Final Exam Review

Immigrants and welfare

"Illegal immigrants" are ineligible for TANF Legal immigrants entering after PRWORA must wait 5 years Food stamps and SSI terminated for noncitizens

Disparities by income

*Pregnancy is more common among low-income teens* 60% of poor/low-income teen women use contraception vs. 75% of higher-income teen women Lower-income teens who become pregnant less likely to have abortions

*Changing Fatherhood*

Global economic restructuring and declining wages More women participating in workforce Increased involvement of fathers among married-parent families Increased rates of non-marital childbearing, "non-traditional" family types

Changing Families

In 1950s and 1960s, 65% of children lived in married-parent, male-breadwinner households Today... -22% children in married-parent, male-breadwinner households -23% children live with single mother -34% children live in dual-earner married-parent families

*Child support enforcement: penalties*

Penalties for not paying child support: -Garnish tax refunds, wages, and assets -Negative impact on credit score -Suspended license -Imprisonment *Visitation rights are not contingent upon child support payments

Feminization of poverty (changes)

Rapid increase between 1950-1970 Peaked in 1970s/1980s 2005: gradual shrinking of poverty gap between men and women

*Changing Expectations*

What is the father's role today? -Discipline -Nurturance and caregiving -Provide financial support "Package deal"

*Head start* (cont'd)

Year round, full-day care Free medical/dental care, healthy meals & snacks, play in safe indoor/outdoor settings Services: Education Disability services Health Family literacy Mental health Nutrition Parental involvement Social services Training Technical assistance

Consequences of teen pregnancy

*As young mothers, teen moms have* -Poorer health -More low birth weight babies & newborn mortality *By late 20s, teen moms are* -Less likely to finish high school or continue education -More likely to use welfare -More likely divorced or never married

*Child care and development fund (CCDF)*

*Assists low-income families in obtaining child care so they can work or attend training/education* *Improves the quality of child care, and promotes coordination among early childhood development and afterschool programs* Authorized under PRWORA *Majority of spending on direct services* Less than 1% on quality improvement Fewer low-income families receiving child care assistance -2000- 2.45M children received assistance -2005- 2.2M children received assistance -2011- 1.6M children received assistance Only 10-14% of eligible families are receiving assistance

Teen pregnancy prevention

*Comprehensive approach* -Sexual education -Access to contraceptives and reproductive health care -Youth development --Expanding life skills & life options through educational attainment & career counseling --Changing perceptions, attitudes & adult behavior

*Race & class issues with incarceration*

*Disproportionate effect on African Americans* 1991: more Black men than White men in federal/state prisons (first time in history) 1997: lifetime likelihood of ending up in prison -1 in 25 for White men -1 in 6 for Latino men -1 in 4 for Black men -According to John Tierny (2014), incarceration is perhaps the most common experience for young, low-income Black men across their life course. Lifetime risks of imprisonment double for all men between 1979-1999 -But almost all of this increased risk experienced by men with just a high school education

*UK child poverty policies*

*Encourage work & make work pay* -Set national minimum wage -Established tax credit modeled on EITC *Increase financial support to all families with children* -Increased value of universal child allowance -Child tax credit for all but richest families *Invest in children* -Universal pre-school for all 4-year-olds -Paid maternity leave extended to 9 months

*Early head start*

*Established in 1994 to serve low-income infants, toddlers, and parents* Over 650 programs with 62,000 children under the age of three $1.3 billion for fiscal year 2013

*Child support enforcement: TANF*

*Every state operating a TANF program required to operate a CSE program* Applicants and recipients of TANF must assign their rights to child support to the state in order to receive TANF benefits. -*Pass-through: How much of fathers' child support payments is transferred from the state to his former partner and children*!! -States can keep the child support it collects while family receives TANF to offset costs Applicants and recipients of TANF must cooperate with the state to establish the paternity of a child born outside of marriage and to obtain child support payments. -Custodial parent must (1) name the other parent, subject to good cause and other exceptions, (2) supply additional necessary information and appear at interviews, hearings, and legal proceedings, and (3) submit (together with the child) to genetic tests that are ordered by a judge or administrative agency.

Head start

*Federal program that promotes the school readiness of preschool-age children from low-income families* Domains: Language and literacy; Cognition and general knowledge; Physical development and health; Social and emotional development; and Approaches to learning. Build relationships with families that support: family well-being and positive parent-child relationships; families as learners and lifelong educators; family engagement in transitions; family connections to peers and community; and families as advocates and leaders.

How welfare reform succeeded?

*How do we define success?* 1. ✓ Reduced caseload (more than 60% decrease, however rise of disconnected single mothers) 2. X Higher rates of child support and marriage (was not the case for low income families) 3. X Lower rates of teen pregnancy and out of wedlock births (lowest in 2001, rises in 2005-2006, falling since then) 4. X Higher educational attainment 5. ✓ Shifting dependence on cash to service use 6. ✓X Moving welfare recipients into jobs (state by state) 7. ✓X Improved adult and child well-being (state by state) 8. X Moving welfare recipients out of poverty (as a nation, no- some states have succeeded)

*TANF*

*Main purposes of TANF:* -*Assist needy families so that children can be cared for in their own home or the homes of relatives rather than institutions* -*Reduce the dependence of needy parents by promoting job preparation, work and marriage* -*Prevent out-of-wedlock pregnancies* -*Encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families*

*Mass incarceration: system?*

*Mass incarceration is a system that not only refers to the criminal justice system but also to larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison (Alexander, 2012)* "They are members of America's new undercaste" (p. 12) Regulated by the "War on Drugs" (e.g. 1986 Anti-Drug Abuse Act) -Arrest Rates -Sentencing -Recidivism -Zero Tolerance

*Medicaid Results*

*More children insured and vaccinated* *Quality of and access to care increased* *More people have source of regular care* *Costs have increased as access to care and health care costs overall have increased*

*Myths about welfare*

*Once on welfare, always on welfare* 1/2 go off in 2 years 2/3 go off within 3 years *Welfare recipients don't want to work* -80% of individuals on welfare have outside wages *Welfare causes families to break up* -Single parent households are on the rise—but not due to welfare -Other things associated with welfare cause break up joblessness, stress, etc. *Women on welfare have kids for money* -For each additional year that a woman receives government assistance, her odds of conceiving a child DECREASES *Women on welfare have lots of kids* 42% of women on welfare have one child 30% have two children *Payments are too generous* Not enough money to truly raise individuals and families out of poverty

Disparities in birth rates per 1,000 females ages 15-19, by race/ethnicity, 1990-2012

*Overall highest rate is hispanic females* Hispanic, non hispanic black, american indian/alaska native, all, non hispanic white, asian/pacific islander Non hispanic black was highest around 1991 but had huge drop

*Child support enforcement: critiques*

*Punitive policies alienate many low-income fathers who are unable to meet their child support obligations* -Devalued when their role in their children's lives is based solely on their cash contributions -Public policies are needed to support the father's relationship with child *Resistance to paternity establishment* *Fear of child support and few incentives to pay* *Going underground* -Few good jobs with supportive wages -Go and stay underground

Work requirements (cont'd-)

*Stopping the clock* -Each dollar earned in a job reduces cash benefits by a dollar -States decide whether to "stop the clock" if you are working -In some states, working families hit limit just as fast as non-working families

Teen pregnancy

*US: Highest rate of teen pregnancy, birth, and abortion in industrialized world* -3 in 10 girls become pregnant by age 20 -8-17% of adolescent females in U.S. give birth by age 20 *Teen pregnancy and birth rates have declined over past 20 years* -*Birth rates in U.S*.: --*61.8/1000 in 1991; 29.4/1000 in 2012* -2010: ~60% of pregnancies to adolescents ended in live birth, 10-15% in miscarriage, 25-30% in abortion --Rate of abortions among adolescents is lowest since abortion legalized in 1973 Geographic, socioeconomic, racial & ethnic disparities

UK child poverty pledge

The proportion of children living in poverty had doubled in the past generation. In 1999, the Prime Minister committed to ending child poverty by 2020. -3.4 million children were living in poverty in 1999. Target for 2005: 25% reduction in number of children in relative poverty. Actual reduction of 17%. By 2007-2008, 50% decrease in number of poor children (to 1.7 million) using absolute measures

*Effects on children*

Traumatic separation and negative child outcomes -Poor academic performance, emotional suffering, drug abuse, involvement in criminal justice (50% more likely) -Uncertain/shifting quality of care -Family dissolution -Slip into poverty

*Extra: UK child poverty policy compared to US*

US: lack of maternity paid leave US: workers only receive EITC when they file their annual tax returns (UK can be claimed throughout the year)

Social welfare policy framework

United States: laissez-faire approach, values "rugged individualism," distrusts gov't programs -Means-tested, uneven social benefits -Lack of cohesive national family policy and safety net Europe: values "collective ideal" above individualism -Interrelated, coordinated set of proactive economic and social programs to help strengthen all families -Universal, high-level social benefits

*Head start: origins*

War on Poverty, 1964: *Help communities meet needs of disadvantaged preschool children* *Panel of child development experts* *Began as 8 week summer program in 1965 with the Office of Economic Development* *Now: Run by Administration on Children, Youth and Families in the Department of Health and Human Services*

Aid to families with dependent children (AFDC) (1961-1995)

Welfare caseload had expanded by 1960, more divorced and never-married mothers as widows began receiving Social Security benefits -More stigmatized Between 1964 and 1976, tripling of caseload from 4.2 mil to 11.3 mil -Why? As costs increased, unpopularity grew

Reconceptualizing re-entry

What does reentry look like for both those incarcerated and their family systems? Reentry reentries (cyclical process of multiple reentries) Returning to the streets- few opportunities, negative influences, a way to make money Family ambivalence and complexity surrounding reentry Abandoned or locked out of decisions as parents and partners Making difficult decisions to "let go of children" Rethinking both reentry and father involvement

Making ends meet, cont'd

Work-based strategies -Reported or under-the-table wages Network strategies -Family, friends, men -Shared housing, child care, borrow money Agency based strategies -Social services -Used the least

Children with incarcerated parents

1.5 million minor children with incarcerated parents; 3.5 million children with parent on parole or probation (2000) Another 5 million children with parents who have been under supervision in past

Head start: stats (cont'd)

12.7% of Head Start children have disabilities 179,000 fathers participated in Head Start Head Start programs employed 245,000 staff -Parents of current or former HS children as well as former HS participants made up 25 percent of HS staff More than 1.3 million adults volunteered in their local Head Start program -867,000 parents of HS children

Background

1990s: crime rate declines, but prison population grows by 62% 55% of state and 63% of federal prisoners report having a child under 18 (1999) -93% are fathers -50% African American, 25% White, 20% Latino

Feminization of Poverty

2 of every 3 adults in poverty are women -poverty rate for men: 10.9% -poverty rate for women: 14.7% Single mother-headed households are disproportionately poor -*<20% of all households led by single mother* -*they comprise half of all families in poverty*

SNAP: Current Stats

44.7 million persons (21.2 million households) 51% of all recipients are children 9% are elderly (60+) 79% of benefits go to households with children, 16% to households with disabled persons, 7% to households with elderly persons. Average gross monthly income per food stamp household: $640. Average monthly benefit per person: $133.41 Average monthly benefit per household: $284.00 41% of recipients are White, 36% African American, 18% Hispanic, 3% Asian, 2% Native American, 1% unknown race

Work requirements

50% of all families and 90% of two-parent families must participate in work activities: -Unsubsidized work (volunteer) -Work experience -Community service -Job search (6 weeks total, only 4 consecutive) -Education (varies by state) -Subsidized work -On the job training Sanctions Work activities are reduced- TANF check reduced

*Paternity establishment*

A child born outside of marriage has a biological father but not a legal father. *Paternity establishment - the legal determination of fatherhood for a child* -*Prerequisite to obtaining child support (ongoing economic support) from the other (noncustodial) parent* -Presumed if child is conceived within a marriage -Voluntary acknowledgement - less cost, conflict, delays -Contested Paternity ---Administrative or Judicial Proceedings 1996 welfare reform law - States need to have and use scientifically sound genetic tests *Benefits:* -Financial, social, psychological, emotional, medical (e.g., medical history) *Risks:* -Legal - e.g., welfare fraud, grandparent liability (in some states), locate someone with a warrant, statutory rape, immigration consequences

Reasons for feminization of poverty

1. *Changes in families* -delay in age of first marriage -rise in divorce -increased life expectancy -more children born outside marriage 2. *Economy* Women's labor force participation increased -Esp. for married women and mothers -Low-paying jobs Gap in earnings -However, gap is shrinking because men's earnings have stagnated/declined 3. *Changes in public benefits* Welfare reform limits benefits Promotion of work Social Security for older women -Benefits tied to participation in workforce Promotion of marriage -Does it work?

*Mechanisms of mass incarceration*

Arrest Rates -New York's Stop and Frisk law have contributed to high arrest rates of young Black men (Gelman, Fagan & Kiss, 2007). -For example, crime/drug arrest rates increased: Blacks represented 12% of monthly drug users but comprise 32% of persons arrested for drug possession. -Discretion - race/class *Sentencing* -Mandatory minimum sentencing --Ex: required 15 yr sentence for sale of 2 oz or possession of 4 oz of drugs --"One-size-fits-all" sentencing laws have led to federal and state prison populations to soar - with Black male offenders being the second largest group negatively impacted (FAMM, n.d.). -Discriminatory sentencing guideline for the War on Drugs (crack vs. cocaine). Recidivism -Three Strikes Rule -Because many of these laws include drug offenses as prior "strikes," more Black than White male offenders have been subject to life sentences under a Three Strikes law. Zero Tolerance -School policy -35% of Black males grades 7-12 have been suspended or expelled at some point in their academic careers compared to 20% of Hispanics and 15% of Whites males. -Pipeline to prison - "charging ahead"

Incarceration: background

As of 2014, The United States has the largest prison population in the world (both in terms of the actual number of inmates and as a percentage of the total population 2.4 million citizens locked up in federal penitentiaries, state corrections facilities, and local jailhouses. 3.5 times higher than that of Mexico and between 5 and 10 times higher than those seen in Western Europe. United States is home to nearly 1/4 of the world's prisoners, despite accounting for just 5 percent of the overall global population Since 1980, the number of incarcerated citizens in the US has more than quadrupled an unprecedented rise in American history

Recent policy changes

Changes in mandatory minimum sentences -Shortened sentences Second Chance Act, 2008 -Bipartisan effort to provide resources for reentry and prevent recidivism

Family policies

Child support Child protection services Maternal and child health care Family allowances Paid job-protected leaves Early childhood education benefits/services

Fathering in context: Three-block fathers

Daily routines "with X over my head" -Poverty -Gang affiliations -Police presence -Lack of access to jobs or education Mental maps -Wariness over social relationships -Who's over there? Kin work strategies in familiar spaces -Three-block space -Negotiation with children's mothers -Neutral space -Role of paternal grandmothers

Working on welfare reform

David Ellwood, Clinton Advisor- 1983 study: -Most families used welfare during a crisis or transition as temporary support -Typical welfare spell lasted less than 2 years --Impression that program served mostly long-term dependents was inaccurate -Ellwood argued that to ease the transition from welfare to work, the government should -Provide job training and job placement assistance -Create public sector jobs where private sector jobs were lacking -Develop child care programs for working parents

*What about scandinavia?*

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and Finland have dramatically lower rates of poverty than the US- why? -*A comprehensive welfare system/ safety net- paid parental leave policies (up to one year for both parents), free education and healthcare* -Values and belief system- collectivist vs. individualistic, luck vs. merit -Difference in size and national identity- Insular society vs. America's "melting pot" "Cutthroat" vs. "Cuddly" Capitalism -Those for a similar system argue that we fall behind other countries in providing public goods for our citizens -Those against argue that to adopt such policies would come at the expense of economic progress and innovation (America's ability to compete in a global marketplace)

Growing unpopularity of AFDC

Desire to end the dependence of needy parents on government benefits by promoting job preparation, work, & marriage *Concerns about incidence of out-of-wedlock pregnancies, decline in marriage rates* *Need to transform system: provide wrap-around services to support transition to work (Ellwood)*

Single Parent Families

Disproportionately affected by poverty More than tripled since the 1960s Often difficult for single parent households to receive benefits (largely due to PRWOA time limits and work requirements) About 1/5 of all low-income single mothers were "disconnected" in 2008 (not in the labor market or welfare system) Sharing of resources (material, time, etc) to get by (importance of social networks)

Women & mothers in prison

Double the rate of increase for men in prison since 1980 Drug offense accounts for most incarceration Seven times as many women in prison compared to 1980

Child Support: Context

Dramatic increase in non-marital births (3.9% in 1950 to 33.1% in 2000) -In 2000, 51.9% of the children in the Child Support Enforcement (CSE) caseload born outside of marriage -Concerns about the dependency and poverty of single-parent families, coupled with belief that all children deserve financial support of both parents Main goals of Child Support Enforcement -Reduce spending on actual and potential recipients of public welfare by obtaining ongoing support from noncustodial parents -Establish paternity for children born outside of marriage so that child support can be obtained

What other ways can we effectively provide public goods?

Early childhood (e.g., support for childcare, other supports to families with young children) Education: Quality public education (K-12? Higher ed?) Health (prevention and treatment) Housing (e.g., access to affordable quality housing) Employment (e.g., decent jobs, family-supportive)

Relative poverty rates

Effect of tax and social insurance policies -*US tax policies reduce poverty by 28%* -*Average reduction in other countries-62%*

Universal or targeted program?

Eligibility -Families that fall below the poverty threshold -Special considerations for small rural communities (populations under 1000) and reservation communities

History of SNAP

Enacted in 1964 (as Food Stamps) to alleviate hunger and malnutrition in low-income households Also sought to strengthen agricultural economy Funded by federal gov't; administered by USDA through states /counties

Medicaid

Enacted in 1965 Means-tested program No cash benefit; direct payment to provider Funded by federal and state governments As of July 2016, 31 states and DC had expanded Medicaid eligibility under the ACA Massive expansion since 1999 -Aftershock of welfare reform Medicaid is the largest health insurance program in the country today -Covers 70 million Americans -One in three Americans covered by Medicare or Medicaid An additional 6.4 million are eligible for Medicaid but have not signed up

Personal responsibility and work opportunity reconciliation act (PRWORA)

Enacted in 1996 to "end welfare as we know it" Fulfills a central promise of the Clinton campaign Creates Temporary Assitance to Needy Families (TANF) to replace AFDC -*Focus on work- recall personal responsibility* era started with Reagan

From entitlement to block grant

Ends entitlement status of welfare -No longer guarantee of aid Use of block grants to states -Increases state flexibility --To determine eligibility, amounts of aid, circumstances for aid -States must meet basic maintenance of effort -Penalties to states

*Women, infants, & children* (WIC)

Established in 1974 *Supplemental foods, information on healthy eating, and referrals to health care & social services* Provides federal grants to state agencies and 46,000 local retailers *Low-income (185% of FPL), nutritionally at-risk:* -Pregnant women (through 6 weeks after birth) -Breastfeeding women (up to infant's first birthday) -Non-breast feeding postpartum women (up to 6 months after birth) -Infants up to age 1 (45% of all infants in U.S. served) -Children up to age 5 -Specifies which foods are allowable

CHIP: Children's Health Insurance Program

Established in 1997 to expand health insurance to children Eligibility: Low-income families that don't qualify for Medicaid but cannot afford private coverage Moderate success Number of children w/o health insurance declined from 14% in 1997 to 7% in 2012 As of 2013, 8.1 million children enrolled

Promoting "family values"

Family cap / Child exclusion -Deny additional benefits or reduce the cash grant to families who have additional children while on assistance. Illegitimacy bonus -$ for states who reduce the ratio of out-of-wedlock births to total births, keeping abortion rates at 1995 level Learnfare -No aid to minor parents unless they attend school and live at home

*Family life for incarcerated parents*

Family life for incarcerated parents -40% of fathers, 60% of mothers have phone/letter contact with children every week -Majority have never had a visit from children -84% of federal and 63% of state inmates were held more than 100 miles from last residence -50% of inmates were unmarried; 25% married -Only 46% of inmates lived with their children prior to incarceration

Effects of mediation for fathers

Fathers were less happy with the party with whom they wished to mediate with, rated the degree of positive role the person played in their life lower than non-fathers; and confided less often than non-fathers. Fathers were not different from non-fathers except in survival (days to first arrest; days to first arrest leading to a conviction; days to first arrest leading to a sentence of incarceration of 1 or more days; and days to return to prison by DOC). Mediation does not impact probability of arrest or conviction, but it does reduce the probability of incarceration by 13% (p<.01) those who are fathers who participate in mediation are less likely to be incarcerated than fathers who do not participate in mediation (sig at p<.05);

Complex family strcutures

Fathers' roles vary -Intact families with focus on couples -Networks with focus on children -Multiple partners with multiple children -Residential and nonresidential status

Child support enforcement (CSE)

Five major areas: -establishment of paternity -establishment of child support orders -collections on current child support payments -collections on past-due child support (i.e., arrearages) -cost-effectiveness Penalties/incentives to states for meeting benchmarks in these areas -(e.g., 90% paternity establishment)

Characteristics of US social welfare policy

Goal? -Self-sufficiency Universal or targeted? -Targeted, means-tested Tied to the labor force participation -Assumes work reduces child poverty but fails to address central challenges of low wages and lack of benefits Aim to change demographic characteristics like family structure -Marriage promotion assumes causality Private organizations and social networks are preferred source of safety net

Limitations

Head Start slots are scarce for low-income families Positive effects may diminish over time Prior to age 3: -Few good child care options -Is trajectory for development shaped already?

Re-entry as a family process

High rates of recidivism mark the lives of formerly incarcerated men and women who return back to their communities (Durose, etal, 2014) -over half recidivating within the first year after release -upwards of 68% returning to prison or jail after 3 yrs. Incarceration and reentry is a "24 hour day job" for family members (Comfort, 2016) Regular contact before and during incarceration, including emotional support, leads to decreases in reoffending (Visher, 2012; Taylor, 2016) Close relationships with children may motivate fathers to avoid behavior that would return them to prison or jail (Roy, 2012) But there is tremendous variation in contact, engagement, and participation in family interventions (Wakefield, Lee, & Wildeman, 2016)

Disparities in teen birth rate per 1,000 females, by state

Highest rates in: Rural areas Southern states

Correlates of teen pregnancy

Inherited disadvantage -Low income and low education levels -Rural areas and urban centers *As many as 80% of unwed adolescent mothers grew up in poverty* Few opportunities in a teen's community for positive youth involvement -Not all teen pregnancies are unplanned, about ¼ are planned- Perception of limited life options -Income inequality

Approaches to social welfare-institutional

Institutional approach -Social welfare as right of citizenship --Universal services Advantages -Easy to Administer (no eligibility requirements) -Designed to prevent problems (preventative vs. curative) -No stigma (everyone is entitled to it) Disadvantages -Cost

Social policies & fathering

Institutional policies -Limits on family interaction -Distance -Resistance -Time and space for reflection

Child support enforcement: positives

Interest of mothers and children -Gain access to greater resources of noncustodial parents -Enhance children's well-being -Promote more paternal involvement over time Interest of state and federal governments -Reestablish fathers as primary source of support -Decrease dependence on public assistance -Recoup public assistance payments --Pass-through rules

Making ends meet

Interviews with low-income single mothers prior to welfare reform, and working poor single and married mothers after welfare reform Tracked where $ came from, how $ was spent, how it met family's needs Neither welfare nor low-wage employment alone supports families well -Welfare: Even with full range of benefits under AFDC, only 3/5 of needs met; under TANF, far lower proportion of needs met -Work: low-paying jobs, irregular hours, no benefits, frequent layoffs, no advancement, sacrifice time with children, INSTABILITY

Men and fathers in prison

Less attention has been given towards the re-entry experiences of Black fathers, back into their community and family's lives. Because of the disparities that exist in mass incarceration, a significant amount of young Black male prisoners are returning home, having spent longer terms behind bars, less prepared for life on the outside, with less assistance in their reintegration (Cnaan, Draine, Frazier, & Sinha, 2008). Individual effects -Hard-timing -Masculinity and gendered nature of prison Systemic effects -Romantic partners -Parenting behind bars

Challenging confronting low-income fathers

Limited job prospects Disadvantaged neighborhoods Complex relationships with children's mothers and with extended kin

Head start: current stats

Locally administered by community-based non-profit organizations and school systems -$7.5 billion dollars for FY13 ~50,000 classrooms in 20,000 centers

Mediation as intervention

Recent research on the effectiveness of reentry mediation services shows that mediation has a significant impact on recidivism (Flower 2013; 2014). Mediation lowers rates of recidivism outcomes, including arrest, conviction, sentencing, and return to prison, as well as risk of these outcomes. One two-hour mediation session has effects that last from one to three years post-release. Prior research suggested that mediation reduces the risk of arrest, conviction, sentencing, and return to prison by 30-50% (Flower, 2014). -It is possible that the impact of mediation is is a "critical course correction to turn an individual away from a criminal trajectory through the improved relationship with family and support persons and adherence to agreements and plans negotiated during mediation"

Fathers in Family Processes

Recruitment (Roy & Burton, 2007) -Kin work -Mothers recruit nonresidential fathers --As ideal father figures ----Resources and time --As intimate partners --With safety of children in mind -----Paternal kin

Family allowance

Redistributing income from childless households to households with children Supplementing incomes of poor or middle class parents to reduce or prevent poverty Strengthening labor force attachment (if benefits attached to employment) Increasing feelings of social cohesion and progress among population

Proposed changes to CSE

Require states to consider parents' actual earnings and incomes as they set child support orders Require state guidelines to draw upon all available information regarding non-custodial parent's ability to pay Prohibit treatment of incarceration as "voluntary unemployment" (when treated as such, support orders aren't modified and they accrue as usual)

Approaches to social welfare-residual

Residual approach -Temporary -Targeted / means tested services Advantages -Limited cost (services only for some) --Society does not pay if services can be afforded privately Disadvantages -More complicated to administer (eligibility) -Stigma that can compound people's problems -Doesn't help people at the border of the cut-off

Summary

Results of CSE implementation -Providing income support to children -No real change in recouping welfare funds -Potential barriers to paternal involvement --Driving more fathers underground for jobs --Driving more fathers away from families

Defining the "safety net"

Safety net has drastically changed in the last two decades -Previously, welfare provided a safety net for the poorest of the poor -*Welfare reform safety net built on the assumption of full-time, stable employment at a living wage* -However, job landscape not designed to make this work -*More spending (on things like ACA, EITC) but less stable safety net* -"Welfare is dead"- Edin & Shaefer, 2015, p. 10 -*Solution to create more jobs, housing, programs* Piece meal approach- programs for low income families do exist, but they are not comprehensive enough to pull families out of poverty

Time limits on assistance

Starting the clock *Time limits on cash benefits* -*60 months or 5 years over entire life time* -State flexibility --8 states with shorter- 48, 36, 24 months

History of child support

State-run programs prior to 1975 1975: Federalization 1988: Family Support Act 1996: PRWORA

Single parent families 50 yrs after the Moynihan report

Study by Hayes & Cohen at UMD Family structure plays almost no role in trends Two parent family rates are down Earnings rates are down for all family types Other factors are stronger indicators of poverty and inequality (race, economy/ job landscape)

State variation

TANF looks very different across states Wisconsin -W2 program; "job readiness" --Pass-through for child support -Milwaukee - New Hope --Job search assistance; monthly earnings supplement --Subsidized child care and health insurance ---phased out as earnings rose. New York -WEP: Work Experience Program -Work for city; poor working conditions Minnesota -MN Family Investment Program -Keep paying benefits after employment

Update on Inequality in the US

Tax Plan Inequality report -The three wealthiest people in the US (Bill Gates, Jeff Bezos, Warren Buffett) now own more wealth than the entire bottom half of the American population combined (160 million people of 63 million households) -1 in 5 households have zero or negative net worth (over 30%of Black families and 27% of Latino families) Letter from 1%ers- "Do not cut our taxes"

A Complete Safety Net

The federal government spends approximately $160 billion per year on three income transfer programs for work-able families: Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and the earned income tax credit (EITC) Improvement to the safety net is needed to ensure that the most vulnerable do not fall through the cracks and that states are held accountable 20 years after the reform of welfare and the safety net, most of the poorest and most vulnerable families are worse off

*How does the US compare?*

The most commonly used threshold of income poverty now in places like the EU is 60% of median income -*This is relative measure of poverty, as opposed to the fixed or absolute poverty measure used by the US government* US poverty rate: 17% US child poverty rate: 22% Income inequality: expressed in terms of the Gini index (a summary statistic that measures the dispersion of incomes on a scale of zero to 1

Supplemental nutrition assistance program (SNAP)

Offers nutrition assistance to millions of eligible, low-income individuals and families -Economic benefits to communities Federal, state, local Eligibility -Resources < $2,000 -Net income 100% FPL or less -Employment --18-50 w/o dependent children: benefits only for 3 months in a 36-month period if they do not work -Immigrants --Legal status & 5+ years in the US Financial management & nutrition education programs

Promoting "family values"-continued

Paternity establishment / Child support -Mothers required to identify the father of their children so that the state could enforce child support collection. -For families receiving TANF, most child support $ goes to the state. Marriage programs Abstinence-only education -Youth empowerment & comprehensive programs most effective Drug testing -Some states -More $$ than benefits

Aid to dependent children (ADC) (1935-1960)

Prior to ADC, many states provided assistance to widows - but states couldn't afford it during the Great Depression ADC enacted in 1935 as part of Social Security Act -*Aimed to help widowed mothers care for their children* -SSA also included Social Security and unemployment insurance

Re-entry: is life good again?

Process of leaving prison and returning to society Issues regarding re-entry: -Substance Abuse -Mental Health -Jobs -Housing -Families

Future directions for fatherhood initiatives

Programs need to offer better job training and more income supports (e.g., expansion of EITC benefits to low-income fathers) Programs that build in stipends or other financial incentives will be more successful at recruiting and retaining participants Co-parenting and relationship skills likely to be most successful early on (when child is young and/or couple still in relationship); later, more intensive supports and different strategies needed Formerly incarcerated fathers face acute challenges, need targeted interventions

Work requirements (cont'd)

-20% of state recipients are exempt -Various reasons for exemptions: -Child is under 6 with no available child care -Child is under 12 months (lifetime limit) -Mental or physical disability, with doctor's permission -Under 18 and pursuing education

Child support enforcement: fatherhood initiatives

Media campaigns that emphasize the importance of emotional, physical, psychological, and financial connections of fathers to their children; Parenting education; Guidance in responsible decision-making; Mediation services for both parents; Information about the purposes of the CSE program, and how it works; Counseling or classes related to conflict resolution, coping with stress, and problem-solving

Effects of head start

Modest, significant, positive differences in: -Cognitive/language development -Socio-emotional development -Parenting practices -Parents' self-sufficiency (education/job training) -Fewer later births -Father involvement Greater impact for African American families, pregnant mothers, and families with multiple risk factors

What can be done?

More work supports -Paid leave, child care subsidies, and family allowances Better tax and education policies Political will -What is consistent with our cultural values?

Fathering policies

Most policy efforts to promote fatherhood have been aimed at poor and minority men Combination of child support enforcement, paternity establishment, and social programming to encourage (and sometimes require) father involvement