. 7700 species of plants and 4400 Species of animals. Bacteria was classifies as vermes (worms). *name below!* He named everything based off of 2 things. 1) a binomial system of nomenclature and 2) Hierarchical organization.

Who was Lazzaro Spallanzani?

He put meat and vegetable broth into glass tubes. Then he put a cork stopper on the tops of the tubes with different tightnesses. He found that the more air that got into the tubes the more bacteria/mold growth occurred. He did this experiment in 1767. His experiment suggested that microbes moved through the air and that the more the broth was exposed to the air the more the microbes got in and contaminated the tubes. Naysayers who were in belief of spontaneous generation, said that by corking the tubes completely or making them tight he just sealed off air which was killing or blocking the life force.

Who was Ignaz Semmelweis?

He was a hungarian OB who did the first study of epidemiology (the source, cause and transmission of disease). His work was done in 1847 and he started the use of handwashing with chlorine. He made his discovery after observing that midwives who delivered babies had patients who lived. Student doctors who delivered babies had patients who died. He discovered that the student doctors worked in morgues doing their studies and would just go up to deliver and catch a baby as it was born. The Mothers and babies would then catch puerperal fever and/or streptococcus and subsequently die. Once he started having medical staff wash their hands with the chlorinated water, the deaths/disease stopped.

Who was Edward Jenner?

He was a surgeon in 1796 that found a cure for smallpox. He made the observation that people who worked with cows infected with cowpox didn't get smallpox. So he used a milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes that had cowpox and took a small biopsy of her pox and injected it into a boy named James Phipps. This was a turning point, because while we couldn't see microorganisms, we learned how to protect against them.

Who was Robert Koch and what was his major contributions?

He worked with antrax. He tried to grow bacteria in an ox's eye, a potatoes and he added geletian to grow bacteria. It didn't work. One guy in his lan, Walter Hesse's wife, Fanny Hesse, came to the lab and gave jam to him. He got excited and wanted to know how she made her jam a semi solid. He learned it was from the use of Agar, which is from seaweed. So he used her recipe to ad to his broth to get a stable heatable surface/ solid media. This media allowed for the viewing of different bacteria on a dish. Using this discovery he was able to identify and isolate anthrax. 1. He developed along with his lab workers four postulates on microorganisms. 2. Primarily worked with and characterized antrax and spores 3. Grew and observed bacteria in the aqueous humor of an ox's eye 4. Colonies of bacteria were grown on a slice of potato 5. Added gelatin to broth to perform solid media culture 6. Fanny Hesse provides the idea to use agar for solid culture 7. Developed "pure culture" of bacterial cells 8. Proved the germ theory of disease 9. Identified the bacterial causes of the disease for diphtheria, cholera, and TB. 10. His lab worker Petri invented the petri dish 11. Worked with mycobacterium tuberculosis (including the staining of bacteria) 12. Worked with staining bacteria. 13. Identified that burning carcasses thwarted the spread of disease. 14. Sterilization of surgical instruments with heat. Germy Puppies Amazingly Jumped Over Puddles Because Puppies Saw Many Stinky Carcasses.

What is the oncogene theory?

Healthy body cells contain dormant viral oncogenes that, when triggered, cause cancer. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus won a Nobel Prize for this theory in 1989

What opens/unwinds the double stranded DNA.

Helicase

What is the cause of stomach ulcers? What is not? Who proved this?

Helicobacter pylori (which thrives in highly acidic areas); high acid; Barry Marshall

What does HAART mean?

Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

Who was Anton Von Leeuwenhoek?

His microscope was the first that could see 200x due to the fact that he was skilled in grinding glass. He looked at lake water to see what he termed to be "animalcules" which were likely protozoa.

How do you run an Elisa Test?

How to run an Elisa Test (Assuming we are testing for measles immunity) 1. A blood sample from a patient and is drawn in a red top tube and put into a centrifuge and separated into serum, WBC and RBC's. A sample of the person's serum is removed. (wash step) 2. A sample of measles is put into the Elisa test wells (length of time?!) (wash step) 3. 100 ul ( 100 ul = 0.1ml = microliters) of the patient's serum is put into the wells and left to incubate for 1 hour. If the person has antibodies her serum will bind to the measles. (wash step) 4. Then Rabbit Anti Human Serum is added which will bind to the human serum (length of time?!) (wash step) 5. Then Goat Anti Rabbit Conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is added which will bind to the rabbit Anti Human Serum (length of time?!) (wash step) 6. Finally, a reagent/ substrate called OPD is added last as an indicator of a positive or negative presence of the antibodies. Blue is positive, Clear is negative.

What is HIV?

Human immune Deficiency Virus

Draw a phospholipid bilayer and in the drawing depict two different ways of moving items in and out of the cell.

Hydrophobic tails (afraid of water) Hydrophilic heads (water seeking) Photo bottom left arrow wrong, should be pointing to the tails...

What is the flu vaccine usually made in?

eggs

Allergic reactions, like an al an allergic reaction to penicillin are associated with increased levels of: IGA IGM IGG IGE

IGE

Which immunoglobulin is found in allergic reactions and in those infected with parasites?

IGE

Which immunoglobulin is the longest lasting?

IGG

Which immunoglobulin comes up first?

IGM

What is variolation?

If you get something once you won't get it again. Example: If you get smallpox 1x you won't get it again. The Chinese knew of variolation, long before the rest of the world. Doctors would blow dried smallpox into the nose or inoculate under the skin. They didn't know why, but they did know if they did this people were protected against smallpox. Variolation gets its name from the Chinese knowledge. The word Variola means "small pox"

Who was Christian Ehrenberg?

In 1838 he observed what he called "little rods" or "Bacterion". He is credited for naming bacteria.

Who was John Snow?

In 1854 he was the first to interview people and plot data on a disease outbreak with the goal of finding the cause. He did this during a London cholera epidemic. Once he plotted the cases of cholera, he could see on a map clearly that there were areas infected worse than others. This lead him to see that there was a connection. He found a contaminated well (old cesspit was buried only 3 feet away and was leaking into water source- part of an old house basement nappy with cholera was washed into that cesspit- animals were also nearby defecating attributing to the contamination). People were told to stop using it, the well was cleaned with bleach and the problem went away. One of the forefathers of epidemiology.

Describe Louis Pasteur's swan neck experiment

In 1859 he did an experiment in which he altered a flask to resemble a swan neck. He did this in four steps. The first step he took a regular flask, sterilized it, put in broth added heat to boil broth, and allowed time to go by. Over time the broth he put in it was contaminated. The second step he did it again by closing the top, this time the broth stayed sterile. The third step involved him repeating #1 and putting a swan shaped neck on the flask. As time went by the liquid stayed sterile with the top open. In step 4 he repeated step three but after the experiment, he tilted the fluid into the neck and back again into the body of the flask. It then became contaminated. His experiment officially disproved spontaneous generation, since the broth had access to air (the life force) and the heated broth grew bacteria (disproving the killing of vital force)

What did Dr. Joseph Lister pioneer?

In 1865 He developed antisepsis that would treat an area with carbolic acid spray prior to surgery to prevent infection. Before this people would survive the surgery, but die later due to infection. He did not invent listerine, but it was named after him, due to the companies admiration of his work.

Describe "The Transformation Experiment" of Griffith. *possible essay - nail wording*

In 1928 Griffith laid the ground work for DNA experimentation. In his experiment he used mice and two type of streptococcus pneumoniae (smooth strain (a capsule type - used in our lab) and rough strain (a non-capsule harmless strain)) His experiment: 1. Injected S strain into the mouse, it got pneumonia and died 2. injected R strain into the mouse, it was fine. Autopsy showed cells of the R strain lived, but caused no harm. 3. Injected a heated S strain, it was fine. Autopsy showed no bacteria living in mouse. 4. Injected a mix of S strain killed and R strain. Mouse died. Autopsy showed a mix of both S and R strain within mouse. Concluded: The R strain had been transformed to become live S strain Postulated: Some genes of S strain were taken up by the R strain so that the R strain gained some capacity to make the S strain

Who was Oswald Avery

In 1944 he wanted to know what the transforming molecule from Griffiths experiment was. He discovered it was nucleic acid. He however, did not prove that DNA was the genetic material. That came later with Hershey and Chase's experiment in 1952

Who is Robert Whittaker and Lynn Margulis?

In 1969 came up with 5 system for kingdom classification. *name below!* 1. Monera- Prokaryotes/Bacteria 2. Protista- Protozoans/algae 3. Fungi- Molds/Mushrooms 4. Plantae 5. Animalia

Who was Dr. Robert Gallo?

In May 1984 he isolated the HIV virus

What did Luc/Gallo do?

In May 1986 grouped together, isolated and officially called HIV, HIV.

When was the HIV virus first identified?

In May of 1983 by the French

What is a master mix?

In PCR it is a special reaction buffer that includes all of the components needed for PCR to occur. Includes the individual building blocks of DNA, a special buffer to maintain optimum pH, salts and MgCl2. Must be kept cold before use, so the enzyme doesn't start to work before adding DNA templates

Why is the genetic code called redundant? In most cases there is more than one codon for each amino acid The DNA can be copied over and over, always using a strand for the old DNA RNA is like a carbon copy of the DNA chromosome There are many copies of genes, some of which are damaged

In most cases there is more than one codon for each amino acid

What is a dark reaction or carbon fixing?

In photosynthesis it is when carbon from CO2 is trapped or fixed (reverse glycolysis) You start with Co2 and end up with glucose.

What is a light reaction or light fixing?

In photosynthesis it is when energy is converted into chemical energy. You start with light and end up with NADH.

What is conjugation?

In recombination a way that cells can make the sex pilus

Who was Girolamo Fracastoro?

In the mid 1550's he was the first to use the word contagion. He came up with the idea that disease was contagious and spread person to person. He wrote about syphilis or "The French Disease". He was first to coin the terms syphilis and contagion. He was the first to talk about germ theory of disease, before it was officially a theory made by Pasteur, through his essay he wrote called De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis.

A retrovirus is: from the 1950's has a DNA genome has reverse transcriptase has transcription factor II

has reverse transcriptase

Alpha Hemolysis is ________ and an example is _________

Incomplete/Greening hemolysis (ex. streptococcus pneumonia)

Opportunistic infections are ....

Infections that occur more frequently and are more severe in individuals with weakened immune systems, including people with HIV

How do antibiotic sulfa drugs known as sulfanilamides work?

Inhibit DNA synthesis by inhibiting folate synthesis.

How do antibotics such as Quinolones work? Example?

Inhibit DNA synthesis. Ex. Ciprofloxacin

How do the antibiotis Glycopeptides work? Example?

Inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis. Ex. Vancomycin

How do the antibiotics Tetracycline work? Examples?

Inhibit protein synthesis. Ex. Tetracycline and doxycycline

How do the antibiotics Marcoslides work? Examples?

Inhibit protein synthesis. Ex. Zithromax and Erythromycin

How do insertion sequences work and what are 4 things that are important about them?

Insertion sequences break themselves off of the chromosomes and inserts itself into the plasmid, wrecking the gene. 1) It has 1000 base pairs 2) Does not code for anything 3) Copy themselves 4) Interrupt genes

What is the flu caused by?

influenza virus

What is Mordant?

Iodine is a mordant. Mordant is a term for a substance that cements. (In our case the Iodine cements the Crystal Violet complexes)

When we used the microscope, what did we close to decrease the amount of light directed at our specimen (to add contrast)?

Iris diaphram

HIV: Is the name of the virus which causes AIDS Is the name of the disease caused by AIDS Is an opportunistic pathogen Only develops after AIDS is diagnosed

Is the name of the virus which causes AIDS

The gram positive cell wall has one additional main component that is essential for the cell wall integrity. What is it?

It contains crosslinks with teiochoic acid.

What is the most fatal mode of infection for Bacillus anthracis?

inhalation

How does the influenza virus get into the cell?

It's genome is made into 8 segments which has to package into new viruses. It has two major spikes on the outside of itself HN and NA. It fuses to get into the cell and fuses/buds from the cell after replication.

What is the scientific name of the deer tick?

Ixodes scapularis

Which of the scientists used mutton gravy in his work relating to spontaneous generation?

John Needham

What two reasons do we heat fix for? What happens if you don't?

Kill and stick. If you don't the cell slide will be empty. Everything will slide off of the slide during preparation and washing.

What is the main function of T lymphocyte cells?

Kills virus infected cells and tumor cells

Who discovered Shigella?

Kiyoshi Shiga

Describe the slime layer of a glycocalyx.

Looks like sand paper. A good example is dental plaque, that is caused by streptococcus mutans. The strep makes dextran fibers that make up the slime layer.

Draw a streak plate technique. What should be done to the loop between each streak?

Loop should be flamed between each streak!

Name a differential and selective media....

Mackonky Agar/MAC

What can an autotroph do?

Make all of its nutritional requirements from simple carbon like carbon dioxide and light (photosynthesis). Auto means self!

Which is Bigger? Me, Dog, Herpes virus, nitrogen atom, paramecium?

Me Dog Paramecium Herpes Virus Nitrogen Atom *Help: "Think Virus infects a cell" and "Atoms Make up molecules"

Lazzaro Spallanzani

Meat and veggie broth in tubes, different cork stopper tightness

Francesco Redi

Meat jars and maggots. Refuted spontaneous generation

Symptoms of Chlamydia?

Men: 1. difficulty urinating 2. pelvic pain 3. pelvic inflammatory diease Women 1. Infection of the fallopian tubes 2. Ectopic pregnancy 3. can be silent 4. can cause blindness in babies during birth

What type of bacteria is commonly grown in our lab? Why?

Mesophiles, because it's optimal temperature is 37 C which is approximately the same as the average room temperature.

What does MERSA mean?

Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (or multi-drug resistant staphylococcus aureus)

What is an enzyme?

Molecules that increase the probability of chemical reactions while remaining unchanged. They are active in metabolism. The word means "in yeast"

HPV is now being implicated in what?

More oral cancers, especially in middle aged men

How is the genetic code Degenerate?

More than one codon often specifies for an amino acid.

What can heterotrophs do?

Obtain all their nutritional requirements from their environment (like glucose)

What are spontaneous mutations?

Mutations caused by environmental radiations or errors by DNA Polymerase

What are induced mutations?

Mutations caused on purpose. There are two types. Physical and Chemical.

We names two monosaccharides which make up peptidoglycan, what are their names?

NAG> N-Acetyl Glucosamine NAM> N-Acetyl Muramic Acid

Why is Lyme Disease called lyme Disease?

Named after Lyme, CT where in the 1970's many cases developed.

On MacConkey Agar what does a... negative plate look like? A positive plate look like?

Negative = clear Positive = pink/red

On EMB Agar plate what does a ... negative plate look like? A positive plate look like? E. coli look like?

Negative = clear Positive= purplish E. coli= Green sheen

The gram negative oxidase positive diplococci belong to the genus _______ . The most notable species are (2)?

Neisseria; N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis.

Put in the correct order - smallest to largest Paramecium Corvette Rabies V E. coli Nitrogen Atom Sucrose Molecule Chihuahua

Nitrogen Atom sucrose molecule rabies v E. coli paramecium chihuahua corvette

What is a nucleotide?

Nitrogen base + sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate group. Can be A, G, C, T

What are two examples of chemical induced mutations?

Nitrous acid, base analogs

Is herpes curable? Treatable? If so with what?

No cure for herpes. However, there are medicines that can prevent or shorten outbreaks; acyclovir/Valtrex

Gamma Hemolysis is ________ and an example is _________

No hemolysis (ex. S. epidermis)

Is this correct? escherichia Coli

No. It should read: E. coli

How are other Staphylococci, like epidermis different from Staphylococcus aureus?

Not hemolytic, don't ferment mannitol, DNAse negative and coagulase negative.

Where is the Chromosomes in bacteria?

Nucleoid and some fragments within the plasmid

Since Mycobacterium generally grow slow, what testing works better than culture at times?

PCR

What is a positive selection technique? Explain and Draw.

One of two ways to detect mutations in which you take an inoculated plate and invert other plate on top. In this technique type you take a second plate that contains something additional such as an antibiotic and invert it onto the original plate and look to see if you can get one of the bacteria sites to grow. In this case, if you did get any growth you would have a bacteria that has mutated, so that it can grow in the presence of the antibiotic *You ADD something to the media.

What is a negative selection technique? Explain and Draw.

One of two ways to detect mutations in which you take an inoculated plate and invert other plates on top of. For instance you take the first original inoculated plate and invert a complete media on top and see if you get a pattern of growth that is the same. You then take a 3rd plate and remove something, such as histidine and see if you can get one of the bacteria spots to not grow. This would be due to a mutation that occurred in which the bacteria could not grown in the presence of histidine. *You REMOVE something from the media.

How is DNA replication semiconservative?

One parental strand is conserved in each new daughter cell.

Mycobacterium describe and types

Organisms are acid fast, so will not decolorize during staining. Highly resistant to antibiotics. 1. Most notable Mycobacteria is Mycobacterium tuberculosis: makes tubercules. 2. Mycobacterium leprae: causes leprosy on the skin 3. Mycobacterium avium-intra-cellulare: seen in AIDS patients

Of all the processes we studied, where is the most ATP generated?

Oxidative phosphorylation

Which of the three main pathways for ATP production produce the most energy?

Oxidative phosphorylation/ETS

What is a lipopolysaccharide made up of?

Part of the outer/2nd membrane of a gram negative cell it is made up of 1. o-polysaccharides: (The o-polysaccharides are used in typing (like what type of salmonella do I have in my petri dish?)) 2. lipid A: (endotoxin is a lipid A)

Give an example of a beta lactam.

Penicillin

What is the main aspect of Alexander Fleming's discovery in 1928?

Penicillin

Gonorrhea may be resistant to _____________ so drugs like _____________ or __________ may be used.

Penicillin/ Zithromax, ceftriaxone

What is PPNG?

Penicillinase producing neisseria gonorrhoeae

How do the antibiotic ahminoglycosides work? Example?

inhibit protein synthesis and works well in gram negatives. Ex. Amikacin

What are mutations?

Permanent heritable changes in DNA.

The red broth in lab inside the tube is called? It indicates what? What 4 colors show what type of reactions?

Phenol Red; PH; Yellow= fermented and a reaction= R Red no bubbles= sugar still present and no reaction=NR Yellow and Bubbles=Gas from ferment=acid & gas react. =AG Cloudy pink= bacterial growth & no ferment, degradation of peptone; alkaline end products=K.

The red broth in lab inside the tube is called? It indicates what? What 4 colors show what type of reactions?

Phenol Red; PH; Yellow= fermented and a reaction= R Red no bubbles= sugar still present and no reaction=NR Yellow and Bubbles=Gas from ferment=acid & gas react. =AG Cloudy pink= bacterial growth & no ferment, degradation of peptone; alkaline end products=K.

John Snow

Plot data

Name a rNA primer that allows DNA to attach to single strands...

Primase

which one of the following enzymes would not be involved with excision repair of DNA? DNA polymerase Nucleases RNA polymerase DNA ligase

RNA polymerase

What type of virus is Influenza?

RNA virus.

How do you test for syphilis?

RPR or VDRL. Confirmation is done by FTA-ABS, a fluorescent antibody test.

Who typed Streptococci in the early 1900's based upon their surface antigens?

Rebecca Lancefield

Gram Negative Color?

Red/Orange

What happens if you forget to wash between Elisa testing steps?

Results will all be positive

The book Micrographia was published by?

Robert Hooke

How is a blood test run to find out if someone is immune to something?

Run an Elisa test

In what case is an exotoxin a structural part of the bacteria?

Salmonella's lipid a and o-polysaccharide

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Same as ETC When pairs of electrons are passed from one chemical to another (electron transport) releasing energy. The energy gets released and is used to combine phosphate with ADP to form ATP. It is composed of electron carriers called cytochromes. The electrons are provided by coenzyme carriers NADH and FADH2

What is the tree called within the Elisa testing?

Sandwich Tree

Draw out what a centrifuged serum would look like, identifying each part.

Serum and the antibodies comes from the plasma part!

What is a primer?

Short fragments of DNA used to target specific regions (loci) in a sample of DNA to be copied. Only the region of DNA which is specific to the primers being used will be copied.

What is a pili?

Short protein hair like fibers on the outside of many gram negative cells. The name of the protein is called pilin. At the ends of the fiber shafts are an adhesive protein called adhesins which bind to specific receptors on cells.

Girolamo Fracastoro

Syphilis/The French Disease. Coined term contagion and syphilis. Talked about germ theory before pasteur before it was actually a theory- essay de contagione et contagiosis morbis.

What is the blue green broth in lab?

Simmons Citrate. Some bacteria can use as a food source. Needs air, don't close tops of tubes all the way.

Zacharias Janssen

Simple Scopes, Convex lenses

What stops DNA from refolding onto itself once it has been unwound by helicase?

Single stranded binding proteins.

If there was a mutation and one letter is swapped for another what happens?

Sometimes nothing, other times it may not code for the correct thing.

What does a beta lactam bacteria do?

Split the beta lactam ring of beta lactams.

What is the main pathogen of Staphylococci?

Staphylococcus aureus (means gold)

What is Aseptic Transfer?

Sterile Technique

Name 3 types of mutations

Substitution, Deletion, Insertion

What is the last reagent that is added during an Elisa test?

Substrate OPD (o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride)

For the ELISA experiment, what was the last reagent added?

Substrate OPD as an indicator

Louis Pasteur

Swan Neck Flask, pasteurization, disproved spontaneous generation, fermentation work with wine, germ theory, anthrax work in chickens showed temp sensitivity, cholera chicken vaccine, anthrax children vaccine, silkworm disease prebine taught isolation techniques.

Prokaryotic cells have a variety of cell membrane transport proteins that regulate molecular flow in and out of the cell? T/F

T

What kills virus infected or tumor cells?

T-Cells

What is the cell HIV infects?

T-Lymphocytes with CD4 receptors

Describe Denaturation in PCR

melting of double stranded DNA template into single strands (opens dna- either with Helicase or heat at 92c)

How does temperature affect growth?

Temperature must be in the optimal range in labs to grow bacteria.

What is a zone of inhibition?

The "bacteria-free" circles of varying sizes around some of the susceptibility test disks. They indicate if the organism was susceptible to the antimicrobial agent (the paper disks with antibiotics on them). The larger measurement in mm surrounding an antimicrobial agent is, the more susceptible the organism is to the antibiotic.

What is the zone of inhibition?

The "bacteria-free" circles of varying sizes around some of the susceptibility test disks. They indicate if the organism was susceptible to the antimicrobial agent (the paper disks with antibiotics on them). The larger measurement in mm surrounding an antimicrobial agent is, the more susceptible the organism is to the antibiotic.

What is Transcription?

The 1st step of gene expressing where a segment of DNA is copied into RNA BY RNA polymerase. ("writing" by RNA)

What is Translation?

The 2nd step and final step of gene expression. The information contained in the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA is read as three letter words (triplets), called codons. Each word stands for one amino acid.

What type of procedure did the Chinese pioneer related to an early type of vaccination? What was it called?

The Chinese pioneered variolation. They did this through blowing dried particles of smallpox into the nose or injecting them under the skin..

What is competence?

The ability of a recipient cell to take up DNA from the environment. It may give the recipient the ability to be made pathogenic.

If the gut were depleted of bacteria from chronic diarrhea or radiation what could be in the position to repopulate the gut with normal flora?

The appendix

What is a safehouse for bacteria?

The appendix

many bacterial are cultured at 37C because they are classified as: mesophilic psychrophilic thermophilic facultative neutrophilic

mesophilic

Define catabolism

The breaking down of larger molecules to form energy.

If you performed a gram stain and your gram positive staphylococcus looked red or pink, what might you conclude? **for this question, it is really a staphylococcus that should have looked purple. it did not mutate.**

The decolorizing step with alcohol was done to long.

What is glycolysis?

The first stage of energy extraction

What is a glycocalyx? What does the word mean? How many layers does it have?

The glycocalyx, also known as the pericellular matrix, is a glycoprotein and glycolipid covering that surrounds the cell membranes of some bacteria, epithelia, and other cells. It used to be called a capsule. Glyco (Sweet/sugar) Calyx (coat) layer 1- capsule layer 2- slimelayer/biofilm

What happens in the log phase of the growth curve?

The highest rate of growth happens here. Symptoms from the disease/bacteria would also appear in its host at this stage.

The most widely accepted view of the origin of HIV is known as the: the polio vaccine theory the haitian transfer theory the transfusion therory the hunter theory

The hunter therory

What is spontaneous generation?

The idea that life arose from non living material. A term that also is used to describe this idea is putrefaction, which is life arising from decaying material. It was thought for this to happen a life force was required which needed air and a vital force was needed in which heat could destroy.

What does parfocal mean?

The lens stays in focus when magnification/focal length is changed. There is some slight focus error, but usually insignificant.

What is a growth curve?

The lifespan of a disease or bacteria

Define anabolism

The making of larger molecules from smaller ones. It requires energy. (ex. C02--> glucose)

What is sporulation?

The making of spores or endospores.

Who is Willy Burgdorfer?

The man who the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi is named after, due to his work

What is "generation time" or "doubling time"

The measurement of bacterial grown between two successive binary fissions.

What did Julius Petri invent?

The petri dish. He was a worker in Koch's lab.

Where are the genes of the F+

The plasmid

Who discovered E. coli?

Theodor Escherich

What is chemotaxis?

The process by which bacteria can be attracted towards chemical nutrients and move towards it .

What is Brownian Movement?

The random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of continuous collision from molecules of the surrounding area.

What is a DNA replication fork?

The replication fork is the area where the replication of DNA will actually take place.

What turns off the operon?

The repressor (stops operon from working in the presence of what it is trying to make, through negative feedback "puts itself in the way")

The simple stain we used - Does it have a positive or negative charge?

The simple stain we use is methylene blue. It has a positive charge.

Sticky ends refers to: The single-stranded extensions of DNA that attach to complementary ends protruding from another DNA fragment the encapsulated bacteria that have been transformed the viral nucleic acid that has integrated into the host cell chromosome. the ends of the pilus that attches to both donor cell and recipient cell

The single-stranded extensions of DNA that attach to complementary ends protruding from another DNA fragment

What is metabolism?

The sum of all biochemical processes taking place in a living cell. It has two parts; catabolism and anabolism.

What is a "doubling time"?

The time it takes for the amount of bacteria to double on a growth curve.

What is toxic about the bacillus anthracis?

The toxins which it makes

What is a coenzyme step?

The transition step between glycolysis and the krebs cycle where pyruvate is turned into CO2 and acetyl coenzyme A is made. 1 NADH is also made

What does the use of thioglycollate broth have to do with its relationship to oxygen?

The use of thioglycollate broth, which bind free oxygen in media, is another way to create an anaerobic environment.

How does a fast Elisa test work.. like a pregnancy test?

The wick area of the dipstick is coated with anti-hCG (pregnancy hormone) antibodies. When the stick is dipped in urine, if hCG is present it will bind to the pink antibody and travel up the strip by capillary action. The test has two strips that contain opportunities for the antibody complex to bind. If it binds in the first spot the test is positive as there is a complex there that gets trapped, the second spot is the control that contains an unlabeled secondary antibody that binds to the unbound pink complexes.

Who was Francesco Stelluti and Giovanni Faber?

These guys were microscope inventors whose names appeared aside the word "microscopio" around 1625 in text for the first time.

What did Watson and Crick Do?

They are credited for deciphering the structure of the DNA. They used R.F.;s X-rays to come up with their idea. They proposed the double helix model. They are also shrouded in debate over their work and as to if they stole the DNA discovery from Rosalind Franklin.

What does IGM do?

They are first responders to an infection.

All of the following characteristics apply to the prokaryotes except? They lack a nucleus. They are multicellular. They are composed of single cells. They have no nuclear membrane. They include the bacteria.

They are multicellular

Which one of the following statements does not apply to F plasmids: they are found in F+ cells They contain genes for production of the conjugation pilus they carry genes for essential bacterial metabolism They are double-stranded loops of DNA

They carry genes for essential bacterial metabolism

What does IGE do?

They elevate in parasites and allergic individuals

How do secondary antibodies work?

This works because the antibodies produced by different species are different enough from each other that they will provoke an immune response. (Ex. if you want a secondary antibody that will recognize a human primary antibody, inject human antibodies into an animal like a rabbit. After the rabbit immune response, the rabbit serum will contain antibodies that recognize and bind to human antibodies, effectively amplifying the "signal".)

How does bacteria grow?

Through a form of asexual reproduction called binary fission.

How does conjugation transfer its DNA?

Through a rolling circle mechanism from F+ to F-. Rare only <1% can do it!

How do you detect mutations?

Through two different ways: 1. The negative selection technique 2. The positive selection technique

Why do we use oil for oil immersion?

To focus light into the objective

Why do we use an oil immersion? With which objective?

To focus light into the objective, which gives a clearer picture. It is used with the 100x objective

Why is a streak plate done?

To isolate patterns and separate microorganisms.

What happens if you do the decoloring step in gram staining to long or forget to do it?

To long- all the cells will appear to be gram negative (strip all of the positive cells of their crystal violet color) Forget or way to short- All the cells will be gram positive (didn't get enough time to strip the outer layer off, so the safranin won't stain the inner layer)

** What is the purpose of arabinose?

To turn off the___operon____ so the RNA transcription can happen

How do transposon sequences work and what are 6 things that are important about them?

Transposon sequences pulls extra DNA with it to the plasmid, leaving nothing to fill in/replace the void. 1. Barbara McClintock discovered them. She won the Nobel Prize in 1983. She was from Hartford. Her work with maize cytogenetics, proved transposon sequences exist. 2. No genetic info contained within 3. Antibiotic resistant 4. Non recriprocal 5. Has inverted repeated sequences at its ends. 6. Is also nicknamed "Jumping Genes" Bored, Nudists, Resisted, Non, Indecent, Jugs= Barbara, No, Resistant, Non, Inverted, Jumping

What does the EMB agar work?

Two ways 1. it inhibits the growth of gram positive organisms 2. reacts with vigorous lactose fermententers whose acid end products turn the growth dark purple p 267

What is a terminal electron acceptor?

Usually (not always) oxygen which combines with protons to make water

Gram Positive Color?

Violet/blue/purple

What is antigenic shift? What does this mean?

When a single cell is infected with a human flu virus, and a flu virus of an other origin (like swine or avian) gets incorporated into the production of the human flu. Means 1. You get a stronger flu virus, that can easily get into human cells or 2. you make a human origin flu with avian/swine antigens on the outside of the virus so that it looks very foreign to the human immune system.

What is Active Transport?

When an item moving through a transport protein within a cell wall goes against the concentration gradient (area of low concentration to high concentration) Requires Energy

What is initiation?

When proteins bind to the origin of replication while helicase unwinds the DNA helix and two replication forks are formed at the oriC.

What is oxidative phosphorylation/Electron transport? 2 things!

Where the most ATP is made and 2 things happen 1. pairs of electrons are passed from one chemical substance to another (*electron transport*) 2. The energy released during their transport is used to combine ADP and P (phosphate) to form ATP (*called ATP synthesis*)

How does glycolysis start?

With 1-6c glucose molecule turning into 2-3C pyruvate molecules. 2 ATP molecules are used at first to make 4 ATP's So we have a net of 2 total ATP molecules. We also net 2 NADH --> ETS

How do you do a catalyze test?

With peroxide / bubbles if positive

How do you do a catalyze test? What happens to a positive and negative test?

With peroxide / bubbles if positive/ nothing if negative

How do the antibiotics Cephalosporins work? Example?

Work like Beta Lactams and disrupt peptidoglycan synthesis. Ex. Keflex

What is carried in rodents and is the causative agent of the bubonic plague? Who is the genus named for?

Yersina pestis; A.E.J. Yersin, a swiss microbiologist

Can pandemics happen with the flu?

Yes. ex. Spanish Flu of 1918

aerobic respiration yields how many ATP? Have a good sense of the diagram on page 175 in the text showing ATP or "figure 12 the ATP yield from aerobic respiration"

Yields 38! 2 from glycolysis (and 6 from 2 NADH) 6 from transition 24 from citric acid/krebs cycle

How does one find the "doubling time"?

You compare one point to another point and the number to time ration (where doubled) is the doubling time.

Why does flossing extend your life for years?

You get the bacteria out of the mouth and avoid it entering your blood stream. Poor health habits cause the bacteria to stick at the platelets at that location and add to plaque formation in the arteries. Can also go to the pancreas and is thought to be a cause of pancreatic cancer

If you forgot to wash between each ELISA experiment, what might you see.

You would see blue wells in each section. It would be a false positive in each well

What is the general theory of the Western Blot?

You would take a pt.'s serum and run it out on the gel, in that way you would be able to see what antibodies you are making. It is more specific than the ELISA

What does Staphylococci look like?

a gram positive cocci they look like bunches of grapes and grow in high salt. They are not motile and catalase positive.

With active transport: a molecule can flow down its concentration gradient into the cell a molecule requires ATP to move into the cell movement must always be from a high concentration to low is the simplest form of facilitated diffusion.

a molecule requires ATP to move into the cell

Koch's postulates validate the? a. relationship of specific microorganisms with infectious diseases b. understand the cause of anthrax c. understand the process of phagocytosis d. the theory of spontaneous generation e. pure culture techniques.

a. relationship of specific microorganisms with infectious diseases

This type of membrane transport requires the cell to utilize energy or ATP active transport endocytosis phagocytosis passive transport osmosis

active transport

proteins found at the ends of the shaft of pili are called...

adhesins

Enzymes are utilized by bacterial cells in the following reactions. anabolic catabolic photosynthesis fermentation all of the above

all of the above

Kary Mullis: May have seen a glowing raccoon Was available to testify for OJ Simpson Developed the idea of using primers in PCR Thought of using Taq polymerase while using LSD All of the above

all of the above

The HIV virus may be transmitted by the following... male to male sexual contact male to female sexual contact sharing of blood contaminated needles all of the above.

all of the above

All of the following are true of a point mutation except: it affects a base pair it may be a change to a different base pair it may be a substituted base pair all of the above are true

all of the above are true

What is syphilis?

an STD caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum.

Many bacterial live and metabolize without o2 and are therefore classified as anaerobic capnophobic neutrophili mesophilic aerobic

anaerobic

Respiration can be aerobic or _______ depending on whether oxygen or sulfate for example is the terminal electron acceptor. Some bacteria like Streptococcus species can also make ATP by using an organic acceptor of electrons in a process known as ________

anaerobic; fermentation

What can lower Lactobacilli counts?

antibiotics

the following group of bacteria can produce endospores: the myobacterium paramecium&euglena bacillus&clostridium all gram neg bacteria none of the above

bacillus and clostridium

The virus participating in transduction is called a: bacteriophage recombinant F- cell clumping factor replication virus

bacteriophage

Regarding AIDS: Following infection the immune system is not compromised because the immune system is compromised other infections may appear there are never secondary, opportunistic infections there is no way to test for an HIV infection

because the immune system is compromised other infections may appear

What type of molecule is penicillin?

beta lactam

the process by which bacteria reproduce is known as: meiosis spontaneous generation mitosis spontaneous mutation binary fission

binary fission

UV light may induce a mutation by: dissolving the cell membrane of a bacterium preventing synthesis of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation restricting transcription of RNA molecules binding together adjacent thymine molecules on the DNA molecule.

binding together adjacent thymine molecules on the DNA molecule.

Where can staphylococcus saprophyticus can sometimes be seen?

bladder infections

A positive gram stain test is what color?

blueish/purple

The spirochete bacteria that causes lyme disease: treponema pallidum neisseria gonorrhea ixodes streptoccus pneumoniae borrelia burgdorferi

borrelia burgdorferi

Human papilloma virus infection: may cause cancer may cause warts both above non above

both above

Are the most accurate readings found when measuring at the top of the meniscus or at the bottom of the meniscus?

bottom

Do you measure with the top or the bottom of the meniscus?

bottom

What is clostridium botulinum

botulisim and botox

One sign of Lyme disease is: elevated t cell count viral load below 1000 bull's eye rash elevated IGE

bulls eye rash

What is Clostridium difficile

c. diff which can cause colitis

When we talk about the glycocalyx, the _________ is the tightly bound glycocalyx and the _____ is the more loose glycocalyx.

capsule; slime layer

During the carbon fixing reaction of photosynthesis? chemical energy is converted to ATP light energy is converted into chemical energy carbon dioxide is converted into glucose pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-A oxygen is the final electron acceptor

carbon dioxide is converted into glucose

Transposons are movable genetic elements that: carry information such as antibiotic resistance from one gene location to another. form copies of themselves which move from the normal position into areas of gene activity are composed solely of protein exist only in viruses.

carry information such as antibiotic resistance from one gene location to another.

Oncogenes are genes which: the virus utilizes to replicate itself cause mutation of a membrane protein encourage recombination in bacteria cause uncontrolled cell division in cancerous cells influence ongoing protein production.

cause uncontrolled cell division in cancerous cells

Bacterial cells carry out electron transport in the? cell wall mitochondria nucleus cell membrane cytoplasm

cell membrane

The phospholipid bilayer refers to the structure of the nucleus cell wall cell membrane ribosomes glycoalyx

cell membrane

You could have an outreak of shingles if you had: measles lyme disease chicken pox rubella

chicken pox

What can cause blindness during birth

chlamydia

Describe what DNA looks like

circular, double stranded and has tension which can be loosened for transcription and translation.

DNA fingerprinting or DNA profiling

compares PCR from a known to an unknown. They will match or line up uniquely if the same.

Beta hemolysis is __ hemolysis.

complete

In the lab, when you look at a blood agar plate, you examine whether there is hemolysis. Beta hemolysis is? no hemolysis partial hemolysis green hemolysis complete hemolysis

complete hemolysis

the microscopes we use in lab are? a. compound b. fluorescent c. have the capacity for phase contrast microscopy d. darkfield

compound

Enzymes play an important role in biological chemistry because the? a. return the cell to an isotonic state. b. conserve energy because they are reusable c. raise the ionic strength of a water solution. d. maintain the pH at a neutral level preferred by most microorganisms. e. provide the genetic code.

conserve energy because they are reusable

Tuberculosis is a very old disease often thought to be ____________. Was discovered by ________.

consumption; Koch

What is an alternative name for the leading strand?

continuous strand

What does the iris diaphragm do?

controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the condenser and below the stage. pg 142 lab book

What is the iris diaphragm?

controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the condenser and below the stage. pg 142 lab book

Nitrous acid can cause a chemical mutation by: converting DNA's adenine to hypoxanthine eliminating transposons from a bacterium binding two adjacent bacteria together in a synchytium cross-linking adjacent thymine bases

converting DNA's adenine to hypoxanthine

Most herpes simplex infections: are cured following the first round of treatment will be cured within the first six months after treatment begins currently, cannot be cured; the virus is always in ganglia

currently, cannot be cured; the virus is always in ganglia

What do the electrons travel on in the ET/Oxidative Phosphorylation?

cytochrome

What is the main "special" component of endospores?

dipcolinic acid

What is an alternative name for the lagging strand?

discontinuous strand

How is the flu transmitted?

droplet or cough.

The rolling-circle mechanism of DNA replication takes place: during generalized transduction as transposons move about during bacterial conjucation during the polymerase cycle

during bacterial conjugation

This bacterial structure may be formed during periods of stress or lack of nutrients: endoflagellum basal body inclusion body flagella endospore

endospore

On cell death lipid A is released and represents a (n): endotoxin mycolic acid plasma membrane porin

endotoxin

What does the term ELISA stand for?

enzyme linked immunoabsorbant assay

What is ELISA?

enzyme linked immunoabsorbant assay; a way of testing for immunity.

__________ is the study of the source, cause and mode of transmission of disease.

epidemology

Discuss and evaluate the contributions made by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Discuss how their successful research helped to understand and treat diseases and advance scientific thought.

essay

What are the symptoms of Lyme disease? First symptom? Chronic symptom?

fever, headache, fatigue, joint pain, heart and nervous system disorders. First symptom: bull's eye rash. Chronic symptom: encephalitis or myocarditis.

The theory regarding the cell membrane having to do with the elements of the membrane not being cemented in place is called the? motile membrane theory fluid membrane theory fluid mosaic model fluid membrane model

fluid mosaic model

In the ELISA test: all results are always considered definitive it is best performed after the western blot results are completed for some medical problems, should be considered as a portion of the patient's tests coupled with other test results for any disease, results can be never trusted unless they are confirmed.

for some medical problems, should be considered as a portion of the patient's tests coupled with other test results

Current thinking about lyme disease is that it could be: only an acute disease only a chronic disease for some patients acute while others chronic none of the above

for some patients acute while others chronic

the cloning of genes into a bacterial plasmid allows the cell to produce desired end products such as insulin. this process is known as: biremediation transduction genetic engineering transformation bioreduction

genetic engineering

Pasteur's ______________ stated that some microorganisms are responsible for infectious disease.

germ theory

N. gonorrheas makes acid only from ________ however, N. meningitis produces acid from both _______ and __________.

glucose; glucose and maltose

Name 7 inclusion bodies within bacteria

glycogen, starch, gas vesicles, sulfur, lipid, metachromatic granules and magnetosomes mnemonics: Goofy sniffed green vittles since liars make gross munchies ---- or---- greasy, smelly, girls, showered, little, moody, mondays

All of the following can be considered anabolic reactions except... light fixing reaction glycolysis photosynthesis carbon fixing reaction

glycolysis

the lipopolysaccharide layer is found in: gram + bacteria gram - bacteria the cytoplasm of all bacteria eukaryotic plasma membranes viral shell

gram - bacteria

Viruses are known by any of the following characteristics except: presence/absence of an envelope having DNA or RNA Capsid shape having host specificity gram stain reaction

gram stain reaction

Mycobacterium are characterized as to whether they ___________________ and whether or not they make ___________.

grow fast or slow; pigments

Facultative bacteria: are strict anaerobes can live in carbon dioxide environments exhibit parasitism and commensalism grown in the presence or absence of o2 have cell membranes but no cell walls.

grow in the presence or absence of o2

A thermoacidophile is best described as an organism that.....

grows best in a highly acidic and high heat environment.

One of the Streptoccoccus pneumoniae strains used by Griffith was called smooth because the cells: lacked pili lacked a cell wall had a gram-positive cell wall had a capsule

had a capsule

Who is Carl Woese?

in the 1970's he came up with a 3 domain system based on ribosomal RNA sequences. He founded a new classification and called it Archaea Bacteria. *name below!* 3 Domain System: 1. Archaea Bacteria- Harsh Conditions 2. Eubacteria - True bacteria 3. Eukarya - Protista/Animalia/Plantae-Fungi

Alpha hemolysis is: the most pathogenic complete hemolysis incomplete hemolysis related to glucose metabolism

incomplete hemolysis

Alpha hemolysis is __ hemolysis.

incomplete/greening

What is staphylococcus aureus illness caused by?

intoxication due to the exotoxins produced by the organism.

Abbe

invented the condenser

For your unknowns the gram negative organism you have: can easily be identified on blood agar can easily be identified on TSA Is best determined using EMB agar There is no way to tell which organism I have

is best determined using EMB agar (because it inhibits gram + growth)

All the following apply to the process of transformation except: for some bacteria, it depends on competence it occurs in many bacterial species the recipient picks up RNA instead of DNA it is a random process that takes place in less than 1% of a cell population

it is a random process that takes place in less than 1% of a cell population

Fanny Hesse

jam, koch, agar seaweed

Why do we heat fix slides?

kill and stick

the ames test is used to: identify auxotrophic mutants investigate protein synthesis identify antibiotic resistant bacteria learn whether an agent can induce a bacterial mutation

learn whether an agent can induce a bacterial mutation

Chlamydia are _______ advanced than typical bacteria, but _______ advanced than viruses.

less; more

Christian Ehrenberg

little rods, bacterion, credited for naming bacteria

A bacterial population divides most rapidly and is also most susceptible to antibiotics during this growth phase.

log phase

All of the following are essential to the process of DNA replication except: DNA ligase Okazaki fragments DNA polymerase mRNA

mRNA

What does PCR allow you to do with DNA?

make many copies of a specific DNA region in vitro (in a test tube rather than an organism).

What is the main function of B lymphocyte cells?

makes antibodies

name an acid fast organism

mycobacterium

Is Gonorrhea gram negative/Positive?

negative

Is streptococci catalase positive or negative?

negative

Enterobacteriae are gram ____ which are usually of _______ origin. Many cause ________.

negative; human; disease.

What is the name of the stain used for the negative stain

nigrosin stain

Can mosquitos transmit HIV?

no

Gamma hemolysis is ____ hemolysis.

no

Viruses may be best described as: prokaryotes eukaryotes prions obligate intracellular parasites viroids

obligate intracellular parasites

With almost all hepatitis infections: there are always symptoms one can expect to find elevated liver enzymes such as AST or ALT the viral load may not change only hepatitis A can be spread by sharing needles

one can expect to find elevated liver enzymes such as AST or ALT

Each antibody will recognize...

only a single antigen.

Where is the place on DNA where DNA replication happens?

oriC

MERSA is resistant to? Because?

oxacillin, methicillin and cefoxitin (all drugs that were made due to penicillin resistance). Because, it developed mutations in the PBP genes so it binds with less affinity therefore not interfering with the peptidoglycan cross linking, giving it resistance to the above drugs (and penicillin)

Viruses are intracellular _______

parasites

Chlamydia are _______ and cannot live on their own.

parasites.

_________ refers to the property of microscopes to maintain focus when switching from low to high power.

parfocal

The Hfr strain of E. coli is distinguished by its: high rate of binary fission ability to produce protein frequently tendency to mutate easily participation in a high number of recombinations

participation in a high number of recombinations

What is PANDAS stand for?

pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric Disorder.

What is the treatment for syphilis?

penicillin

Which one of the following in not a component of the bacterial cytoplasm? ribosome chromosomes peptidoglycan plasmid

peptidoglycan

How would you prep a slide using a simple stain like methylene blue

place sample on slide, flood with dye, rinse with distilled water and air dry or blot dry with bibulous paper.

An example of extrachromosomal DNA is? oxalic acid nucleoid chromosome plasmid ADP & P

plasmid

What do you use for genetic engineering

plasmid

Is Gonorrhea oxidase positive or negative?

positive

Is staphylococci catalase positive or negative?

positive

Positive or negative for oxidase? BCAT

positive. Everything else is negative

Streptococci are gram _____ and catalase _____.

positive; negative

In an immunoassay the antibodies used to recognize antigens like disease agents are called____?

primary antibodies

What is Termination?

primers are removed and replaced with new DNA nucleotides and the backbone is sealed by DNA ligase.

which small infectious particle doesn't contain nucleic acid prion viroid lambda plasmid

prion

a methanogen is an organism that is best described as an organism which...

produces methane gas

The major activity of transcription is the: anabolism of carbohydrates deamination of amino acids conversion of carbohydrates to fats conversion of fats to carbohydrates production of various types of RNA

production of various types of RNA

What do secondary antibodies do?

recognize and bind to primary antibodies in an immunoassay.

Restriction endonuclease enzymes are notable for their ability to: stitch together fragments of DNA produce Okazaki fragments from plasmids recognize and cut specific short stretches of nucleotides induce transformations

recognize and cut specific short stretches of nucleotides

The integration of host DNA with foreign DNA is called: conjugation replication transcription translation recombination

recombination

A negative gram stain test is what color?

reddish/orange

In order to believe in Pasteur's germ theory of disease one has to: culture bacteria on solid nutrient agar reject the theory of spontaneous generation be familiar with the process of wine fermentation know the epidemiology of anthrax confirm the miasma theory

reject the theory of spontaneous generation

DNA is copied before binary fission by a process known as replication transcription translation substitution recombination

replication

Okazaki fragments form during replication of the bacterial chromosome binary fission cell death the movement of insertion sequences

replication of the bacterial chromosome

In the lac Operon, what is responsible for keeping the operon off? promoter operator repressor cyclic AMP

repressor

The flagella allows the bacterial cell to: transfer genetic material to another cell respond to environmental stimuli avoid phagocytosis in the human host attach to host tissues become resistant to antibiotics.

respond to environmental stimuli

These cytoplasmic structures are responsible for performing protein synthesis. Plasmids pili ribosomes proteins peptidoglycan

ribosomes

This type of culture medium allows for growth of certain bacterial species while inhibiting growth of other types. nutrient agar nutrient broth thioglycollate broth differential medium selective medium

selective medium

A new DNA molecule can be produced by: semiconservative replication mitosis frameshift replication generalized transcription.

semiconservative replication

The human disease Creutzfeldt-Jakob may be linked with Mad Cow disease since it has been found out that: they are caused by viruses from the same family they are both caused by viruses which follow a lysogenic pathway they are both caused by prions they are both caused by viroids all cases of CJD have been linked to eating hamburgers

they are both caused by prions

Which one of the following is true of transposons: their movement is reciprocal they are sometimes called jumping genes they contain no genetic information they were discovered by watson and crik

they are sometimes called jumping genes

a halophile: has reduced growth in 8% NaCl Makes a lot of salt during growth thrives in very high salt concentrations will not grow in the presence of salt

thrives in very high salt concentrations

mRNA contains all of the following except: ribose adenine thymine uracil guanine

thymine

One environmental mutagen is UV light. It exerts its mutagenic effect by forming a(n) ______ in the DNA plasmid analog thymine dimer nucleotide mismatch

thymine dimer

Why do we use oil for oil immersion microscopy?

to focus light into the objective

why do we use oil with oil immersion microscopy? to decrease light to seal the organism to the slide to kill the organism to focus the light into the objective

to focus the light into the objective

in the p-glo experiment the purpose of arabinose was: so that the E. coli could grow to prevent mutations to turn off the repressor to cause the cell to be ampicillin susceptible

to turn off the repressor

What does Gonorrhea cause?

urethral discharge

When performing a transformation experiment, it would be best to: use a plasmid and E. coli strain that both have genes for ampicillin susecptibility use a plasmid that has genes for ampicillin susceptibility and an E. coli strain that had the genes for ampicillin resistance use a plasmid that had genes for ampicillin resistance and an E. coli strain that was susceptible to ampicillin stay away from using either E. coli or ampicillin

use a plasmid that had genes for ampicillin resistance and an E. coli strain that was susceptible to ampicillin

Edward Jenner

vaccine for smallpox through cowpox and milkmaid and kid

What is current treatment for MERSA?

vancomycin, linezolid and daptomycin

How do you make extra chromosomal DNA?

via Transposable elements

The problem with herpes simplex infection is: attachment penetration viral shedding maturation none of the above

viral shedding

Potato Spindle Tuber is an example of: bacteriophage Lentivirus Viroid lytic virus

viroid

which small infectious particle can be described as infectious nucleic acid? prion viroid lambda plasmid

viroid

Which of the following sequences expresses a relationship of increasing size? a. viruses, protozoa, bacteria b. bacteria, viruses c. fungi, protozoa, bacteria d. viruses, bacteria, protozoa e. bacteria, fungi, viruses

viruses, bacteria, protozoa

Mycobacteria are considered to be ______ because they contain _________.

waxy; mycolic acid

Robert Koch

work with anthrax, bacteria ox eye and potato. Lab and Jam. 4 postulates, developed pure culture technique, proved germ theory, worked with staining bacteria, mycobacterium tuberculosis work, worked with petri, Identified the bacterial causes of the disease for diphtheria, cholera, and tuberculosis, Worked with staining bacteria, buring carcass stop disease spread, surgical tool sterilization

Do we report significant findings of disease to the health department?

yes

Does bacillus make spores?

yes

Does clostridia make spores

yes