Final Exam Review

15. The most prominent means by which migrating neurons move through the CNS is by A. following their own chemically guided growth cones. B. following axon tracts laid down by pioneer neurons. C. following gradients of cell adhesion molecules. D. following radial glia fibers. E. means of basic (non-growth cone-mediated) chemotaxis.

D. following radial glia fibers.

31. In the normal pupillary light reflex, A. the reflex is elicited only by light stimulation to both eyes. B. light falling on the left eye will cause only left pupil constriction. C. light falling on the right eye will cause only left pupil constriction. D. light falling on one eye will cause both pupils to constrict. E. None of the above

D. light falling on one eye will cause both pupils to constrict.

28. The two main functions of the retinal pigment epithelium are _______ and _______. A. structural support to the curvature of the retina; phagocytosis of shed outer segments B. structural support to the curvature of the retina; synthesis of rhodopsin C. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; synthesis of rhodopsin D. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; regeneration of the photoreceptor photopigments E. synthesis of rhodopsin; regeneration of the photoreceptor photopigments

D. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; regeneration of the photoreceptor pigments.

46. Compared to touch-sensitive somatosensory neurons, pain fibers have ____ axonal diameters and _____ conduction velocities. A. larger; faster B. larger; slower C. smaller; faster D. smaller; slower

D. smaller; slower

48. Loud noises delivered to the ear, for example through the ear phones on an I-pod, can cause shearing forces sufficient to break the ____ off the hair cells, leading to permanent hearing loss. A. tectorial membrane B. basilar membrane C. ear drum D. stereocilia

D. stereocilia

When current is injected into an axon, A. an action potential is always evoked before the current can spread any distance from the point of injection. B. the current will spread only in one direction. C. the current will spread passively only if it is a depolarizing current. D. the current will decay exponentially with increasing distance from the injection site. E. the current will propagate as an oscillating wave independently of its polarity.

D. the current will decay exponentially with increasing distance from the injection site (if no action potential is present)

Which of the following does NOT happen during an action potential? A. A change in permeability of the membrane to sodium B. A change in permeability of the membrane to potassium C. A transient increase in the sodium current D. A sustained decrease in the potassium current E. A self-activating, self-perpetuating rise in sodium current

E. A self-activating, self-perpetuating rise in sodium current

24. Which of the following cortical regions collectively make substantial inputs to the basal ganglia? A. Motor and premotor cortex B. Primary motor and primary somatosensory cortex C. Frontal and prefrontal cortex D. The frontal and parietal lobes E. All neocortex except for the primary visual and primary auditory cortices

E. All neocortex except for the primary visual and primary auditory cortices

Which of the following is NOT a step in the propagation of action potentials? A. Sufficient local inward current causes the axon to reach threshold. B. Local depolarization/inward current spreads to adjacent axonal regions. C. Adjacent regions eventually reach threshold and exhibit an action potential waveform. D. Current/depolarization continue to spread directionally along the axon, repeating steps A & C. E. All of the above are steps contributing to the propagation of action potentials.

E. All of the above are steps contributing to the propagation of action potentials.

For which of the following reasons was the development of the voltage clamp critical to investigations of the ionic basis of the action potential? A. Voltage changes in the cell cannot be seen without voltage clamp. B. Ionic conductances can be activated only in cells that have been voltage clamped. C. Because sodium and potassium currents are both time- and voltage-dependent, voltage clamping makes it possible to determine the contribution of each one to the action potential. D. Sodium and potassium currents are activated in non-overlapping voltage regimes. E. All of the above.

E. All of the above.

10. Which of the following have mechanically activated ion channels? A. olfactory receptors C. hair cells E. B&C B. Pacinian corpuscles D. photoreceptors

E. B&C

Which of the following statements about electrochemical equilibrium is FALSE? A. Electrochemical equilibrium involves the movement of a relatively small number of ions. B. Ionic gradients are necessary for the generation of the membrane potential. C. The size of the potential is proportional to the size of the ion gradient. D. The direction of the ion gradient determines the polarity of the membrane potential. E. For a given concentration gradient, the resulting potential is independent of the number of charges on the ion.

E. For a given concentration gradient, the resulting potential is independent of the number of charges on the ion.

Which of the following observations was NOT among the evidence leading to the identification of sodium as the early current in the action potential? A. The current declined when there was decreased driving force on sodium fluxes. B. The current disappeared when the Vm was clamped near ENa. C. The early current was blocked by tetrodotoxin. D. The early current was unaffected by tetraethylammonium. E. When the late current was blocked, the reversal potential of the inward current shifted to a negative membrane potential.

E. When the late current was blocked, the reversal potential of the inward current shifted to a negative membrane potential.

25. An inhibitory post-synaptic membrane potential (IPSP) is inhibitory because it A. necessarily hyperpolarizes the membrane potential, increasing the "distance" to threshold. B. activates second messenger pathways that force the deactivation of Na+ channels. C. reduces the amount of neurotransmitter release by the presynaptic terminal. D. prevents calcium ion entry into the presynaptic terminal. E. activates conductances of ions for which the equilibrium potential is more negative than the threshold potential.

E. activates conductances of ions for which the equilibrium potential is more negative than the threshold potential.

Voltage clamp data, in which investigators analyzed membrane conductances during action potentials in squid axons, showed all of the following EXCEPT A. the sodium current was rapidly activated by depolarization. B. the potassium current activates on a comparatively slow time scale of a few ms. C. at certain potentials, there can be zero current even with a large conductance. D. depolarization leads to a time-dependent inactivation of the sodium current. E. depolarization leads to a time-dependent inactivation of the potassium current.

E. depolarization leads to a time-dependent inactivation of the potassium current.

5. One would expect to find the smallest two-point discrimination threshold on the A. thigh. B. back. C. calf. D. breast. E. fingers.

E. fingers

50. Direct projections from the motor cortex refer to those which innervate the A. premotor cortex B. basal ganglia C. cerebellum D. reticular formation E. local circuit and lower motor neurons

E. local circuit and lower motor neurons

By which of the following mechanisms are rod signals transmitted in conditions of low light? a. Rod bipolar cells synapse upon AII amacrine cells, which in turn synapse upon cone bipolar cells. b. Rod bipolar cells synapse upon off ganglion cells that then transmit the rod signals to other ganglion cells. c. Rod bipolar cells of both on and off types send outputs selectively to on and off ganglion cells. d. Rod photoreceptors send their outputs directly to melanopsin containing ganglion cells. e. Rod photoreceptors send their signals mainly through horizontal cells to the rod bipolars.

a. Rod bipolar cells synapse upon AII amacrine cells, which in turn synapse upon cone bipolar cells.

Which of the following statements about TRP receptors is false? a. TRP stands for Temperature Receptor Potential. b. TRP channels were discovered in studies of Drosophila phototransduction. c. TRPV1 receptors are sensitive to capsaicin and moderate heat. d. TRPV1 receptors might be activated by endogenous compounds that are structurally related to capsaicin. e. TRP channels structurally resemble voltage-gated potassium channels.

a. TRP stands for Temperature Receptor Potential.

Which of the following statements about EPSPs in the central nervous system is false? a. They are much larger than end plate potentials. b. EPSPs occurring close together in time can summate and help bring a neuron to threshold. c. Multiple EPSPs arriving together at different locations on the dendritic tree can summate and help bring a neuron to threshold. d. Their effect in the central nervous system can be nullified by IPSPs. e. All of the above are false; none is true.

a. They are much larger than end plate potentials.

Which of the following statements regarding the diversity of ion channels is false? a. With only six different types, potassium channels are the least diverse channel type. b. There are at least 10 different sodium channels in humans. c. Sodium channels that do not inactivate have been found. d. There are least 10 different types of calcium channels. e. Calcium channels serve diverse functions such as influencing action potential shape and mediating the release of neurotransmitters.

a. With only six different types, potassium channels are the least diverse channel type.

In their studies of the resting membrane potential of the squid giant axon, Hodgkin and Katz found that a. increasing potassium outside the axon depolarized the axon's potential. b. increasing potassium outside the axon hyperpolarized the axon's potential. c. increasing sodium outside the axon depolarized the axon's potential. d. increasing sodium outside the axon hyperpolarized the axon's potential. e. changing external sodium and potassium had identical effects on the resting axon potential.

a. increasing potassium outside the axon depolarized the axon's potential.

Nondiscriminative touch a. refers to the capacity to tactically sense things but with little two-point discrimination or ability to identify objects. b. is the tactile sensing pathway with the highest spatial resolution. c. refers to the sensation of objects via their painful and burning qualities. d. is mediated by second-order fibers that cross in the medulla and project directly to cingulate cortex. e. enables excellent object identification in cases of dorsal column injuries.

a. refers to the capacity to tactically sense things but with little two-point discrimination or ability to identify objects.

The protein that is thought to cross-link vesicles to actin to form a reserve vesicle pool is called a. synapsin. b. synaptotagmin. c. synaptobrevin. d. synaptophysin. e. snap 25.

a. synapsin.

Hodgkin and Katz proposed that sodium was the predominant ion associated with the firing of an action potential because a. the membrane potential approaches the Na+ Nernst potential during the rising phase. b. the membrane potential approaches the Na+ Nernst potential during the falling phase. c. sodium ions can move more quickly than other ionic species. d. sodium ions are the only ions that can flow into the nerve cell body. e. the sodium gradient explains the rising phase, falling phase, and overshoot of the action potential.

a. the membrane potential approaches the Na+ Nernst potential during the rising phase.

Which of the following is not a usual kind of potential exhibited by nerve cells? a. Resting membrane b. Action c. Reaction d. Receptor e. Synaptic

c. Reaction

Which of the following ligand-gated ion channels is (are) not regulated primarily by an intracellular signal? a. The IP3 receptor located on the endoplasmic reticulum b. The potassium-activated calcium channel c. The glutamate receptor d. The cAMP- and cGMP-gated ion channels e. The acid-sensing ion channels

c. The glutamate receptor

Which of the following is not a feature of glutamate signaling systems? a. The presence of multiple glutamate receptor families with different ionic selectivities b. Voltage-dependent gating of certain types of glutamate receptor c. The passage of large amounts of magnesium and calcium by NMDA receptors d. The use of specialized proteins for loading glutamate into vesicles e. The use of specialized proteins for removing glutamate from the synaptic cleft

c. The passage of large amounts of magnesium and calcium by NMDA receptors

Which of the following structures plays the largest role in the sensory-discriminative aspects of pain, as opposed to its affective aspects? a. Amygdala b. Periaqueductal gray c. Ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus d. Midline thalamic nuclei e. Anterior cingulate cortex

c. Ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus

The technique that provides the most direct information about the physical, three-dimensional structure of ion channels is a. the sequencing of the channel's amino acids. b. physiological measurements of ion selectivity. c. X-ray crystallography. d. fluorescence imaging of channel subunit dynamics. e. All of the above provide similar information on the channel's three-dimensional structure.

c. X-ray crystallography.

The differential release of small, clear vesicles, versus large, dense-core vesicles, is best explained by a. biophysical differences in the vesicles' lipids that allow for easier fusion of small vesicles. b. a more sensitive calcium-release mechanism on the dense-core vesicles. c. a more delocalized calcium signal generated by intense neural stimulation. d. the presence of novel fusion proteins on the dense core vesicles that bind neuropeptides. e. All of the above

c. a more delocalized calcium signal generated by intense neural stimulation.

Serotonin reuptake blockers such as fluoxetine (Prozac) are used clinically a. to treat hypertension. b. to treat panic disorders. c. as antidepressants. d. as antipsychotics. e. to treat generalized anxiety.

c. as antidepressants.

The "dorsal columns" refer to the a. pillar-like sensory structures found in the skin on the back. b. grey-matter columns on the dorsal side of the spinal cord. c. bundles of axons running in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord. d. large white-matter columns connecting the cerebrum with the cerebellum. e. All of the above

c. bundles of axons running in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord.

Facial pain and temperature sensations are conveyed a. by large-diameter, heavily myelinated axons. b. by neurons located in the dorsal root ganglia. c. by axons that enter the pons and descend to the medulla. d. to the thalamus by ipsilaterally projecting reticulothalamic neurons. e. All of the above

c. by axons that enter the pons and descend to the medulla.

The placebo effect a. was discovered by George Placebo. b. is operative mostly in cases of imaginary pain. c. can be blocked by naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist. d. is effective only when paired with hypnosis. e. Both b and d

c. can be blocked by naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist.

The set of neurons and small ganglia associated with the digestive tract is called the _______ nervous system. a. peripheral b. autonomic c. enteric d. sympathetic e. parasympathetic

c. enteric

SNARE proteins participate in vesicle exocytosis by a. forming a protein coat that maintains the vesicle's integrity. b. binding calcium and then forming a pore into the vesicle. c. forming a protein complex that pulls the vesicle membrane against the plasma membrane. d. linking calcium channels to exocytotic fusion sites. e. pushing vesicles from the reserve pool into the docked pool.

c. forming a protein complex that pulls the vesicle membrane against the plasma membrane.

Peripheral sensitization a. occurs only after repeated injuries to a particular portion of the body. b. is distinguished from hyperalgesia, in that it mainly concerns pleasant stimuli. c. involves an "inflammatory soup" of histamine, prostaglandins, and many other compounds. d. involves the enhancement of such mechanoreceptors as the Pacinian and Meissner corpuscles. e. All of the above

c. involves an "inflammatory soup" of histamine, prostaglandins, and many other compounds.

Individual ion channels a. were visualized with the advent of the voltage clamp in 1956. b. show the same time course as macroscopic ionic currents. c. may pass thousands of ions per millisecond. d. have a different voltage dependence than the macroscopic ionic current has. e. have a different reversal potential than the macroscopic ionic current has.

c. may pass thousands of ions per millisecond.

In the context of pain sensitization, "windup" a. can be observed both in the CNS and in the periphery. b. is dependent upon the rapid transcription and expression of certain pain receptors. c. occurs during a period of repeated, constant-intensity stimulation. d. lasts for minutes or hours after a brief train of painful stimuli. e. increases in response to an increasing release of magnesium by primary pain afferents.

c. occurs during a period of repeated, constant-intensity stimulation.

Compared with normals, the decrease in quantal size observed in familial infantile myasthenia would be most consistent with a. fewer calcium channels in the presynaptic terminals. b. a greater rate of spontaneous exocytosis depleting the size of the vesicle pool. c. smaller synaptic vesicles. d. a change in the sensitivity of the calcium release mechanism. e. a loss of all ACh receptors at the neuromuscular junction.

c. smaller synaptic vesicles.

The ability to identify an object by holding it is called a. haptics. b. prosopagnosia. c. stereognosis. d. stereopsis. e. subcutaneous perception.

c. stereognosis.

Golgi tendon organs are most sensitive to a. vibration. b. stretch. c. tension. d. motion. e. deep pressure.

c. tension.

The resting membrane potential is not exactly equal to the Nernst potential for potassium because a. the Nernst equation is not able to predict potentials that precisely. b. rapid fluctuations in membrane potential prevent accurate measurements. c. the membrane has some resting permeability to species other than potassium. d. potassium does not contribute to the resting membrane potential. e. All of the above

c. the membrane has some resting permeability to species other than potassium.

Which of the following statements on the descending control of pain is false? a. Electrical and pharmacological stimulation of certain midbrain regions can alleviate pain. b. Insertion of acupuncture needles into the periaqueductal gray produces the same effect as electrically stimulating it. c. The cholinergic, dopaminergic, histaminergic, serotonergic and noradrenergic systems all contribute to descending control of pain. d. Descending pathways can exert both excitatory and inhibitory influences on the activity of dorsal horn neurons. e. Descending control is mediated by synaptic contacts onto dorsal horn projection neurons, nociceptive afferents, excitatory and inhibitory interneurons, and the synaptic terminals of other descending pathways.

b. Insertion of acupuncture needles into the periaqueductal gray produces the same effect as electrically stimulating it.

Which of the following is not a variant of the patch clamp technique? a. Cell attached b. Intracellular c. Whole cell d. Inside-out patch e. Outside-out patch

b. Intracellular

The bundle of central branches of pain-sensitive dorsal root ganglion cells forms a. Rexed's laminae 1 and 5. b. Lissauer's tract. c. the medial dorsal column. d. the lateral dorsal column. e. the anterolateral tract.

b. Lissauer's tract.

Which of the following cells is quite sensitive to skin deformation, particularly to low-frequency stimulation with textured objects? a. Pacinian afferent b. Meissner afferent c. Ruffini afferent d. Merkel cell e. Hair follicle receptor

b. Meissner afferent

Which of the following is an unusual group of neurons that is DRG-like in terms of conveying information from the periphery to targets in the CNS but is located in the brainstem? a. Clarke's nucleus b. Mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus c. Trigeminal ganglion d. Principal nucleus of the trigeminal complex e. Mandibular nucleus

b. Mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus

Which of the following statements about primary somatosensory cortex (S1) is true? a. Somatosensory cortex as a whole is encompassed within Brodmann's area 17. b. Receptive field properties vary within different subregions of S1. c. The amount of cortex dedicated to each body part is proportional to its surface area. d. It is organized by receptor type, with a Pacinian area, a Merkel disc area, a temperature area, and a pain area. e. All of the above

b. Receptive field properties vary within different subregions of S1.

Which of the following is the main reason that the opening of sodium channels causes a very rapid depolarization of most neurons? a. The movement of a sodium ion produces a larger voltage change than the movement of other ions. b. Sodium ion diffusion proceeds so quickly that whenever sodium channels are open, there is a rapid directional flux across the membrane. c. The conjunction of the sodium gradient and the negative membrane potential produces a very large driving force on sodium ions. d. All of the above e. None of the above

b. Sodium ion diffusion proceeds so quickly that whenever sodium channels are open, there is a rapid directional flux across the membrane.

The proteins that establish ionic gradients are called a. passive transporters. b. active transporters. c. voltage-gated ion channels. d. ligand-gated ion channels. e. permeability transition pores.

b. active transporters.

When a muscle fiber is held at a voltage of 0 mV at the neuromuscular end plate, acetylcholine no longer produces a current because a. the acetylcholine receptor channels all close instantly at 0 mV. b. an influx of sodium is balanced by an equal efflux of potassium. c. the membrane conductance for each permeant ion is 0 at 0 mV. d. at 0 mV, the potassium ions lodge in the receptor channel and block the influx of sodium. e. the Nernst potentials for both sodium and potassium are 0 mV in muscle fibers.

b. an influx of sodium is balanced by an equal efflux of potassium.

Paddle-like, charged transmembrane domains of potassium channels may a. serve as a plug or inactivation gate. b. be the primary voltage sensors. c. confer ion selectivity to the channel. d. enable the aggregation of channel subunits into functional channels. e. All of the above

b. be the primary voltage sensors.

Black widow spider venom is thought to disrupt the functioning of nerve terminals by a. proteolytic cleavage of SNARE proteins. b. circumventing the calcium-regulatory step of exocytosis to promote massive exocytosis. c. binding to all molecules of synapsin, synaptotagmin, and synaptophysin and thereby preventing their normal functioning. d. punching holes in vesicles and thereby causing release of their contents into the cytosol. e. blocking calcium channels.

b. circumventing the calcium-regulatory step of exocytosis to promote massive exocytosis.

The capability of a nerve terminal to rapidly and dramatically produce very large changes in calcium levels is most dependent on the a. presence of calcium-selective ion channels. b. enormous gradient of calcium across the membrane. c. fact that calcium is a positively charged ion. d. fact that calcium is a divalent cation. e. All of the above are essential for producing large, rapid concentration changes.

b. enormous gradient of calcium across the membrane.

The TRP ion channel family includes channels responsive to a. complex sequences of voltage commands. b. heat and cold. c. intracellular cyclic nucleotides. d. hyperpolarization. e. ultraviolet light.

b. heat and cold.

The two main families of neurotransmitter receptors are _______ and _______. a. ligand-gated; ion-gated b. ionotropic; metabotropic c. voltage-gated; voltage-modulated d. cationic; anionic e. excitatory; inhibitory

b. ionotropic; metabotropic

The pathways that descend into spinal cord and modulate pain transmission via direct influences on the dorsal horn arise from all of the following except a. parabrachial nucleus. b. periaqueductal gray. c. dorsal raphe. d. locus coeruleus. e. medullary reticular formation.

b. periaqueductal gray.

A neuron that innervates (i.e., makes synaptic contact with) a large number of other neurons a. represents convergent neural signaling. b. represents divergent neural signaling. c. represents massive neural integration. d. must fire at very high frequencies to be useful. e. can fire only at very low frequencies.

b. represents divergent neural signaling.

Which of the following statements about proprioceptive afferents from the trunk and limbs is false? a. Many synapse within the dorsal horn. b. Many bifurcate after they enter spinal cord. c. Many cross at the spinal level and ascend contralaterally to the cerebellum. d. Many terminate on Clarke's nucleus in the spinal cord. e. Many send collaterals to the dorsal column nuclei.

c. Many cross at the spinal level and ascend contralaterally to the cerebellum.

Which of the following statements about the expression of genes in the nervous system is true? a. Every gene in the human genome is expressed in the CNS. b. There are tens of thousands of neuron-specific genes (i.e., genes that are not expressed outside the CNS). c. Most of the genes in the human genome are expressed in the CNS. d. Humans have 100 times more genes than invertebrate animals such as Drosophila. e. Humans have three to four times more genes than mice have.

c. Most of the genes in the human genome are expressed in the CNS.

Which of the following are actual observations in favor of the descending control of pain? a. The absence of significant pain from severe battle wounds b. The placebo effect c. The ability of hypnosis to suppress the firing of primary pain afferents d. Both a and b e. All of the above

d. Both a and b

Which of the following is not a class of opioid peptides? a. Dynorphins b. Endorphins c. Enkephalins d. Endocannabinoids e. All of the above are opioid peptides.

d. Endocannabinoids

Which afferent system is enriched in finger tips and utilizes epidermal receptor cells? a. Pacinian afferents b. Meissner afferents c. Ruffini afferents d. Merkel cell afferents e. Hair follicle receptor

d. Merkel cell afferents

In which of the following ways do potassium channels in the squid giant axon differ from sodium channels? a. The potassium channels pass only a few ions per second. b. The potassium channels show little voltage dependence. c. The summing of the individual potassium channels does not reconstruct the macroscopic current. d. Once the potassium channels open in response to a voltage step command, they tend to remain open. e. All of the above

d. Once the potassium channels open in response to a voltage step command, they tend to remain open.

Which of the following is the best definition of interoceptors? a. Signals emanating from the central autonomic nuclei b. Receptors that convey the affective nature of unpleasant or noxious stimuli c. Receptors that convey exclusively pleasant stimuli d. Receptors concerned with the physiological states of the body e. Receptors involved in local motor pattern generation within visceral organs

d. Receptors concerned with the physiological states of the body

Which of the following is not part of the brain? a. Diencephalon b. Cerebellum c. Cerebral hemispheres d. Spinal cord e. Brainstem

d. Spinal cord

Gap junctions may exhibit all of the following features except for the ability to a. pass small metabolites, including some second messengers. b. pass electrical current bidirectionally. c. pass electrical current unidirectionally. d. amplify small incoming electrical signals into large regenerative potentials. e. synchronize the activity of populations of nerve cells.

d. amplify small incoming electrical signals into large regenerative potentials.

A sensory receptor or "generator" potential is usually due to a. resting or "leak" currents in the cell body. b. the activation of voltage-gated ion channels. c. the activation of ligand-gated ion channels. d. an external stimulus impinging upon sensory nerve endings. e. an internal stimulus modifying a synaptic signal between two interneurons.

d. an external stimulus impinging upon sensory nerve endings.

Referred pain a. denotes the symptoms of patients who have been referred from a general practice physician to a pain management specialist. b. results when cutaneous sensory neurons send aberrant axonal branches to visceral organs. c. results when visceral neurons send aberrant axonal branches to the skin. d. arises from the conveyance of both visceral and cutaneous pain information by dorsal horn neurons. e. None of the above

d. arises from the conveyance of both visceral and cutaneous pain information by dorsal horn neurons.

Cocaine acts a. on GABAA receptors. b. as an MAO inhibitor. c. by blocking serotonin reuptake. d. by blocking dopamine reuptake. e. by blocking biogenic amine vesicular transporters.

d. by blocking dopamine reuptake.

Excitotoxicity a. can result from very brief (sub-millisecond) increases in glutamate levels. b. can be prevented by administration of glutamate receptor antagonists after a stroke has been diagnosed. c. has not been correlated with the potency of compounds at glutamatergic receptors. d. can occur in some forms of epilepsy and head trauma. e. has been linked to a specific intracellular signaling pathway that activates a family of excitotoxicity gene

d. can occur in some forms of epilepsy and head trauma.

Which of the following is a common, defining feature of membrane-bound active ion transporters? a. All transporters are electrogenic. b. All transporters transport two or more different ions. c. All catalyze the conversion of ATP to ADP. d. All are able to move at least one ion against its concentration gradient. e. All of the above

d. All are able to move at least one ion against its concentration gradient.

A major difference between warmth-sensitive thermoreceptors and temperature-sensitive nociceptors is that a. the nociceptors require higher temperatures to be activated. b. within the range of painful temperatures the thermoreceptors fire at a constant rate. c. over a range of increasingly painful temperatures the nociceptors fire at an increasing rate. d. All of the above e. None of the above

d. All of the above

Which of the following appears to contribute to the selectivity filter of the potassium channel? a. The channel pore narrows to fit the size of a non-hydrated potassium ion. b. Cations such as cesium are too large to pass through the pore. c. Cations such as sodium are too small to be dehydrated at the pore filter. d. All of the above e. None of the above

d. All of the above

Which of the following is an accepted criterion for defining a molecule to be a neurotransmitter? a. It must be present in the presynaptic terminal. b. It must be released in response to presynaptic electrical activity. c. It must exert an effect on the postsynaptic cell. d. All of the above e. None of the above

d. All of the above

In terms of the projections from SI Primary Sensory Cortex a. the projections descending out of cortex outnumber the ascending sensory projections entering SI b. a second somatosensory cortical region (SII) receives convergent inputs from all regions of SI c. SII neurons project to hippocampus and amygdala d. All of the above are true. e. None of the above is true.

d. All of the above are true.

Acetylcholine is used as a neurotransmitter at a. the neuromuscular junction. b. preganglionic synapses of the autonomic (visceral motor) nervous system. c. postganglionic synapses of the sympathetic nervous system. d. widely distributed synapses in the central nervous system. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Animal toxins have been discovered that a. block sodium channels. b. prolong the open state of sodium channels. c. alter the voltage-dependence of sodium channels. d. block potassium channels. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Based upon the distribution of endocannabinoid receptors in the brain, it can be surmised that these compounds have a likely influence on a. neocortex. b. the hippocampus. c. basal ganglia. d. the hypothalamus. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Glutamate is a. the most commonly used neurotransmitter in the brain. b. neurotoxic at high concentrations. c. a nonessential amino acid. d. often synthesized from glial-synthesized glutamine. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

In the operation of sodium-potassium ATPase, a. there is an obligatory coupling of sodium efflux and potassium influx. b. this transporter (or "pump") is electrogenic. c. phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are respectively associated with the sodium and potassium transport steps. d. the pump transports two potassium ions for every three sodium ions. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Which of the following experiments would indicate a role for calcium in transmitter secretion? a. Observation of presynaptic depolarizing currents after blockade of sodium channels b. Voltage clamp experiments showing voltage-gated calcium channels in the presynaptic terminal c. Induction of transmitter release by injection of calcium into the presynaptic terminal d. Blockade of transmitter release by injection of calcium buffer into the presynaptic terminal e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Which of the following statements about the retina's operation across different levels of ambient light is true? a. For a given level of ambient light, an on-center ganglion cell respond's proportionately to a small spot of light over an intensity range of about one log unit. b. Via adaptational mechanisms, on-center ganglion cells can dynamically encode brightness levels in their on-center over a range of 6 log units of ambient light levels. c. Ganglion cells generally do not report absolute light intensities, but rather encode relative intensity differences between center and surround. d. Interactions within the outer plexiform layer play an important role in modulating the photic sensitivity of ganglion cells. e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Which of the following statements about capsaicin is false? a. It is a useful ingredient in birdseed. b. It causes a burning sensation in the mouth. c. It is useful in the treatment of some pain disorders. d. It desensitizes pain receptors. e. All of the above are true.

e. All of the above are true.

Which of the following was not observed in studies of sensory cortical plasticity? a. Peripheral anesthesia leads to transient changes in cortical receptive fields. b. Requiring a monkey to repeatedly use a digit (finger) can alter its cortical representation. c. If a cortical region is deprived of input, after a while that region begins to respond to nearby regions of the periphery. d. Somatosensory cortex reorganization after limb amputation might contribute to phantom limb pain. e. All of the above are valid observations.

e. All of the above are valid observations.

Which of the following is not a type of ion transporter that has been observed? a. The sodium/calcium exchanger b. The sodium/potassium/chloride co-transporter c. The sodium/neurotransmitter co-transporter d. The sodium/proton exchanger e. All of the above transporters have been observed.

e. All of the above transporters have been observed.

Which of the following statements about neural and glial cells is false? a. Mitochondria are concentrated at presynaptic terminals. b. The endoplasmic reticulum is concentrated in axons. c. Exocytosis and endocytosis are important for synaptic communication. d. Glial cells rapidly transmit long-range electrical signals. e. Both b and d

e. Both b and d

In tracking recycling of synaptic vesicles, using HRP as a vesicle marker, the observed sequence of movements of HRP was a. Endosome, coated vesicle, vesicle reserve pool b. Vesicle reserve pool, coated vesicle, endosome c. Endosome, vesicle reserve pool, coated vesicle d. Coated vesicle, vesicle reserve pool, endosome e. Coated vesicle, endosome, vesicle reserve pool

e. Coated vesicle, endosome, vesicle reserve pool

Which of the following is a major advantage to researchers of the Xenopus oocyte expression system? a. Xenopus is the only lower vertebrate whose genome has been sequenced. b. The unusually small size of the eggs makes patch-clamping relatively easy. c. The oocytes have many endogenous ion channels to which exogenous channels can be compared. d. The oocytes have quite thin membranes, which amplifies the ionic currents. e. It facilitates physiological characterization of modified ion channel genes.

e. It facilitates physiological characterization of modified ion channel genes.

Which of the following is not a true statement about a center-surround receptive field? a. It can be mapped by electrophysiological recording techniques. b. It is characterized by a circular center and a donut-shaped surround. c. It can involve an excitatory response (e.g., to touch). d. It can involve an inhibitory response (e.g., to touch). e. It is found only in primary sensory cortex.

e. It is found only in primary sensory cortex.

Which of the following is not one of the observations that contributed to the concept of a dorsal column pain pathway? a. Spinal afferents project to the spinal intermediate gray matter. b. Intermediate gray axons project through the dorsal columns. c. VPL and nucleus gracilis neurons respond to noxious stimuli. d. VPL and nucleus gracilis pain responses are lost after a dorsal column lesion. e. Tactile sensations, but not pain sensations, are lost after the infusion of nociceptive inhibitors into the spinal intermediate gray region.

e. Tactile sensations, but not pain sensations, are lost after the infusion of nociceptive inhibitors into the spinal intermediate gray region.

Which of the following statements about postsynaptic currents at the neuromuscular end plate is false? a. Depolarizing currents can be recorded from outside-out patches of postsynaptic membrane. b. Individual channels tend to stay open for no more than a few msec. c. Acetylcholine can induce openings of ligand-gated ion channels. d. The end plate potential is due to the opening of thousands or millions of channels. e. The end plate channels show a regenerative opening pattern that propagates an action potential along the length of the muscle fiber.

e. The end plate channels show a regenerative opening pattern that propagates an action potential along the length of the muscle fiber.

To date, which of the following is not part of the experimental evidence favoring the vesicular release hypothesis of neurotransmission? a. Fixed size of MEPPs b. Quantized distribution of events occurring at the neuromuscular junction c. Visualization of synaptic vesicles using electron microscopy d. Correspondence between a vesicle's acetylcholine content and MEPP size e. Visualization of acetylcholine molecules diffusing out of the neck of the membrane-fused vesicle

e. Visualization of acetylcholine molecules diffusing out of the neck of the membrane-fused vesicle

Miniature end-plate potentials, or MEPPs, are produced a. at miniature end-plates. b. by the smallest axons. c. in response to weak stimuli. d. by the smallest neurotransmitters. e. by spontaneous release of neurotransmitter.

e. by spontaneous release of neurotransmitter.

One would expect to find the finest two-point discrimination threshold on the a. toes. b. back. c. calf. d. breast. e. fingers.

e. fingers.

A surprising result that emerged from the molecular analysis of ion channels was the a. size of the individual ion channels. b. voltage-dependence of the ion channels. c. time-dependence of the ion channels. d. discovery of differences in ionic selectivity. e. sheer number of different ion channels.

e. sheer number of different ion channels.

In familial hemiplegic migraine, the underlying mutation in a calcium channel causes a. abnormally functioning pain receptors in the peripheral nervous system. b. enhanced synaptic excitation of second-order pain-sensitive neurons. c. abnormal activation of thalamic pain centers. d. abnormal activation of neocortical pain centers. e. the syndrome by some unknown mechanism.

e. the syndrome by some unknown mechanism.

4. The three main layers in the early embryonic stage of brain development are the A. ectoplasm, endoplasm, and mesoplasm. C. ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. B. gastrula, blastula and notochord D. ectoderm, ectoplasm and notochord

ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Activating end plate acetylcholine receptor channels produces 0 current at 0 mV, but is still able to elicit action potentials in muscle fibers because a. the depolarization occurs so quickly that the membrane potential goes far positive to 0 mV and produces an overshooting action potential. b. there are enough acetylcholine receptors to propagate the action potential along the length of the muscle fiber. c. the receptor is also permeable to calcium, which binds to other channels to elicit action potentials. d. depolarization of the membrane to 0 mV is sufficient to bring nearby membrane regions, which contain voltage-gated sodium channels, to threshold. e. None of the above; acetylcholine does not elicit muscle action potentials

d. depolarization of the membrane to 0 mV is sufficient to bring nearby membrane regions, which contain voltage-gated sodium channels, to threshold.

The internal capsule conducts sensory information a. between the DRG and the spinal cord. b. from the spinal cord to the brainstem. c. between the brainstem and thalamus. d. from the thalamus to the cortex. e. from the brainstem to the cortex.

d. from the thalamus to the cortex.

In terms of conduction velocity, the axons arising from peripheral nociceptors a. are the fastest conducting nerve fibers. b. are the second fastest group of fibers, slower only than muscle and joint proprioceptors. c. are the third fastest group of fibers, being slower than the group I and II sensory afferents. d. include the slowest conducting of the peripheral sensory afferents. e. are of indeterminate conduction velocity.

d. include the slowest conducting of the peripheral sensory afferents.

The right nucleus gracilus projects (i.e., sends action potentials) to the a. right nucleus cuneatus. b. left somatosensory cortex. c. right thalamus. d. left thalamus. e. right lumbar spinal cord.

d. left thalamus.

The type of nerve cell that synapses upon muscles is called a(n) a. dorsal root neuron. b. cranial neuron. c. afferent neuron. d. motor neuron (or motoneuron). e. spinal interneuron.

d. motor neuron (or motoneuron).

The two main functions of the retinal pigment epithelium are _______ and _______. a. structural support to maintain curvature of the retina; phagocytosis of shed outer segments b. structural support to maintain curvature of the retina; synthesis of rhodopsin c. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; synthesis of rhodopsin d. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; regeneration of the photoreceptor photopigments e. synthesis of rhodopsin; regeneration of the photoreceptor photopigments

d. phagocytosis of shed outer segments; regeneration of the photoreceptor photopigments

The calcium ATPase a. is much simpler than the sodium-potassium pump because it has only three transmembrane regions. b. pumps 15 calcium ions for each molecule of ATP consumed. c. uses the same intracellular domain for both nucleotide binding and ion translocation. d. pumps calcium in a cyclical process that utilizes energy from ATP. e. is unique among transporters in that its pumping action involves no conformational changes.

d. pumps calcium in a cyclical process that utilizes energy from ATP.

A tactile sensation loss localized to the lower right leg and accompanied by pain and temperature deficits would most likely be caused by a. injury to the right side of the lower spinal cord. b. injury to the left side of the lower spinal cord. c. bilateral spinal cord injury at lower spinal levels. d. right peripheral nerve damage. e. left peripheral nerve damage.

d. right peripheral nerve damage.

The most important factor determining whether a receptor-operated ion channel is inhibitory or excitatory is a. the ligand-binding properties of the receptor. b. whether the permeant ion is positively or negatively charged. c. whether the permeant ion's reversal potential is positive or negative. d. whether the permeant ion's reversal potential is positive or negative to threshold. e. None of the above

d. whether the permeant ion's reversal potential is positive or negative to threshold.

The banded krait uses the neurotoxin _______ to paralyze its prey. a. nicotine b. muscarine c. conotoxin d. α-bungarotoxin e. δ-tubocurarine

d. α-bungarotoxin

____are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system, and they are associated with the formation of the blood-brain barrier. A. Astrocytes B. Microglia C. Oligodendrocytes D. Schwann cells

A. Astrocytes

Some glutamate receptors are designated as G-protein coupled receptors. They have this designation because they A. bind glutamate. C. interact with heterotrimeric G-proteins B. are gated ion channels. D. are encoded by genes.

A. bind glutamate.

38. Serotonin reuptake blockers such as fluoxetine are used clinically A. to treat hypertension. C. to treat panic disorders. B. as antidepressants. D. as antipsychotics.

B. as antidepressants.

36. How many subunits does one typically find in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors? A. 2 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7 E. 9

C. 5

47. The kinase that is activated by a lipid is A. protein kinase A. C. protein kinase C. B. protein kinase G. D. CaM kinase II.

C. protein kinase C.

35. An orderly mapping of orientation sensitivity in primary visual cortex has been accomplished via A. microelectrode penetrations. B. calcium imaging of patterns of cell responses. C. intrinsic optical signal-imaging techniques. D. All of the above E. None of the above

D. All of the above

Listed below are the five steps in a nitric oxide (NO)-mediated signaling event. Calcium binds to calmodulin Activation of nitric oxide synthase NO diffusion for tens of micrometers Activation of guanylyl cyclase Inactivation by reaction with oxygen. Which of the following is the correct sequence of these steps? a. 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 b. 5; 4; 3; 2; 1 c. 4; 2; 3; 1; 5 d. 2; 3; 4; 1; 5 e. 1; 5; 2; 3; 4

a. 1; 2; 3; 4; 5

Listed below are the enzymes needed to synthesize epinephrine (adrenaline). Dopamine beta-hydroxylase Tyrosine hydroxylase Phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase DOPA decarboxylase. Which of the following is the correct sequence of enzyme actions in the synthesis of epinephrine? a. 2; 4; 1; 3 b. 3; 1; 4; 2 c. 2; 1; 3; 4 d. 1; 2; 4; 3 e. 2; 4; 3; 1

a. 2; 4; 1; 3

Which of the following type of glial cell myelinates peripheral axons? a. Schwann cells b. Oligodendrocytes c. Astrocytes d. Microglia e. All of the above

a. Schwann cells

The _______ of the trigeminal _______ conveys facial tactile information in much the same way that the dorsal column nuclei transmit lower-body tactile information. a. principal nucleus; complex b. spinal nucleus; complex c. ophthalmic branch; nerve d. mandibular branch; nerve e. maxillary branch; nerve

a. principal nucleus; complex

In terms of size, which of the following are the largest neurotransmitters? a. Biogenic amines b. Amino acid transmitters c. Neuropeptide transmitters d. Purinergic transmitters e. Gaseous transmitters

c. Neuropeptide transmitters

One typically finds _______ subunits in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. a. two b. three c. five d. seven e. nine

c. five

Somatosensory neurons in the DRG normally transmit information a. from the cell body to the spinal cord. b. from the cell body to the skin. c. from the skin to the spinal cord. d. from the spinal cord to the skin. e. Transmission would depend on which synapses in the DRG were active.

c. from the skin to the spinal cord.

Gap junctions (electrical synapses) a. are found only in a few species of animals. b. are far more numerous than chemical synapses. c. have larger pores than voltage-gated ion channels. d. are found only where there are large gaps between nerve cells. e. are used to pass chemical neurotransmitters.

c. have larger pores than voltage-gated ion channels.

The transmitter GABA excites immature cortical neurons because a. immature GABA receptors pass more sodium than chloride. b. immature GABA-receptive neurons have a more negative firing threshold than mature neurons. c. immature GABA-receptive neurons express many Na+/K+/Cl- co-transporters. d. immature GABA-receptive neurons express many K+/Cl- co-transporters. e. the opening of GABA receptor channels tends to excite immature cortical networks because of the networks' wiring.

c. immature GABA-receptive neurons express many Na+/K+/Cl- co-transporters.

Myasthenia gravis is characterized by a. degeneration of lower motoneurons. b. degeneration of upper motoneurons. c. mutations affecting the synthesis of acetylcholine. d. mutations affecting acetylcholine receptors. e. an autoimmune attack on acetylcholine receptors.

e. an autoimmune attack on acetylcholine receptors.

Peptide neurotransmitters are often released a. shortly after their synthesis in presynaptic terminals. b. as pre-propeptides. c. as propeptides. d. more readily and quickly than nonpeptide transmitters. e. together with nonpeptide transmitters.

e. together with nonpeptide transmitters.

29. Which of the following statements about the subthalamic nucleus is correct? A. It receives input from the globus pallidus external segment. B. It receives input from the globus pallidus internal segment. C. It receives input from the substantia nigra pars compacta. D. Its main output is to the substantia nigra pars compacta. E. It is the main source of dopaminergic input to the putamen.

A. It receives input from the globus pallidus external segment.

In virtually every case known, activating a ___ conductance will lead to influx of ions and ___ polarization of the cell. A. Na+; de B. K+; de C. Na+; hyper D. K+; hyper E. Cl-; de

A. Na+; de

17. The chemoattractant signaling molecule netrin A. can signal by binding to the DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer) receptor. B. is named for nectar (because it has been equated to the nectar of the gods for its trophic effects). C. is present in very high quantities and thus attracts many axons. D. is present only in birds and mammals. E. is an integral, or fixed, component of the extracellular matrix.

A. can signal by binding to the DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer) receptor.

In the central nervous system, gray matter principally comprises A. cell bodies and neuropil. C. decaying cell matter from apoptotic cell death. B. myelinated axons. D. brain centers engaged in moral judgments.

A. cell bodies and neuropil.

35. The part of the cerebellum that is highly developed in humans and involved with the planning and execution of complex spatial and temporal sequences is the A. cerebrocerebellum. C. spinocerebellum. B. vestibulocerebellum. D. flocculus.

A. cerebrocerebellum

49. Based on the fact that their axons wrap around Purkinje cell dendrites, making multiple synapses with them, one would expect to strongly affect Purkinje cell activity. A. climbing fibers. C. parallel fibers B. mossy fibers. D. medium spiny neurons

A. climbing fibers.

13. Activation of the VR-1 receptor leads (either directly or indirectly - I'm not saying which) to an influx of cations. This influx in turn causes the membrane potential. A. depolarization of C. no change to B. hyperpolarization of D. There's not enough info provided to answer this question.

A. depolarization of

A sort of weird thing about vertebrate photoreceptors is how they respond to stimuli. Unlike other sensory receptors, they DON'T A. depolarize in response to stimuli. C. undergo sensory adaptation. B. use GPCRs in their signaling pathways. D. experience changes in ion conductances.

A. depolarize in response to stimuli

13. In an anticipatory postural response of a standing person who is about to tug on a handle, the early response of leg muscles (such as the gastrocnemius) that precedes the actual tug is an example of A. feed-forward motor control. C. feed-back motor control. B. equilibrium-point motor control. D. a "winner take all" motor coding strategy.

A. feed-forward motor control

8. Which of the following is NOT one of the five principal tastants sensed by taste bud cells? A. floral B. bitter C. sour D. sweet E. salty

A. floral

5. The process by which three germ layers form around a central tube running the length of a developing vertebrate animal is called A. gastrulation. B. perturbation. C. intubation. D. cephalization.

A. gastrulation.

4. The fastest conducting of the following sensory fibers is the . A. group Ib mechanoreceptors. C. myelinated thermoreceptors. B. unmyelinated thermoreceptors. D. myelinated pain receptors.

A. group Ib mechanoreceptors.

10. Extracellular matrix molecules serve as ligands for A. integrin receptors. B. unc5 and robo. C. plexin. D. cadherin E. L1.

A. integrin receptors.

47. Depolarization of acoustic hair cells is due to opening ______ that conduct ___________ . A. ligand-gated; K+ C. ligand-gated; Na+ B. tip-linked; K+ D. tip-linked; Na+

A. ligand-gated; K+

10. Golgi tendon organs are most sensitive to A. muscle tension. C. muscle stretch. B. absolute joint position. D. muscle contraction frequency.

A. muscle tension

34. Which of the following represents the most direct pathway for the transmission of visual information from the eye to the brain? A. photoreceptor; bipolar cell; ganglion cell; brain B. horizontal cell; bipolar cell; ganglion cell; brain C. photoreceptor; bipolar cell; amacrine cell; brain. D. photoreceptor; horizontal cell; ganglion cell; brain E. photoreceptor; bipolar cell; amacrine cell; ganglion cell; brain

A. photoreceptor; bipolar cell; ganglion cell; brain

48. Asynchronous firing of motor neurons A. provides a means by which a population of motor neurons can maintain constant force over a finite time interval, enabling movements to be executed smoothly. B. refers to the pattern by which more lateral motor neurons are fired first and more medial ones later. C. refers to alternating firing of fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers. D. does not occur under normal physiological conditions. E. is observed only with gamma motor neurons

A. provides a means by which a population of motor neurons can maintain constant force over a finite time interval, enabling movements to be executed smoothly.

34. Parkinson's disease is associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in A. the substantia nigra. C. the putamen. B. the caudate. D. the globus pallidus. E. the primary motor cortex.

A. the substantia nigra

Listed below are the events that make up chemical synaptic transmission: 1. Diffusion of transmitter across the synaptic cleft 2. Depolarization of the presynaptic terminal 3. Vesicle fusion with plasma membrane 4. Opening of voltage-gated calcium channels 5. Activation of presynaptic, calcium-sensitive proteins Which of the following is the correct sequence of these events? A. 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 B. 2; 4; 5; 3; 1 C. 2; 5; 4; 3; 1 D. 5; 4; 2; 3; 1

B. 2; 4; 5; 3; 1

44. In a signal transduction cascade using G-proteins and cAMP, which of the following is NOT a signal amplification step? A. Activation of G-proteins by an activated receptor B. Activation of adenylyl cyclase molecules by G-proteins C. Production of cAMP molecules by adenylyl cyclase D. Phosphorylation of target proteins by protein kinase A E. All of the above are steps in which amplification occurs.

B. Activation of adenylyl cyclase molecules by G-proteins

11. Jennifer Summe's boyfriend dropped a machine on his hand, breaking his bones and causing an immediate sharp pain, followed by a dull pain. The removal of which nociceptor would have eliminated the initial sharp pain? A. C polymodal B. Adelta mechanosensitive C. Adelta mechanothermal

B. Adelta mechanosensitive

Which if the following is a common, defining feature of membrane-bound active ion transporters? A. All transporters are electrogenic. B. All are able to move at least one ion against its concentration gradient. C. All transporters transport two or more different ions. D. All of the above.

B. All are able to move at least one ion against its concentration gradient.

5. Spinal interneurons that project ipsilaterally between the lumbar and cervical enlargements are involved with A. ensuring left-right alternation during rhythmic behaviors. B. ensuring coordination of the forelimbs and hindlimbs. C. ensuring the proper speed of locomotion. D. coordinating activity of a limb joints and extremities. E. producing alternating flexion and extension patterns in an individual limb.

B. ensuring coordination of the forelimbs and hindlimbs.

2. Somatosensory neurons in the DRG normally transmit information A. from the cell body to the spinal cord. C. from the cell body to the skin. B. from the skin to the spinal cord. D. from the spinal cord to the skin.

B. from the skin to the spinal cord.

37. Which of the following is NOT a catecholamine? A. dopamine B. histamine C. norepinephrine D. adrenaline

B. histamine

38. Alcohol-induced damage to the vermis of the cerebellum has been associated with A. chronically slurred speech. C. word-finding difficulties. B. impaired walking. D. impaired use of hands and fingers.

B. impaired walking

24. Our underwater vision is poor because A. water disperses light, making it impossible to focus. B. in water there is no longer a refractive index difference between the cornea and the surrounding media. C. water seeps into the iris, causing temporary cloudiness. D. the hydrostatic pressure of water changes the shape of the eyeball. E. All of the above

B. in water there is no longer a refractive index difference between the cornea and the surrounding media.

12. According to an article I read in National Geographic, some natural redheads are particularly sensitive to heat-related pain. Heat related pain involves activation of the VR-1 receptor, which is also sensitive to capsaicin. The VR-1 receptor is a(n) A. G-protein coupled receptor. B. ion channel . C. mechanoreceptor.

B. ion channel

19. Roger Sperry's chemoaffinity hypothesis A. arises from the fact that frog axons are able to regenerate. B. is supported by the orderly reinnervation of the optic tectum by regenerating retinal ganglion cells. C. correctly predicted that each optic tectal neuron-retinal axon pair would have a unique molecular lock-and-key allowing for that specific connection. D. was based upon his discovery of cell adhesion molecules in the optic tectum. E. All of the above

B. is supported by the orderly reinnervation of the optic tectum by regenerating retinal ganglion cells.

32. Tetrodotoxin is a useful experimental tool because A. it's produced by fugu. B. it blocks voltage-gated sodium channels. C. it blocks voltage-gated potassium channels. D. it blocks nicotinic receptors at the neuromuscular junction. E. it blocks voltage-gated calcium channels.

B. it blocks voltage-gated sodium channels.

3. What functional area would be most directly impaired by damage to Wernicke's area? A. attention B. language C. problem-solving D. inhibition E. all of the above

B. language

12. Resting membrane potential is typically threshold potential. A. more than B. less than C. the same as D. None of the above.

B. less than

25. The fovea A. covers approximately 40 percent of the retina. C. lies at the center of the optic disk. B. lies at the center of the macula lutea. D. is synonymous with "fundus."

B. lies at the center of the macula lutea

45. The acetylcholine receptor at the neuromuscular junction would best be described as a(n) A. enzyme-linked receptor. C. G-protein-coupled receptor. B. ligand-gated ion channel. D. nuclear receptor.

B. ligand-gated ion channel.

9. The structure that causes formation of neural tissue in an overlying germ layer is called the A. ectoderm. B. notochord. C. endoderm. D. neural crest.

B. notochord.

48. Which of the following structures is NOT a required part of the pathway by which olfactory signals first reach cortex? A. olfactory receptor neuron C. olfactory bulb B. olfactory thalamus D. olfactory nerve

B. olfactory thalamus

22. When you woke up at 6 am to continue studying for today's neurobiology exam and you turned on your lamp, the ________ bipolar cell________. A. on-center, hyperpolarizes C. off-center, depolarizes B. on-center, depolarizes D. off-center, does not respond

B. on-center, depolarizes

1. The threshold for two-point discrimination, both in the somatosensory systems and in the visual system, is most closely correlated to A. sensitivity. C. receptor density. B. receptive field size. D. convergence.

B. receptive field size.

23. The iris A. is responsible for the refraction of light onto the retina. B. regulates the amount of light entering the eye. C. applies tension to the lens. D. contains the pigment epithelial cells that nourish photoreceptors. E. covers the cornea, shielding it from harmful UV rays.

B. regulates the amount of light entering the eye.

45. Based on the size principle, the order of recruitment of motor units by type is A. fast, fatigue-resistant; fast, fatigable; slow C. fast, fatigable; fast, fatigue-resistant; slow B. slow; fast, fatigue-resistant; fast, fatigable D. slow; fast, fatigable; fast, fatigue-resistant

B. slow; fast, fatigue-resistant; fast, fatigable

28. The substantia nigra pars reticulata projects to the A. inferior colliculus. C. VA/VL nuclei B. superior colliculus. D. corpus striatum

B. superior colliculus

The capability of a nerve terminal to rapidly and dramatically produce very large changes in calcium levels is most absolutely dependent on A. the presence of calcium-selective ion channels. B. the enormous gradient of calcium across the membrane. C. the fact that calcium is a positively charged ion. D. the fact that calcium is a divalent cation. E. All of the above are essential for producing large, rapid concentration changes.

B. the enormous gradient of calcium across the membrane.

In contrast to spinal cord injury, damage to the brain, for example through traumatic brain injury, is more likely to result in unilateral motor symptoms than bilateral motor symptoms. If one were to sustain injury to the right primary motor cortex, one would expect to lose function on side(s) of the body. A. the right B. the left C. both D. neither

B. the left

1. Which of the following is the most common cause of brain pathology for 15-24 year olds? A. stroke B. traumatic brain injury C. infection D. neurotoxins

B. traumatic brain injury

39. The part of the cerebellum that receives input from the statoacoustic organs of the ears is the A. spinocerebellum. B. vestibulocerebellum. C. cerebrocerebellum. D. LSO

B. vestibulocerebellum

Action potentials are generated A. at most subthreshold voltages. B. when the cell reaches threshold. C. only when the membrane potential exceeds threshold by 5 to 10 millivolts. D. only after all of the sodium channels are open.

B. when the cell reaches threshold.

Which of the following statements about action potentials is FALSE? A. Action potentials can transmit signals over long distances. B. Action potentials can amplify small signals. C. Action potentials are elicited by hyperpolarization. D. Action potentials occur when the membrane is brought to threshold. E. Action potentials are all-or-none.

C. Action potentials are elicited by hyperpolarization.

Which of the following does NOT stem from the application of Ohm's law to ionic conductances? A. The driving force on the ionic current is the difference between the membrane potential and the ion's Nernst potential. B. The conductance for an ion is inversely proportional to the resistance of the membrane to the passage of that ion. C. All permeant ions experience an identical driving force at each time point during the course of an action potential. D. The conductance for each ion can be calculated based on the measured ionic currents and the calculated driving force. E. The calculations stemming from Ohm's law can be used to derive a mathematical description of the action potential.

C. All permeant ions experience an identical driving force at each time point during the course of an action potential.

42. Which of the following is the primary function of the three bones in the middle ear? A. Selective transmission of high-frequency sounds B. Selective transmission of low-frequency sounds C. Amplification of sound pressure waves to increase auditory sensitivity D. Dampening sound pressure waves to prevent damage to the ear E. Facilitation of fluid drainage from the Eustachian tube

C. Amplification of sound pressure waves to increase auditory sensitivity

18. Which of the following could be considered evidence for the descending control of pain? A. the absence of significant pain from severe battle wounds B. the placebo effect C. The ability of hypnosis to suppress the firing of primary pain afferents D. both A&B E. All of the above.

C. Both A & B. Both the absence of significant pain from severe battle wounds and the placebo effects are evidence for descending control of pain

Individual ion channels A. were demonstrated experimentally with the advent of voltage clamp in 1956. B. show the same time course as macroscopic ionic currents. C. may pass thousands of ions per millisecond. D. have a different voltage dependence than the macroscopic ionic current has. E. have a different reversal potential than the macroscopic ionic current has.

C. may pass thousands of ions per millisecond.

The strictly monocular portion of the visual field is represented exclusively in the _______ retina. A. superior B. inferior C. nasal D. temporal E. None of the above

C. nasal

20. Neurotrophic factors A. provide directional cues to guide axons to a correct target location. B. normally allow the CNS to produce and maintain a large number of excess neurons. C. play a role in adjusting the size of neuronal populations to an appropriate number. D. deliver glucose to sustain cells. E. deliever ATP to sustain cells.

C. play a role in adjusting the size of neuronal populations to an appropriate number.

48. The role of the Na+, K+-pump in the action potential is to A. pump in sodium ions to effect membrane depolarization during the rising phase B. pump out potassium to effect membrane repolarization during the falling phase C. pump out sodium ions to effect membrane hyperpolarization D. establish and maintain sodium and potassium ion gradients

C. pump out sodium ions to effect membrane hyperpolarization

Myelination increases conduction velocity by increasing membrane A. capacitance . B. conductance. C. resistance.

C. resistance.

16. A delayed, diffuse sensation of pain is called A. sharp pain. C. second pain. B. first pain. D. thermoception.

C. second pain.

47. Odorant receptors are found at the highest concentration in A. the olfactory cell body. C. the olfactory cell cilia. B. the cribriform plate. D. Bowman's gland cells.

C. the olfactory cell cilia.

7. Central pattern generators A. are located in the brain C. can generate rhythmical movement patterns B. are located in the spinal cord D. both B&C

D. both B&C

39. Cocaine acts A. on GABA receptors. C. as an MAO inhibitor. B. by blocking serotonin reuptake. D. by blocking dopamine reuptake.

D. by blocking dopamine reuptake.

3. A motor pool (as opposed, e.g., to a motor unit) consists of A. all of the motor neurons that project to a given muscle. B. all of the motor neurons within a single segment of spinal cord. C. all of the motor neurons that project to a given limb. D. a single motor neuron and all of the different muscles that it innervates. E. a single motor neuron and all of its afferent interneurons.

A. all of the motor neurons that project to a given muscle.

27. Which of the following statements about bipolar cells is FALSE? A. Because bipolar cells do not have direct contacts with horizontal cells, they are unaffected by HC activity. B. Off-bipolar cells hyperpolarize in response to light. C. On-bipolar cells depolarize in response to light. D. Glutamate causes off-bipolars to depolarize. E. Glutamate causes on-bipolars to hyperpolarize.

A. Because bipolar cells do not have direct contacts with horizontal cells, they are unaffected by HC activity.

42. GABA is generally regarded as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, which means that its release and the activation of its receptor decreases the probability that the post-synaptic cell will initiate an action potential. Based on this information, if the GABA receptor is ionotropic, it most likely conducts A. Cl- B. K+ C. Na+ D. A or B E. A or C

A. Cl-

37. The cell type that is the main output from cerebellar cortex and is considered its prime computational element is the _______ cell. A. Purkinje cell B. granule C. Golgi D. basket E. stellate

A. Purkinje

50. The type of glial cells that myelinate peripheral axons are called A. Schwann cells. B. oligodendrocytes. C. astrocytes. D. microglia.

A. Schwann cells

is a defining feature of neurons. Hint: It may help to think about neurons in the neural retina. A. The ability to conduct action potentials B. The presence of dendrites C. The presence of synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic neuron D. The ability to use changes in membrane potential as a means to communicate with other cells

A. The ability to conduct action potentials

16. Which of the following statements about primary motor cortex (PMC) neurons is FALSE? A. The firing of PMC neurons occurs precisely at the onset of a muscle contraction. B. PMC neurons can be directionally selective. C. The firing rate of a PMC neuron codes for or contributes to the force of a movement. D. The directional control of a movement is coded by the activity of a population of PMC neurons. E. PMC pyramidal cells located in different cortical layers have distinct influences on the control of motor behaviors.

A. The firing of PMC neurons occurs precisely at the onset of a muscle contraction.

Which of the following statements regarding the diversity of ion channels is FALSE? A. With only six different types, potassium channels are the least diverse channel type. B. There are at least 10 different sodium channels in humans. C. Sodium channels that do not inactivate have been found. D. There are least 16 different types of calcium channels. E. Calcium channels serve such diverse functions as influencing action potential shape and mediating the release of neurotransmitters.

A. With only six different types, potassium channels are the least diverse channel type.

Miniature end-plate potentials, or MEPPs, are produced A. at miniature end-plates. B. by the smallest axons. C. in response to weak stimuli. D. by spontaneous release of neurotransmitter.

D. by spontaneous release of neurotransmitter.

26. Which of the following is characteristic of the acute phase of upper motor neuron syndrome? A. The passive dropping of an affected limb that has been elevated and then released B. The tendency of an affected limb to remain in any position in which it has been placed C. An infant-like Babinski response D. Spasticity E. Random waves of muscle contraction that propagate throughout the affected limb and body parts

A. The passive dropping of an affected limb that has been elevated and then released

31. Which of the following is NOT an accepted criterion for defining a molecule to be a neurotransmitter? A. It must be present in the presynaptic terminal. B. It must be synthesized in the presynaptic terminal. C. It must be released in response to presynaptic electrical activity. D. It must exert an effect on the postsynaptic cell. E. It must possess any of the above characteristics.

B. It must be synthesized in the presynaptic terminal.

27. In virtually every case known, the concentration of is high inside the cell relative to the extracellular medium. A. Na+ B. K+ C. Cl- D. Ca++

B. K+

17. Which of the following has been proposed as the coding mechanism by which different tastes can be perceived and appropriately responded to? A. Lateral inhibition C. Second messenger discrimination B. Labeled lines D. Functional reactivation

B. Labeled lines

35. Which of the following are the physically largest neurotransmitters? A. Biogenic amines C. Amino acid transmitters B. Neuropeptide transmitters D. Purinergic transmitters v

B. Neuropeptide transmitters

Which of the following is NOT a usual kind of potential exhibited by nerve cells? A. Action B. Reaction C. Receptor D. Resting E. Post-synaptic

B. Reaction

9. Which of the following statements about primary somatosensory cortex is true? A. Somatosensory cortex as a whole is encompassed within Brodman's area 17. B. Receptive field properties vary within different subregions. C. The amount of cortex dedicated to each body part is proportional to its surface area. D. It is organized by receptor type, with a Pacinian area, a Merkel disc area, a temperature area, and a pain area. E. All of the above.

B. Receptive field properties vary within different subregions of S1.

38. Which of the following statements about lateral geniculate nucleus is FALSE? A. Each LGN receives light information from both the left and right eyes. B. The alternating layers represent alternate color sensitivities: red-green-red-green. C. It is organized into six principal layers.

B. The alternating layers represent alternate color sensitivities: red-green-red-green.

43. Which of the following gives rise to tonotopy along the cochlea? A. The changing width and stiffness of the tectorial membrane B. The changing width and stiffness of the basilar membrane C. The speed at which sound waves propagate along the length of the cochlea D. The changing mechanical properties of the cochlear wall along the length of the cochlea E. The increasing density of the cochlear fluid along the length of the cochlea

B. The changing width and stiffness of the basilar membrane

44. Which of the following statements about sensory transduction by vestibular hair cells is FALSE? A. Bending of the cilia toward the kinocilium produces depolarization. B. The electrical activity initiated by the tip links is transmitted to the vesicular release sites along microtubules that undergo voltage-dependent rearrangements. C. Hair cells are presynaptic to sensory neurons. D. The rate of firing of action potentials in second-order sensory neurons can either increase or decrease, depending on the direction in which the bundle of cilia (of the hair cell) is bent.

B. The electrical activity initiated by the tip links is transmitted to the vesicular release sites along microtubules that undergo voltage-dependent rearrangements.

Which of the following ligand-gated ion channels is NOT regulated primarily by an intracellular signal? A. The IP3 receptor located on the endoplasmic reticulum B. The glutamate receptor C. The cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels

B. The glutamate receptor

The transmembrane potential is generated by A. repulsion of positive and negative charges. B. diffusion of ions down a concentration gradient. C. the greater mobility of small ions. D. the selectivity of the membrane to positive charges only. E. All of the above.

B. diffusion of ions down a concentration gradient.

26. In relation to the visual field, the cortical representation/visuotopic map is A. proportionate. B. disproportionate. C. fragmented. D. A&B E. B&C

B. disproportionate

44. A motor unit is A. a muscle and all the lower motor neurons (the motor pool) that innervates it. B. a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. C. a muscle fiber and all the motor neurons that innervate it. D. the neurons associated with innervation of a particular muscle including the upper motor neurons, local circuit neurons and lower motor neurons.

B. a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

29. Which of the following is NOT a component of the phototransduction signaling cascade initiated by light falling on a rod? A. absorption of a photon of light by 11-cis retinal B. activation of protein kinase A C. increased activity of PDE (phosphodiesterase) D. dissociation of the alpha subunit of transducin from the beta and gamma subunits E. a conformational change in the rhodopsin protein

B. activation of protein kinase A

49. One thing that olfactory neurons and taste cells have in common is A. the presence of cilia on their apical surface. B. always using GPCR's as receptors for odorants and tastants, respectively. C. replacement by regeneration even during adulthood. D. they are both part of the central nervous system. E. None of the above.

B. always using GPCR's as receptors for odorants and tastants, respectively.

50. Huntington's disease results from neural degeneration in the A. premotor cortex. B. basal ganglia. C. cerebellum. D. reticular formation .

B. basal ganglia

22. The primary input to the striatum is from A. the globus pallidus. C. cerebellar cortex. B. cerebral cortex. D. the thalamus.

B. cerebral cortex

50. Odorant receptor genes and/or proteins A. constitute a completely unique gene family with no structural similarities to other receptor families B. constitute approximately 3 to 5 percent of the genome of mammals. C. are, in terms of number, very similar in all mammals.

B. constitute approximately 3 to 5 percent of the genome of mammals.

11. Homeotic genes are genes that A. allow differentiating neurons to "home in" on their eventual specialized phenotype. B. convert body segments of one type into another type. C. are found on all chromosomes in all vertebrate animals. D. are activated whenever there a perturbations of homeostasis. E. All of the above.

B. convert body segments of one type into another type.

Oligodendrocytes are restricted to the ____________________and innervate _________________axon(s). A. CNS, a single C. CNS, multiple B. PNS, a single D. PNS, multiple

C. CNS, multiple

41. Some neurons in the central nervous system are susceptible to excitotoxicity due to the accumulation of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at the synapse. Astrocytes help prevent excitotoxicity by taking up glutamate and converting it to glutamine using the enzyme A. guanylyl cyclase C. glutamine synthase B. glutaminase D. glutamate translocase

C. Glutamine synthetase.

11. Which of the following statements about cat locomotion is FALSE? A. Flexors play an important role during the swing phase. B. Extensors play an important role during the stance phase. C. It is controlled by a single spinal central pattern generator that always produces left-right alternation within a segment. D. Some gaits alternate activity between the left and right legs. E. Some gaits involve synchronous use of forelimbs and hindlimbs.

C. It is controlled by a single spinal central pattern generator that always produces left-right alternation within a segment.

12. Upper motor neurons involved with the control of axial muscles would most likely project to spinal cord in which of the following patterns? A. Lateral gray matter over many spinal segments B. Lateral gray matter over just a few spinal segments C. Medial gray matter over many spinal segments D. Medial gray matter over just a few spinal segments E. In equal proportions to both lateral and medial gray matter

C. Medial gray matter over many spinal segments

Which of the following correctly describes nerve cells? A. Nerve cells are good conductors of electricity, comparable to copper wires. B. Nerve cells are better conductors of electricity than copper wires. C. Nerve cells are poor conductors of electricity relative to copper wires. D. Nerve cells don't conduct electricity at all. E. Nerve cells absorb electrons, but no electricity comes out of them.

C. Nerve cells are poor conductors of electricity relative to copper wires.

45. Which of the following is the most important problem that is solved by the generation of bilateral representations of auditory stimuli? A. Frequency discrimination C. Sound localization B. Encoding of speech sounds D. Detection of very faint sounds

C. Sound localization

32. The basal ganglia's ability to select/elicit one specific movement pattern out of an almost endless variety of possible movement patterns is best ascribed to which kind of neural coding strategy? A. Feedforward B. Feedback C. Surround inhibition. D. Coarse coding

C. Surround inhibition

7. The muscle fibers that signal sustained stretch of a muscle are _______ fibers. A. all extrafusal muscle B. just the S-type extrafusal muscle C. intrafusal

C. intrafusal. They involve both the bag and chain intrafusal fibers.

14. Sour substances activate taste cells by A. first binding to other organic compounds found in saliva. B. binding to G-protein-coupled receptors. C. changing the potassium equilibrium potential of taste cells. D. depolarization due to protons entering taste cells. E. All of the above.

D. depolarization due to protons entering taste cells.

8. Which of the following statements about the muscles and motor neurons is FALSE? A. Slow muscle fibers contract slowly and produce the smallest amount of force. B. Large motor neurons are recruited only at higher levels of stimulus intensity. C. The fastest, strongest muscle fibers can produce the most sustained force output. D. Successive stimulation of muscles can produce force levels that build up over time. E. Individual muscles can be used in a variety of different locomotor patterns or gaits.

C. The fastest, strongest muscle fibers can produce the most sustained force output.

33. Which statement about orientation-selective cells is FALSE? A. Within a vertical column in primary visual cortex, one finds cells with the same orientation. B. An oblique penetration thru primary visual cortex would show cells with continuously varying orientations. C. The first orientation-selective cells are found in alternating layers within the lateral geniculate nucleus.

C. The first orientation-selective cells are found in alternating layers within the lateral geniculate nucleus.

19. Peripheral sensitization A. occurs only after repeated injuries to a particular portion of the body. B. is distinguished from hyperalgesia, in that it mainly concerns pleasant stimuli. C. involves an "inflammatory soup" of histamine, prostaglandins, and many other compounds. D. involves the enhancement of encapsulated mechanoreceptors such as Pacinian and Meissner corpuscles. E. All of the above

C. involves an "inflammatory soup" of histamine, prostaglandins, and many other compounds.

Which of the following is important for the unidirectional propagation of action potentials? A. The voltage dependence of the sodium channels B. The voltage dependence of the potassium channels C. The presence of a refractory period at a location where an action potential has just fired D. Sufficient "leakiness" of the axons, such that backward propagation of action potentials is prevented E. The capacity of axons to function as perfect insulators and prevent current leakage and back-propagation

C. The presence of a refractory period at a location where an action potential has just fired

19. Which of the following statements about directional tuning and population coding by primary motor cortical (PMC) neurons is correct? A. The precision of directional motor movements equals the precision of directional tuning of individual PMC pyramidal cells. B. Most PMC neurons have two or three distinct, preferred directions separated by intervening ranges of non-preferred directions. C. The vector summation of population responses of PMC neurons is important for directional control of motor movements. D. Every possible direction of motion is made possible by specific populations of PMC neurons that are tuned specifically to each of the possible directions. E. All of the above

C. The vector summation of population responses of PMC neurons is important for directional control of motor movements.

33. Which of the following is NOT, to date, part of the experimental evidence favoring the vesicular release hypothesis of neurotransmission? A. Quantized distribution of events occurring at the neuromuscular junction B. Visualization of synaptic vesicles using electron microscopy C. Visualization of acetylcholine molecules diffusing out of the neck of the membrane-fused vesicle D. All of the above are part of the experimental evidence. E. None of the above are part of the experimental evidence.

C. Visualization of acetylcholine molecules diffusing out of the neck of the membrane-fused vesicle

43. The "final common pathway" in motor control is the A. muscle spindle organ C. lower motor neuron B. muscle fiber D. upper motor neuron

C. lower motor neuron

6. The condition called "fused tetanus" refers to A. a muscle firing pattern resulting from one's willing a muscle to contract at maximum velocity. B. the response of single muscle fibers to a single action potential input. C. a motor unit firing pattern that is rarely observed under normal physiological conditions. D. an excessive contraction that results in the fusing of muscle fibers.

C. a motor unit firing pattern that is rarely observed under normal physiological conditions.

30. The primary or most proximate event that accounts for light-induced hyperpolarization of photoreceptors is A. the gating of ion channels by released retinal monomers. B. a sudden increase in the concentration of cAMP, leading to activation of potassium channels. C. a rapid fall in the concentration of cGMP, leading to closure of Na+/Ca2+ channels. D. light-induced photoisomerization of membrane-bound calcium channels.

C. a rapid fall in the concentration of cGMP, leading to closure of Na+/Ca2+ channels.

37. In layers 2/3 of primary visual cortex, a lateral sampling of pyramidal cell responses would reveal A. alternating bands of monocular columns (left eye only/right eye only). B. all binocular cells that respond equally well to both eyes. C. a roughly sinusoidal pattern moving from left dominance, through equal responsiveness, and then to right dominance. D. only color-sensitive cells. E. only orientation-selective cells.

C. a roughly sinusoidal pattern moving from left dominance, through equal responsiveness, and then to right dominance.

The proteins that establish ionic gradients are called A. passive transporters. C. active transporters. B. voltage-gated ion channels. D. ligand-gated ion channels.

C. active transporters.

39. In order to increase the loudness of a sound, one would have to alter its wave A. form. B. phase. C. amplitude. D. frequency E. length

C. amplitude.

40. The longest of the auditory hair-cell stereocilia are embedded in the A. tectorial membrane. C. basilar membrane. B. tunnel of Corti. D. spiral ganglion.

C. basilar membrane.

14. Migration of neural crest cells has been shown to A. depend exclusively upon the cell's previous division history, namely, the exact number of preceding cell divisions. B. be an essentially random process in which migrating cells disperse widely throughout the body before encountering specific target locations. C. be influenced by the specific region along the anterior-posterior axis from which the neural crest cells emerged.. D. require suppression of the Snail genes, which would greatly slow down their migration.

C. be influenced by the specific region along the anterior-posterior axis from which the neural crest cells emerged..

3. The Drosophila mushroom body appears similar in structure and function to the mammalian olfactory A. epithelium B. glomerulus C. bulb D. cortex E. mitral cells

C. bulb

7. In the context of the mechanosensory system, the "dorsal columns" refer to the A. pillarlike sensory structures found in the skin on the back. B. grey-matter columns on the dorsal side of the spinal cord. C. bundles of axons running in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord. D. large white-matter columns connecting the cerebrum with the cerebellum. E. All of the above.

C. bundles of axons running in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord.

20. The placebo effect A. was discovered by George Placebo. B. is operative mostly in cases of imaginary pain. C. can be blocked by naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist. D. is effective only when paired with hypnosis. E. Both b and d

C. can be blocked by naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist.

14. Cortical areas that plan and initiate motor sequences A. all fall within the primary motor cortex. B. comprise five functionally distinct and functionally isolated regions. C. comprise several functionally distinct but highly interconnected regions. D. all receive direct inputs from the basal ganglia.

C. comprise several functionally distinct but highly interconnected regions.

42. Sensory inputs make inputs into lower motor neurons. A. direct B. indirect (through local circuit neurons) C. both direct and indirect D. no

C. direct & indirect

25. One of the outputs of the basal ganglia, the substantia nigra pars reticulata, is most similar in its function to the A. corpus striatum. B. caudate. C. globus pallidus. D. substantia nigra pars compacta.

C. globus pallidus.

Gap junctions (electrical synapses) A. are found only in a few species of animals. B. are far more numerous than chemical synapses. C. have larger pores than voltage-gated ion channels have. D. are found only where there are large gaps between nerve cells. E. are used to pass chemical neurotransmitters.

C. have larger pores than voltage-gated ion channels have.

If one were to have unilateral spinal cord injury, for example hemisection of the spinal cord on the right side, one would expect to lose the sensation of on the right side. A. pain B. tickling C. heat D. both A&C E. all of the above

C. heat

2. Damage to which structure can cause severe problems in learning and remembering new information? A. hypothalamus. B. medulla C. hippocampus D. Broca's area E. frontal lobe

C. hippocampus

Increasing axonal diameter increases conduction velocity by A. providing more pathways for current flow. C. increasing membrane resistance. B. decreasing decay of current due to leakage. D. increasing surface area.

C. increasing membrane resistance.

40. Which of the following is NOT a class of opioid peptides? A. dynorphins B. enkephalins C. endorphins D. endocannabinoids

D. endocannabinoids

15. The sweet transduction system involves A. Dimeric G-protein-coupled receptors. C. activation of G-proteins. B. activation of phospholipase C. D. All of the above.

D. All of the above.

46. Which of the following is an "effector" of G-protein-initiated signaling mechanisms? A. Adenylyl cyclase C. Membrane-bound ion channels B. Phospholipase C D. All of the above.

D. All of the above.

Which of the following is a mechanism by which the potassium-channel selectivity filter selects for potassium? A. The channel pore narrows to fit the size of a non-hydrated potassium ion. B. Cations such as cesium are too large to pass through the pore. C. Cations such as sodium are too small to be dehydrated at the pore filter. D. All of the above. E. None of the above.

D. All of the above.

21. Which of the following statements about the Babinski sign (or reflex) is FALSE? A. It involves the corticospinal tract. B. It is considered an upper motor neuron deficit. C. It changes between infancy and later development. D. It concerns normal versus abnormal flexion of the fingers. E. It can be affected by stroke, trauma, and other neurological problems.

D. It concerns normal versus abnormal flexion of the fingers

34. Which of the following experimental observations support a role for calcium in transmitter secretion? A. Observation of presynaptic depolarizing currents after blockade of sodium channels B. Voltage clamp experiments showing voltage-gated calcium channels in the presynaptic terminal C. Induction of transmitter release by injection of calcium into the presynaptic terminal D. Blockade of transmitter release by injection of calcium buffer into the presynaptic terminal E. All of the above.

D. Blockade of transmitter release by injection of calcium buffer into the presynaptic terminal

49. Which of the following is the slowest chemical signaling process? A. Ion channel-mediated depolarization C. G-protein-mediated gating of channels B. Phosphorylation of effector molecules D. CREB-activated synthesis of proteins

D. CREB-activated synthesis of proteins

20. Which of the following statements about the medium spiny neurons is FALSE? A. They are GABAergic. B. They are the major output of the striatum. C. They receive input from dopaminergic neurons. D. Each one densely innervates 100 to 200 pallidal neurons

D. Each one densely innervates 100 to 200 pallidal neurons

16. Which of the following does NOT play an important role in the establishment of axon tracts and in growth cone navigation? A. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) C. Cytoskeletal proteins B. Extracellular matrix (ECM) components D. Synaptic vesicle proteins

D. Synaptic vesicle proteins

2. The part of the motor system that acts to minimize motor error through error correction is A. Brodman's area 4. C. the brainstem B. Brodman's area 6. D. the cerebellum

D. The cerebellum

21. Retinal photoreceptors in vertebrates A. conduct action potentials. C. synapse with ganglion cells. B. are sufficient for vision. D. hyperpolarize upon stimulation.

D. Hyperpolarize upon stimulation

46. In which of the following brain regions are the intensities (not the phases) of impinging sound waves compared in order to determine the location of sound sources? A. Cochlear nucleus C. Inferior colliculus B. Medial geniculate nucleus D. Lateral superior olive

D. Lateral superior olive

36. Which of the following is the structure where we find an extended, alternating (left/right) pattern of monocular responsiveness? A. Layer 2/3 of LGN C. Layer 2/3 of visual cortex B. Layer 4 of LGN D. Layer 4 of visual cortex

D. Layer 4 of visual cortex

In physiological systems, the propagation of action potentials is normally unidirectional, beginning at the and moving along the . A. dendrite; axon B. axon; dendrite C. axon hillock; dendrite D. axon hillock; axon

D. axon hillock; axon

Electrical signals occurring in nerve cells are caused by the cell membrane. A. positive charges bound to the inner and outer surfaces of B. negative charges bound to the inner and outer surfaces of C. movement of charged proteins within the plane of D. fluxes of ions across E. patterns of electrical eddy currents inside

D. fluxes of ions across

In which of the following ways do potassium channels in the squid giant axon differ from sodium channels? A. The potassium channels pass only a few ions per second. B. The potassium channels show little voltage-dependence. C. The summing of the individual potassium channels does not reconstruct the macroscopic current. D. Once the potassium channels open in response to a voltage step command, they tend to remain open. E. All of the above

D. Once the potassium channels open in response to a voltage step command, they tend to remain open.

36. Which of the following statements on Huntington's disease is FALSE? A. It involves atrophy of the striatum (caudate and putamen). B. It results in involuntary, choreiform motor acts. C. It is attributed to a genetic defect in the huntingtin gene. D. Recent genetic findings have led to successful gene therapy treatment and a cure.

D. Recent genetic findings have led to successful gene therapy treatment and a cure.

Which of the following is NOT required in order for neurons to communicate electrically? A. Changes in Vm due to the movement of ions across the cell membrane B. Consumption of metabolic energy C. Selective permeability of the membrane due to different types of ion channels D. Separation of large amounts of electrical charge, with excess positive charges stored inside the cell E. Use of active transporters to create ionic gradients

D. Separation of large amounts of electrical charge, with excess positive charges stored inside the cell

4. The motor neurons innervating the medial gastrocnemius muscle of the cat are found in which of the following locations? A. Concentrated with a single segment of cervical spinal cord B. Concentrated within a single segment of lumbar spinal cord C. Spanning several segments of medial lumbro-sacral spinal cord. D. Spanning several segments of lateral lumbro-sacral spinal cord. E. Distributed diffusely throughout the dorsal and ventral horns of lumbro-sacral spinal cord.

D. Spanning several segments of lateral lumbro-sacral spinal cord.

. 23. Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. The basal ganglia include the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus. B. The corpus striatum includes the caudate and putamen. C. The major inputs to the basal ganglia are to the corpus striatum. D. The major outputs of the basal ganglia are from the putamen.

D. The major outputs of the basal ganglia are from the putamen.

The unidirectionality of action potential propagation can be attributed primarily to the A. difference in membrane potential at the base of the axon relative to the axon terminal. B. because the axon terminal is like a battery terminal and the current naturally flows toward it. C. because the ion channel density is higher at the axon terminal, causing stronger depolarization there. D. because the voltage-gated sodium channels inactivate shortly after activating, removing the avenue for depolarizing current for a period of time. E. because the ligand-gated sodium channels are endocytosed, reducing the sodium conductance.

D. because the voltage-gated sodium channels inactivate shortly after activating, removing the avenue for depolarizing current for a period of time.

The ionotropic glutamate differs from the GABA and glycine receptors in that it's associated with excitatory post-synaptic potentials. The ionotropic glutamate receptor conducts A. Ca2+. B. Cl-. C. Na+. D. both A&C. E. both B&C.

D. both A&C.

Gap junctions may exhibit all of the following features EXCEPT for the ability to A. pass small metabolites, including some second messengers. B. pass electrical current bidirectionally. C. pass electrical current unidirectionally. D. amplify small incoming electrical signals into large regenerative potentials. E. synchronize the activity of populations of nerve cells.

D. amplify small incoming electrical signals into large regenerative potentials.

Which of the following statements about phantom limbs and phantom limb pain is false? a. It occurs in only a very small fraction of amputees, since illusory phantom limbs are rare. b. It can occur transiently after local nerve block. c. It is not relieved by ablations of the spinothalamic tract or sensory cortex. d. It can occur in children born without limbs. e. All of the above are true.

a. It occurs in only a very small fraction of amputees, since illusory phantom limbs are rare.

Which of the following statements about color vision is false? a. Because there are several different color types of cones, they are sensitive to dimmer illumination levels than is the population of rods. b. Cones (in humans) come in three different "colors": blue, green, and red (or short, medium, and long wavelength). c. Different wavelengths of light produce different patterns of activity in the cone population as a whole. d. Information from specific color cones can be selectively relayed to specific regions of a retinal ganglion cell's receptive field. e. All of the above are true, none is false.

a. Because there are several different color types of cones, they are sensitive to dimmer illumination levels than is the population of rods.

Which of the following was not observed in studies measuring the efflux of radioactive sodium from the squid giant axon? a. Dramatic increase of efflux during a brief train of action potentials b. Sharp drop in efflux when extracellular potassium was removed c. Dependence of efflux upon the presence of ATP d. Decrease of efflux when mitochondrial ATP synthesis was inhibited e. All of the above were observed.

a. Dramatic increase of efflux during a brief train of action potentials

The fastest conducting of the following sensory fibers is the a. Ia sensory afferents. b. Aβ afferents providing tactile information. c. Aδ pain and temperature fibers. d. c fibers. e. All of the above convey sensory signals at the same rate.

a. Ia sensory afferents.

Which of the following is not a feature of the muscle-spindle-based proprioceptive system? a. In-series attachment to tendons b. In-parallel alignment with extrafusal muscle fibers c. Mechanically gated ion channels d. Use of group Ia and II afferent axons e. Innervation by γ motor neurons

a. In-series attachment to tendons

Which of the following is not an established role for glial cells? a. Integrating information to assist neural computation b. Maintaining the ionic milieu surrounding nerve cells c. Hastening the propagation of neural impulses d. Assisting synaptic transmission via neurotransmitter uptake e. Providing scaffolds that assist neural development

a. Integrating information to assist neural computation

Listed below are the individual events that make up chemical synaptic transmission. Diffusion of transmitter across the synaptic cleft Depolarization of the presynaptic terminal Vesicle fusion with plasma membrane Opening of voltage-gated ion channels Activation of presynaptic, calcium-sensitive proteins. Which of the following is the correct sequence of these events? a. 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 b. 2; 4; 5; 3; 1 c. 2; 5; 4; 3; 1 d. 5; 4; 2; 3; 1 e. 1; 2; 4; 5; 3

b. 2; 4; 5; 3; 1

Which of the following statements about dermatomes is false? a. They are defined by the area of skin innervated by each spinal nerve. b. Each dermatome innervates a discrete area of skin and does not overlap with other dermatomes. c. Knowledge of dermatomes can aid in determining the level of a spinal lesion. d. Dermatomes for touch, pressure, and vibration are larger than those for temperature and pain. e. The cutaneous areas of the fronts of the legs and the backs of the legs are in different dermatomes.

b. Each dermatome innervates a discrete area of skin and does not overlap with other dermatomes.

The presence of which of the following compounds or proteins in a cell makes it quite likely that the cell is a GABAergic neuron? a. Pyridoxal phosphate b. Glutamic acid decarboxylase c. GABA transaminase d. γ-hydroxybutyrate e. Glutamine

b. Glutamic acid decarboxylase

Which of the following is not a catecholamine? a. Dopamine b. Histamine c. Norepinephrine d. Epinephrine e. All of the above are catecholamines.

b. Histamine