Final Psych Review
Latent Psychosexual Stage
6-puberty sexual feelings are dormant conflicts in earlier stages are repressed in unconscious
Occipital Lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information processing visual symbols recognizing lines, angles, shapes, shadows, movement
Id
lies in the unconscious mind strives to satisfy basic primitive sexual and aggressive drives operates from the pleasure principle demanding immediate gratification repressed trauma repressed childhood memories
Psychometric psychologists
design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality math, interpreting tests
Antidepressant drugs
designed to treat depression by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin SSRI
Inferential statistics
determining the likelihood that the result of an experiment is due to the manipulation of the IV or variable or due by chance
Catatonic schizophrenia
disturbances of movement immovable or unresponsive stupor parrot lie repeating of another's speech or movements
Groups
experimental: manipulate IV control: measure DV
Social psychologists
explore how we view and affect one another family, religion, culture on behavior
Flooding
exposing patient to thing they fear/avoid by immediately facing it fear factor
Pseudo Memories
false memories that a person believes are true or accurate
Case study
numerous testing methods to gather as much data as possible common characteristic individual, can't be generalized
Naturalistic observation
observation of human or animal behavior or in its natural setting reflects actual behavior no interaction
Descriptive research
gather info that can be obtained using experimental method naturalistic observation case studies surveys interviews
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
gestalt psychology encourages looking at the shape or form of the whole
Psychiatrists are
go to medical school, receive MD degree, and then psychiatric residency; additional training in pharmacology, neurology, psychotherapy, and psychotherapeutic techniques
Hippocampus
involved in the processing and storage of memories central to learning and memory COLLEGE - CAMPUS - MEMORIES
Eclectic approach
involves combing and using techniques and ideas from many different therapeutic approaches
Recall
involves generating possible targets and identifying them correctly fill in the blank
Cones
less photoreceptor cells that detect blue, red, green photoreceptors that function in only bright light
Deep brain stimulation
less invasive creates opening in skull, insert electrode into brain stem, stimulate area, interrupts communication in that area, reducing behavioral system associated with that area epilepsy parkinsons tremors depression tourettes
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
lessons from William James frist women president of American Psychological Association
Locus of control
a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
Short-term dynamic psychotherapy
a shortened version of psychoanalysis
Applications of classical conditioning
addiction - association (bad) with substances habits abuse marketing/advertising trauma
Beta waves
awake and alert
Conductive Hearing Loss
condition in which there is a poor transfer of sounds from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear
PTSD and Cortisol
connections inhibited in the brain long time, neurotoxic destroys synapse and neurons block hippocampus save during life threatening situations, increased levels are bad makes hippocampus smaller
Brain stem
connects the brain and spinal cord
Freud and consciousness
conscious what we are thinking or feeling at any given moment preconscious (subconscious) part of mind that can be brought to feeling at any given time through focus attention unconscious lies outside our normal awareness, holds troubling or unacceptable impulse, memories, and instincts (PTSD) trigged by trauma
Supression
conscious process of deliberately trying to forget something causes distress
Population
consist of all individuals who can potentially participate in the study don't generalize, so make smaller groups
Parasympathetic - what it does
constricts pupils increases saliva production reduces heart rate constricts bronchia stimulates the activity of digestive organs stimulates activity of the pancreas stimulates the gall bladder contracts urinary bladder
Anxiety hierarchy
constructed by patient in which feared situations are arranged from least to most anxiety provoking; used to set sequence for therapy
Retina
contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) light sensitive layer at the back of the eye
Chameleon Effect
unconsciously mimicking others expressions, postures, and voice tones to help us feel what they are feeling
Cognitive Dissonance
unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs
Grouping: Connectedness
when something is uniform and linked we will perceive them as a single unit
Gambler's Fallacy
when you win... "you must have done something good"
Confidentialty
private information code numbers prevents bias
P-value
probability of getting experiment results closer to 0, less likely chance
Algorithims
problem solving step by step procedure that guarantees a solution trial and error computers
Wernicke's Area
processes speech sounds from passengers, other drivers, radio
SSRI
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treat depression increase levels of serotonin in brain block reuptake serotonin, leaving it in the synapse for longer
Free assoiation
technique that encourages clients to talk about any thoughts or images that enter their heads assumption is that this kind of free-flowing uncensored talking will provide clues to unconscious material
Passionate Love
temporary, intense, positive absorption present in the beginning
Size Constancy
tendency for the brain to perceive objects as the same size regardless of their distance from us unconscious inference (autmoatic)
Amphetamines
drugs used to increase wakefulness and enhance cognitive performance adderall used to treat ADHA - increases concentration dopamine in synapse, increases metabolism, mental clarity, wakefulness
Split brain
each side of brain acts independently without awareness of one another
Cognitive process old theory
early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS(
electromagnetic wand alters magnetic fields that affect how the brain processes emotions
Industry vs. Inferiority
elementary school 6 - puberty question: can I make it in the world of people and things? relationship: school action: school and sports lear pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or feel inferior work hard at doing it right and being responsible seek praise and work hard critical for developing confidence
Sympathetic nervous system
emergency response fight, flight, freeze cardiac muscles
Moon Illusion
A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.
Tympanic Membrane
a membrane forming part of the organ of hearing, which vibrates in response to sound waves. In humans and other higher vertebrates it forms the eardrum, between the outer and middle ear. ear drum vibration is called conduction
Encoding Failure
a memory was never formed in the first place in one ear, out the other
Cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment latent learning
Availability Heuristic
a mental shortcut in which people make judgments about the probability of an event based on how quickly examples come to mind. general
Action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon fluid outside axon = positive fluid inside axon = negative depolarization occurs, triggers domino effect
Interneuron
a neuron that carries nerve impulses from one neuron to another
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
Priming
a nonconscious form of human memory concered with perceptual identification of words and objects the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory - can also be used to train someone's memory -
The Prisoner's Dilemma
a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial
Emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
Ponzo Illusion
An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion.
Relative Clarity
a cue that makes clear objects appear closer than blurry or fuzzy objects farther something is from us, less detail it conveys
Learning Curve
a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning
Forgetting Curve
a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time
Adrenaline
a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion fight or flight
Client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.) assumes that each person has an actualizing tendency to develop one's full potential
Visual Cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals study found that when babies learn to crawl, they also develop depth perception
Long-Term Potential
a lasting strengthening of synapses that increases neurotransmitters
Glutamate
a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Heuristics
a simple strategy to solve a problem quickly or more efficiently mental shortcut to ease load of cognitive problem solving example : rule of thumb, educated guess quick strategy, memory tricks, call phone if lost reduce mental effort needed to make decisions simplify complex and difficult questions fast and accurate way to Carrie at a conclusion help with problem solving
Night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
a state of tension is created when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another; people are motivated to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance) and thus eliminate unpleasant tension - we change our attitudes to coincide with our actions
Grammar
a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
Sensory Habituation
a type of adaptation occurs in brain rather than body receptors -- no longer hear nearby traffic after living in an area shifting your attention away from the stimulus, and on to something else
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher the learner is not passive, learning based on consequences organisms learn associations between its behavior and its resulting events
Signal/Stimulus Detection Theory
a way to measure how we discern a faint stimulus that conveys information and separate it from random background stimulation separating important information from irrelevant information ability to detect signals diminishes after 30 minutes - new parent is more sensitive for a baby's cry
Maintenace Rehearsal
a working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. no active elaboration
Cocktail Party Effect
ability to attend to only one voice among many
Sharpening
ability to retain detail of original story and add vivid details (exaggerated/amplified) - separate prior memories/ info from new, discriminate between info
Pre frontal lobotomy
ablation to control behavior disconnecting prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain Dr. Walter Freeman
Presbyopia or Farsightedness
able to see things in the distance difficulty focusing on things that are close by snellen test
Formal Operational Stage
about 12 through adulthood abstract reasoning/logic - if this, then that moral questioning - potential for moral reasoning become concerned about issues concerning truth and justice
Behavior Therapy
also called behavior modification uses the principles of classical and operant conditioning to change disruptive behaviors and improve human functioning focuses on changing particular behaviors rather than the underlying mental events or possible unconscious factors systemic desensitization cognitive-behavior therapy exposure flooding aversion therapy
Type A Personality
also known as the coronary-prone behavior pattern are individuals who are hard-driving competitive, and try to overachieve
Bipolar disorder
alternating mood swings from debilitating depression to manic activity manic - euphoria, hyperactive, optimistic - easy to dismiss mania medication, not staying on it depressive and manic episode very dangerous
Intensity
amount of energy measured by amplitude or height
Saving Scores
amount of time saved when relearning behavior the second time
Top-Down Processing
an approach to processing information that is guided by our thoughts or higher-level mental processes when we create perceptions from our senses, drawing on our experience and expectation deductive reasoning
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Cannon-Bard Theory (Thalamic Theory)
an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion same time
Bias
an error resulting from the experimenter's unconscious expectation of results
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Memory
an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information encoding, storage, retrieval
Meta-analysis
analyzing results of many studies that have measured the same variables complicated if you don not specify operational definition
Posterior pituitary gland
anti-diuretic hormone ADH water balance holds onto fluids - kidneys
Applications of observational learning
antisocial effects - columbine hyper-sexuality portrayed in media - desensitization to casual sexual behavior abuse - people are beat partners more likely to have had parents who were abusive television and violence - average child views 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence before end of elementary
Anxiety disorders
anxiety and fear generalized anxiety disorders panic disorders panic attack anxiety-phobias anxiety related: OCD PTSD
Benzodiazepines
anxiety drugs that show the central nervous system leading to muscle relaxation and sedation
Memory Cues
any stimulus associated with a memory; usually enhance retrieval of a memory
Overgeneralization
applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)
Memory Reconstruction
approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it logical processing, reasoning, new info, perception, imagination, belief, cultural bias
Types of Conflict
approach-approach avoidance-avoidance approach-avoidance double approach-avodiance
Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements telegraphic speech
Babbling Stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
Convergent Thinking
beginning with a problem and coming up with a single correct solution
Divergent Thinking
beginning with a problem and coming up with many different solutions
Inner Ear
begins where the stapes meets the oval window as part of the cochlea
Reaction Formation
behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings you are angry with your boss and would like to quit but instead you're overly kind and generous and express a desire to keep working
Reinforcement
behavior
Mary Cover Jones
behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned
Biology limits what can be learned
behaviorists must take species specific behaviors into account when attempting to condition their behavior
Aqueous Humor
behind pupil and iris chamber filled with a watery fluid
Neuroplasticity
being able to recover from only "half a brain" reorganization of neural pathways as a result of experience - reduces as you age
John Watson
believed human behavior is a collection of conditioned responses - little Albert experiment
Normal distribution
bell curve pattern of scores on one side is the mirror image of the pattern on the other side of the mean
Organic problems, biochemical imbalances, genetic
biological
Audition
biological process by which our ears process sound waves in psychology, in order to something to be sound, it has to be perceived
Statistical Learning
certain sounds (making words) are more likely to occur together and babies are sensitive to those probabilities extract structure and determine patterns
Sublimation
channeling of unacceptable impulses and thoughts and emotions into more acceptable ones a person may have sexual impulses they would like not to act upon, so they may instead focus on rigorous experience
Phenotype
characteristics as a person develops, taken together
Neurotransmitters
chemical messages neuron to neuron
Insecure Attachment
child will not engage with a stranger if parent is not in person anxious and ambivalent - cling to caregiver, high distress on departure, refuse to be comforted on return/resentful anxious and avoidant - little interaction with caregiver, tend to ignore departure and return, will not explore
Recipriocal determinism
children influence parent's behavior parents influence children's behavior - by interacting with the world around us we have a role in changing the environment we live in
Bandura's conclusion
children not exposed to adult model far less likely to act aggressively suggested that we are far more likely to imitate those who are similar to us, we admire or perceive as successful
Language Acquisition Device
chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally
Hindsight bias
claiming to have known the results all along
Principles of learning
classical conditioning operant conditioning observational learning
Cultural Differences
cultural context can influence what is perceived as stressful and coping strategies used individualistic culture collectivist culture
Cerebrospinal fluid
cushions and protects the brain
Ultra radian rhythm
cycle in which changes occur in shorter time than a day, but longer than an hour -blood circulation -hormonal changes
Glaucoma
damages the optic nerve and destroys vision
Outliers
data points that fall beyond 3 standard deviations from the mean
Histogram
data that is continuous rather than discrete no space between bars
Explicit Memory
declarative memory - semantic - episodic effortful processing occurs with conscious recall concerned with the storage of factual information facts, figures, and events etc
Punishment
decreases a behavior
Parasympathetic nervous system
default condition of ANS clam, relax, recuperate smooth muscles
Psychological disorders
defined by consistency and severity lies on a continuum when it interferes in life and love determined by the DMS-5
Opiates
drugs that reduce neurotransmission and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety - reducing GABA - brain releases more dopamine, euphoric feeling - endorphins - anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure physically): dopamine stops
Psychological dependence
drugs that reduce stress because important parts of users life "self medication" to relieve pain sociocultural psychological biological
Stimulants
drugs that speed up the body's function increased energy, mental alertness, and forced wakefulness caffeine nicotine cocaine amphetamine methamphetamine
Therapist's traits for client centered
empathy - ability to understand what the client ays, feels positive regard - ability to communicate caring, respect, regard genuineness - ability to be real and non-defensive in interaction
Gestalt Psychologists
emphasized the brain's tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Acetylcholine (ACh)
enables muscle action, learning, and memory
Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning/context - who was president during Civil War
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images mnemonic devices - memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound - enhances memorability -- Sara Bellum Balances on her Balance Beam
Deep Processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Companionate Love
enduring, deep affectionate where lives are intertwined equity self-disclosure
Genome
entirety of that individual's hereditary information
When heritability is low
environment variability is high differences associated with environmental variation
When heritability is high
environment variability is low differences associated with genetic variation
Adrenal medulla gland
epinephrine : fight or flight
Sampling bias
error in sampling process that allows members of a population to be more or less likely than others to be included
Cognitive Biases
errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes
Clinical psychologists
evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
The Big Five
evaluating personality traits trait dimensions are important but eyesenicks theory doesn't tell the whole story this is what today's researchers uses most commonly referred to trait dimension analysis of personality
Empirical data
evidence that comes from observation, experience, and experimentation
Aid in survival; natural selection
evolutionary
Hypochondria
exaggerating the seriousness of minor physical complaints why don't trust doctors, no biological problem identified
Biopsychosocial Approach
examine biology, personality, social influence any combination
Inductive Reasoning
example of bottom-up processing an approach to logical thinking that beings with specific details or observations and forms broad perceptions or generalizations based on them
Deductive Reasoning
example of top-down processing an approach to logical thinking that begins with a general idea (hypothesis) , and then it develops specific evidence to support or refute it
Agonists
excite neuron firing (more likely to fire) compound that mimics the action of a neurotransmitters - cocaine and dopamine
Frontal lobe
executive functions decision making problem solving reasoning planning personality motivation will power prefrontal cortex: adolescence motor cortex: - voluntary movements, receiving information, working with other parts broca's area controls language broca's aphasia - difficulty articulating words
Longitudinal design
expensive can't control individuals at several points during life span depth over time
Double-blind study
experiment not the participants or the researcher know which group the participants belong to eliminates bias
Bipolar Cells
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
Resting Period Eyes
eyes can't take more stimulus persistent of vision - makes illusions possible, sneak by as your eye is not watching
Applied fields of psychology
face to face with clients, students, and patients psychiatrists clinical psychologists counseling psychologists human facts psychologists industrial-organizational psychologists school psychologists
Happiness
feel-good, do-good phenomenon the tendency of people to be helpful when they are in a good mood
Dendrites
fibers that receive information from the cell body
Psychophramacology
field of study that examines changes induced by drugs in mood, thinking and behavior
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
first female president of APA animal behavior
Recognition
first part is already done, so you only have to decide if information is correct MC tests
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
first president of APA first psychological lab
Educational psychologists
focus on how effective teaching and learning take place
Behavioral genetics
focuses on discovering how genes and experiences interact and lead to specific behaviors and mental abilities
Compliance
following a direct order
Random assingment
for groups equal chance of being placed in either group no systematic effect
Contigency theory
for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the organism with a reliable signal that certain event willl take place
Divisions of the Brain
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
Interviews
formal and informal dat a collection quick and cheap - subjective self report: overly positive view - demanded characteristics - social desirability
Driving - Hippocampus
formation of memories of road hazards for future trips song comes on that triggers a memory
Driving hippocampus
formation of memories of road hazards for future trips song comes on that triggers a memory
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
founder of humanistic approach acknowledged environments limit individuals from reaching potential
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
founder of psychoanalysis, a controversial theory about the workings of the unconscious mind thermodynamics: libido- sexual pleasure/self preservation - source of psychological energy
Framing Effect
framing questions in a way that plants power of suggestions "so what kind of car am I going to sell you today?"
Love/Belonging
friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Limbic System
front and above hind brain NEW located at border of brainstem associated with: fear aggression food sex memory formation
Structure of the Cortex - Cerebrum
frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe separated by fissures
Impulse control
frontal lobe inhibitor to make proper judgements about what to do and not to do
Mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
William James (1842-1910)
function of consciousness influenced by Charles Darwin stream of consciousness: functionalism - evolutionary adaptation to environment, made it possible to adapt and thrive
Pinna
funky-shaped outer ear design that allows it to catch sound waves and direct them into the ear canal
Calirvoyance
gaining info about objects or events with out the use of senses, EX: like knowing what a letter will say before reading it.
Surveys
gaining info about people's opinions, attitudes, perceptions influence decisions random selection: equal opportunity to be chosen to participate wording matters quick and cheap
Stereotypes
generalized beliefs about a group of people
Biological/Nerobiological/Physiological Approach
genetics, nervous system, hormones, brain structure biological approach to psychology how the brain operates brain function, genetic predisposition, biochemistry
Proximity
geographic nearness breeds liking familiarity breeds fondness - people are drawn to people who have similar features as their own - you are most familiar with your own face (proximity)
Adrenal cortex gland
glucocorticoids anti-inflammatory
Asch's Conformity
go along with one group even if you don't agree with what they are saying, 3 OR MORE PEOPLE, UNANIMOUS chameleon effect mood linkage
Clinical psychologists are
go to graduate school in clinical psychology and earn a doctorate (PhD, PsyD, EdD)
Counseling psychologists are
go to graduate school in psychology or education and earn a doctorate degree (PhD, PsyD, EdD)
Myopia or Nearsightedness
good near vision difficulty focusing on things in the distance snellen test
Anterior pituitary gland
growth hormone GH cell growth
Moral Development
growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically
Corti
hair cells receptor cells on top of basilar membrane
Representative sample
has characteristics that are similar to those in the populated generalize results
Mediators of Stress
having multiple ways of coping availability of social support individual beliefs and values cultural differences
Semantic
having to do with the meaning of words or language
Panic attack
heart rater, hyperventilating, sympathetic NS physiological general anxiety can trigger panic attacks through overstimulation short severe, worries mind block fear of triggers
Counseling psychologists
help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle strategies for coping
Driving - Prefrontal Cortex
helps to plan routes
Driving parietal lobe (r)
helps us determine if your car may fit into parking space
Driving - Parietal Lobe (r)
helps us determined if our car may fit into parking space
Driving and prefrontal cortex
helps us to plan routes
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
hierarchy of needs bottom to top physiological safety social esteem self actualism
Hypothalamus Function
holds pleasure and reward centers controls and regulates body temp. sexual arousal hunger thirst endocrine system HUNGRY HUNGRY HYPO
Hypothalamus
holds pleasure and reward centers controls and regulates: body temperature sexual arousal hunger thirst helps govern endocrine system a message is also sent to the hypothalamus which coordinates the nervous system and controls the autonomic nervous system HUNGRY HUNGRY HYPO
Dualism
holds the point of view that the mind and brain are distant entities mind (nonphysical) brain (physical)
Statistical significance
how likely the result is due to manipulating IV or due to chance
Developmental psychologists
how people change and develop over life span children and elderly
Methodology
how you will measure data follows directly from the hypothesis, essential to good research measuring variables called operational definitions
Abraham Maslow Motivation
human tendency towards growth and mastery
Failure to drive to one's potential
humanistic
Recording Sensory Memory
iconic memory echoic
Drive Reduction Theory
idea that physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need homeostasis need desire i'm hungry so i eat
Signal Detection Theory Response
if stimulus is present and the detection is accurate, then hit if the stimulus is present and the detection is inaccurate, then miss if the stimulus is not present, but there is a detection, then false alarm if the stimulus is not present and there is not detection, then correct rejection
Methamphetamine
illegal substance "super" stimulation used mainly as recreational drug methylated twice (faster activity, more portent, more dangerous) dehydration, suppresses immune system, impairs memory, disrupts sleep
Cocaine
illegal substance that blocks the reuptake of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine stays in synapse, acting as an agonists, increasing affects on next neurons
Nicotine
imitates acetylcholine by attaching to a type of acetylcholine receptor called a nicotine receptor
Sensory Memory
immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system holds sight, sound, smell, taste, touch no meaning only fraction of a second, fleeting
Sociocultural Approach
impact of culture, religion, ethnicity, income level overall environment cultural values and beliefs
Storing Long Term Memory
implicit explicit
PTSD and Adrenaline
implicit memory perceptual memory procedural memory bodily sensation glue for memory, physical memory of it, body remembers that fear
Context Dependent Memory
improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
Phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Classical conditioning key variables
in order for classical conditioning to work, the following variables must exist - strength - timing - frequency
Reciprocal inhibition
in psychology process of extinguishing an undesired response in its place
Humanistic Personality Theories
in the 1960s people became sick of Freud's negativity and trait psychology objective along came psychologists who wanted to focus on "healthy" people and how to help them strive to "be all that they can be" Maslow Rogers
Insomnia
inability to fall asleep or stay asleep, temporarily or chronic - stress, stimulations or medication, mental/physical pain
Color Blindness
inability to perceive color differences caused by lack of short, medium, or long wavelengths in the fovea genetic condition caused by a recessive trait on a chromosomes diagnosed using Ishihara test - dots, color, number more common in men than women
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective - tendency to be stuck! certain way, hard to do new things
Conscious awareness
included all sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of - waking consciousness -- normal, alert awareness, working memory
Dreams
includes all images, events, sound, and other sensations experienced during sleep
Subconscious
includes all information you have been exposed to but cannot recall
Nonconscious
includes all various biological processes that are taking place internally and constantly without noticing
Preconscious
includes stored information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently aware or thinking of, but can easily call to mind
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Elizabeth Lotus how we ask a question changes responses
Variance
indicates how widely spread scores are from once another and the mean standard deviation
Central tendency
indicates point in a distribution of scores around which all scores cluster mean median mode range
Passive Aggression
indirectly expressing aggression towards others rather than openly discussing frustration
Subjective Social Norms
individual's perception of whether other's approve & motivation to conform to those expectations ex: college: parents & friends expectations for you to go to college
Type B Personality
individuals are laid-back, never rush and tend to take things easy
Sight of Oncoming Car - Perception of Stimulus
james-lange theory - pounding heart (arousal) - fear (emotion) cannon-bard theory - pounding heart (arousal) and fear (emotion) schachter-singer two-factor theory - pounding heart (arousal) and cognitive label ("i'm afraid) - fear (emotion)
Personality psychologists
investigating our persistent traits
Dorthea Dix (1802-1887)
investigation of living conditions of poor people with mental illness advocacy led to first mental asylums
Cognitive behavior therapy
involves the application of principles of learning therapist focuses on the client's problem, identifies specific thoughts and behaviors that need to be changed, and provides techniques based on learning principles to make desired changes
Biomedical therapy use
involves the use of various psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders by changing biological factors, such as the levels of the neurotransmitters
Astigmatism
irregularly shaped cornea blurriness at any distance
Vivid Cases
judging the frequency fo events by instances that readily come to mind availability heuristic
Movement
kinesthetic sense
Midbrain
located between forebrain and hindbrain, simple movements and sensory information
Otolith Organs
located in the inner ear and are sensitive to movement and acceleration
Medulla oblongata
located just above spinal chord responsible for maintaining and regulating heart rate breathing digestion swallowing MEDUSA - SCARED
Pons
located just above the medulla mass of nerve fibers that serves as relay station connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain produces chemical for sleep connects midbrain, medulla, cerebellum coordinates messages mini message center between parts PONS PUTS YOU TO SLEEP
Medulla Oblongata
located just above the spinal chord involved in the control of : blood pressure heart rate breathing when you are scared - MEDUA
Thalamus
located on top of the brainstem receives messages from sense (except smell) and directs messages to brain regions dealing with seeing, hearing, etc smell then goes directly to olfactory bulb MY PAL THAL RUNS RELAYS
Delta waves
long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep
Infradian rhythms
longer than a day - menstrual cycle
Endocrine system
slower sends signals by passing hormones through the bloodstream secreted from different parts of body and select parts of the brain - raising or lowering glucose - hungry or full - regulating metabolism and sleep - sex drives - effects last longer
Caffine
most used drug in the word affects adenosine, central nervous system neuromodulator that has receptors to slow down and induce sleepiness
Rorschach Inkblot Test
most widely used projective test set of 10 inkblots seeks to identify inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of inkblots
Classical conditioning : strength
stimuli (UCS, NS) must be noticeable enough to provide a noticeable response
Conditioned/secondary reinforcers
stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcer similar to bell!!! - light that goes on before food is dispensed, rat works to make the light go on
Unconditioned stimulus (US/UCS)
stimulus that triggers a response naturally / automatically food
Long Term Memory
storehouse of the memory system capacity is unlimited holds over a billion bits of information can hold information for greater amounts of time (hours, days, years) - recalling 7 dwards includes knowledge, skills, experience, etc cerebral cortex and hippocampus
Reinforcer
strengthen event that strengthens behavior
Phi Phenomenon
stroboscopic movement the movement of a series of pictures at a rate that suggests motions
Paranoid schizophrenia
strong feelings of persecution someone watching them, someone out to get them
Social Facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others ex: adolescents wind fishing reel faster in the presence of others ex: driving speed when light turns green ex: home team advantage ex: crowded audience during a performance
Edward Titchener (1867-1927)
structuralism first school
Hindbrain Parts
structures on top of the spinal chord controls basic biological structures cerebellum, pons, medulla old brain
Macula
structures to ensure focused vision
Ego
mostly lies in the conscious mind mediates between the demands of the id and reality satisfies the id's desires that will realistically bring pleasure operates from reality principle plays into real world experience consciousness
Maslow's Hierarchy of Motivation
motivation is determined by needs met on hierarchy physiological safety love/belonging esteem self-actualization all are NEEDS not DESIRES
Efferent neurons
motor brain to body
Broca's area
moves the muscles to create speech
Divided Attention
multitask focusing on two or more tasks or stimuli our brains can really only focus well on one thing at a time
evolutionary sentences
my ancestors
Behavioral sentences
my family taught me I learned
Humanistic sentences
my full potential is
Sociocultural sentences
my race of people
Problems in Vision
myopia or nearsightedness presbyopia or farsightedness astigmatism cataracts conjunctivitis (pink eye) glaucoma color blindness
Endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure euphoria
Need
necessity, especially physiological
Ambiguous Figures
need an attentional shift to go back and forth two images
Motive
need or desire that energizes a behavior
Adolescence Identity
need to develop a sense of self and personal identity success leads to ability to stay true to oneself failure leads to role confusion and weak sense of self
Shadow
negative or dark aspects of our personality can be necessary in some situations good witch/bad witch sorta kinda maybe
Driving somatosensory cortex
negotiates the pressure of right food on the gas pedal or brake
Driving - Somatosensory Cortex
negotiates the pressure of right foot on the gas pedal or brake
Somatosensory Cortex
negotiates the pressure of right foot on the gas pedal or brake
Carl Jung
neo-freudian collective unconscious persona archetypes shadow ego
Feature Detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Jame- Lange Theory
our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Absolute Threshold
our lowest levels of awareness of faint stimuli with no competing stimuli present stimulus has to be detected 50% of the time
Consciousness
our state of awareness of our existences, sensations, thoughts, and envoirnments
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon
our tendency to form judgements relative to a "neutral" level defined by prior experience re-calibration of happiness as you adapt to new levels different experiences = different levels of happiness
Cardiac rhythm distruption
out of sync sleep/wake system jet lag
Anatomy of the Ear
outer ear, middle ear, inner ear pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, malleus, incus, stapes, oval window, cochlea, auditory nerve, round window
Cornea
outer layer of eye, transparent convex structure that covers the frontal part of the eye bends light toward the center of the eyeball outer part
Cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain sluci gyri wrinkles lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Sex glands
ovary : females - estrogen : female sex characteristics testes : male - testosterone : male sex characteristics
Overconfidence
overestimating the correctness of one's beliefs when problem solving
Referred pain
pain felt in a part of the body other than its actual source felt on the surface of the body away from the origin point
Visceral Pain
pain that originates from organs or smooth muscles
Taste Sense
papillae gustation
Parathyroid gland
parathyroid hormones raises blood calcium
Interposition or Occlusion
partial blocking of one object by another object leaving the viewer with the perspective that the blocking object is closer
Single blind study
participants don't know wether they belong to the control group or experimental group
Axons
pass messages to other neurons (the pathway)
Classical conditioning review
passive subjects learning associations between events that aren't controlled/responses automatic associations made between unconnected stimuli (bell/salivation) responses are involuntary/automatic
Trace Decay Theory
physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occurs when memories are stored
Conversion disorders
physical symptoms after a traumatic experience, but no biological problem can be identified neurological extreme pain
Displaying data
pie charts bar graph histogram frequency polygon
Theories of Sound and Hearing
place theory frequency theory
Light and Shadow
plays a role in depth perception because nearby objects reflex more light to our eyes than distance objects dimmer object, farther away shadows help our brain position an object in space create 3D effect
Lucifer Effect
point in which ordinary people cross the boundary between good and evil and engage in evil actions
Incentive Theory
positive/negative environment stimulus that motivates behavior intrinsic extrinsic - overjustification effect
PTSD
post-traumatic stress disorder anxiety disorders caused by a traumatic experience social withdrawal insomnia distortion of reality (flashbacks) triggers wear, abuse, mass shooting, constant and triggers, even and lifelong
Kohlberg's Stage of Moral Development
pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional
Materialism
propose that either matter or energy or matter and energy are all that can exist
Cataracts
proteins in the lens can break down and create increasing cloudiness in the eye
Psychology of Attraction
proximity physical attractiveness similarity
Gestalt Principles
proximity similarity enclosure symmetry closure continuity connection figure and ground
Types of therapists
psychiatrists clinical psychologists counseling psychologists
Types of insight therapy
psychoanalysis client centered cognitive humanistic
Dream interpretation
psychoanalytic technique based on the assumption that dreams contain underlying, hidden meanings and symbols that provide clues to unconscious thoughts and desires
Sigmund Freud
psychoanalytic theory of personality ice berg- mind consists of three parts ego superego id
Internal, unconscious drives
psychodynamic
Gonads
secrete hormones that regulate development of sex characteristics and sex type behaviors - androgen, estrogen, progesterone
Thyroid gland
secrets thyroxin: T3/T4 affects body metabolism - increases oxygen damage (poor sleep, fatigue, depression, cold, joint pain) speed up, slow down calcitonin - lowers blood calcium
Safety
security of body: employment, resources, morality, the family, health, property
Emotion-focused coping
seeking out the support of others trying to find a positive side to the stressor taking our minds off the problem
Paul Broca
studied patients who lost ability to speak broca's area
Carl Wernicke
studied patients who lost ability to understand language
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
studied the developing mental lives of children
Cognitive Approach
studies how we think and perceive influence our behavior - memory, problem solving, decision making, perception Jean Piaget thinking, reasoning, logic
Developmental Psychology
study changes in people over their lifespan cognitive physical social
Evolutionary psychology
study of evolution of the mind and behavior based on principles of natural selection
Psychophysics
study of the relationship between stimuli and our response to them
Neuroanatomy
study of the structures of the nervous system brain and nerves
Stratified sampling
subgroups in a population equal chance of becoming members of the sample
Multimodal Perception
supports the idea that our sense did not evolve separately, but rather in tandem to help create a complex web of perception of our world
Meninges
surrounds the brain dura mater (outmost layer) arachnoid mater (middle) pia mater (soft)
Withdrawal
symptoms associated with discontinuing s drug - reverse neuroadaptation cravings, tremors, anxiety, depression, seizures, death
Negative reinforcement
take away unpleasant removal of something unpleasant to increase behavior - seatbelt ding, parent nagging, taking aspirin to relive headache
Positive Transfer
takes place when mastery of one task aids learning or performing another math helps science
Computerized axial tomography (CAT)
taking 2D x-ray photographs from different angles use to create 3D representation of organ or body part
Papillae
taste receptors on the tongue thalamus and then to cortex
Descriptive statistics
technique for organizing and describing data sets
Context and Culture Effects
tendency or bias to perceive some aspects of stimuli and ignore others can be influenced by our expectations, emotions, motivations, culture, moods and circumstances can create top=down processing errors culture directs our attention shapes some stereotypes
Mental Set
tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often using a way that has been successful in the past - think about how perceptual set works
Fundamental Attribution Error
tendency to assume influence of personality (disposition) over situation (external) overestimate influence of disposition, underestimate influence of situation - more prominent in Western countries (more individualistic) - less prominent in Asian culture
Anchoring Effect
tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point
Defensive
tendency to blame victims for their own misfortune ex: homeless are lazy and don't want to work
Homeostasis
tendency to maintain a balance or constant internal state
Grouping
tendency to organize stimuli into groups in order to process the complexity of the world proximity similarity continuity closure connectedness
Self Reference Effect Encoding
tendency to recall information better when we can relate to it ourselves
Eidetic Memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
Depth Perception
the ability to see the world in 3 dimensions and know how far away an object is
Precongition
the ability to tell the future
Tunnel Vision
the absence of peripheral vision
Auditory Canal
the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum ear canal
Memory Span
the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials
Neurons
the basic units on which the entire brain and nervous system are built on
Growth Mindset
the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
Fixed Mindset
the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
Ganglion Cells
the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain
One-Word Stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Epigenetic
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis fraudulent field claims that people have perceptual powers or abilities outside the realm of existing scientific laws
Self-Serving Bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
Overconfidence phenomenon
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs
Grouping: Closure
the tendency to look at the whole by filling in gaps in a perceptual field
Grouping: Continuity
the tendency to perceive that movement of an object continues once it appears to move in a particular direction
Grouping : Similarity
the tendency to place items that look similar into a group
Grouping: Proximity
the tendency to place objects that are physically close to each other in a group
Functional Fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their visual functions constrains our perception of objects and their function
Scapegoat Theory
theory where prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame temporary frustration intensifies prejudice individuals will restore self-esteem by lashing out ex: fear and anger projected towards Arab Americans following 9/11
Insight therapy
therapist and client talk about the client's symptoms and problems with the goal of reaching or identifying the cause of the problem
Self-Actualization Characteristics
they are self-aware and self-accepting open and spontaneous loving and caring not paralyzed by other's opinions they are secure in who they are
Metacognition
thinking about thinking
Cognitive psychologists
thinking and perception affect behavior, memory, problem solving
Perceptual Set
top-down processing skill refers to our disposition to perceive one aspect of a thing and not the other influences everything we perceive
Skin
touch pain hot cold somesthetic sense
Hans and Sybil Eysenck - Trait Perspective
traits/characteristics of personality can be reduced to two dimension of basic personality factors extraversion and introversion emotional stability - inability believed that these factors are genetically influenced
Auditory Nerve
transduction occurs when these hair cells convert vibrations into nerve impules and send them to the auditory nerve signals to thalamus, to temporal lobes, to auditory cortex
Problems during psychoanalysis
transference resistance short-term dynamic psychotherapy
Vision Transduction
transform electromagnetic light waves received by our sense of vision into electrochemical energy our brain can understand
Lens
transparent structure behind pupil that is curved/flexible changes its curvature to help focus images behind pupil
Hemispherectomy
treated behavioral disorders removes one of cerebral hemispheres of brain control seizures
Theories of Color Vision
trichromatic theory opponent process theory
Personality Assessment Strategies - Objective MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
true/false self report questionnaire that consists of 338 statements describing a wide range of normal and abnormal behaviors purpose to measure the personality style and emotional adjustment in individuals with mental illness
Prosopagnosia
the inability to recognize faces due to damage of several brain areas
Anterograde Amnesia
the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store
Corpus Callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Edward Thorndike
the law of effect - placed cats in wooden puzzle box where they had to get out by pressing a lever behavior followed by reward is more likely to recur behavior followed by unfavorable consequences, less likely recur
Elaborative Rehersal
the linking of new information to material that is already known STM to LTM
Brain
the mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system mengines cerebrospinal fluid
Negative Transfer
the mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another grammar rule in second language
Gate-Control Theory of Pain
the more neurons that fire in response to a pain stimulus, the more intense pain different nerve fibers pass through the same neural "gate" in the spinal chord
Parallel Processing or Dual Processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
the proposal that language shapes the nature of thought
Variable-Interval schedule
the rate of responses is relatively slow, but steady reinforcing response at unpredictable times amount of time changing no set schedule no set amount of reinforcement reinforcement is not always the same might come, might not - sometimes your mom calls, sometimes she doesn't - pop quizzes
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of weakened CR after a pause - veterans PTSD from a loud noise - extinction suppresses CR, but does not always eliminate
Denial
the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event thought or feeling did not exist I'm not an addict, I have a job
Alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
Biological psychologists
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes brain or nervous system
Linguistics
the scientific study of the structure, sounds, and meaning of language
Selective Inattention
the screening out of unwanted stimuli because it causes anxiety, feels threatening, or because it is thought to be of no importance
Proprioception
the sense of our body in space receptors have short term (transient) responses we sense movement or kinesthesis
Kinesthesis
the sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual body parts
Erikson and Psychosocial Development
trust vs mistrust autonomy vs shame and doubt initiative vs guilt industry vs inferiority identity vs role confusion intimacy vs isolation generativity vs stagnation integrity vs despair
Shallow Learning
trying to learn ideas on a superficial level only memorizing forget ideas quickly
Scatterplot
type of graph designed to display correlational data so the relationship is visible line of regression
Change Blindness
type of inattentional blindness the inability to see changes in our environment when our attention is directed else where
Abraham Maslows Self-Actualizing Person
ultimately seek self-actualization (the process of fulfilling our potential) Maslow developed his ideas by studying what he termed "healthy people" or "self-actualized" people
Office - classical conditioning
unconditioned response UR - bad taste in mouth unconditioned stimulus US - altoid neutral stimulus NS - computer ding conditioned response CR - bade taste in moth conditioned stimulus CS - sound of computer ding
Neutral stimulus (NS)
unconnected stimulus bell
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Subliminal Perception
unconsciously sensing stimuli below the threshold subjective - subjects don't know that they know that a stimulus was presented objective - subject do not know that a stimulus was presented
Unconscious conflicts
underlying cause chief reason for the development of psychological problems (paranoia) and physical symptoms (loss of feeling in a hand)
Case studies
understand brain functions
Informed consent
understand the components and potential risks not obligated to complete
Abstract learning
understanding complex cognitive concepts same, different, love, hate, honestly, dishonestly rules about relationships
Prejudice
unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group subtle versus overt caused by stereotypes and prejudices
Unconditioned response (UR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response dog salivating
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others - volunteering
Aversion therapy
uses classical conditioning to create anxiety - opposite of systematic desensitization therapist deliberately pairs unpleasant stimulus with a maladaptive behavior - alcohol and Antabuse to induce vomiting
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
uses magnetic fields / pulses of radio waves to generated detailed images of parts made up by soft tissues brain, internal organs diagnoses: strokes, tumors, aneurysms, spinal chord injuries
Peripheral Route Persuasion
using a different appeal to persuasion, visual appeal etc ex: celebrities selling advertising products
Bionocular Cues
using both of our eyes in concert to judge depth retinal disparity convergence
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
using magnetic resonance imaging to visual blood flow and oxygen metabolism to infer brain activity
Discrete data
values that represents categories that cannot be further divided nomial sales: labels/categories of data dinal scale: produces data that can be rank or ordered
LSD
vary person to person hallucinations (visual, auditory, tactile)
Balance
vestibular sense
Sound Waves
vibrations of molecules that travel through the air waves are characterized by their amplitude, wavelength, purity slower than light
Odds of Helping Someone Depends on the Following
victims appears to need help victim is similar to us we have observed someone else helping we are not in a hurry small town, rural area feel guilty good mood
Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons, their thinking, and their social environment bandura and bobo doll bb
Mid brain
vision movement hearing muscle coordination above pons
McGurk Effect
vision and hearing illusion when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound leading to a third sound
Afterimage
visual sensation that remind after the stimulus is removed
Positron emission tomography (PET)
visualize slices of brain examine deep brain structures tracers active part of blood stream can be traced via positrons that show up
Frontal Lobe
voluntary muscle movement emotional control complex problem solving speaking planning judgement personality motivation willpower - prefrontal cortex - adolescence motor cortex (back of frontal lobe) - controls voluntary movement and is a map of corresponding body parts -- motor neurons : correspond to different parts of your body broca's area: left frontal lobe - controls language expression, directs muscle movement, involved in speech -- when damages : individuals struggle to speak but can comprehend speech -- broca's aphasia (impairment of language)
Circadian rhythm
waking up and falling asleep
Desire
wanted, not needed
Sigmund Freud Motivation
we are motivated by unconscious urges basic sexual and aggressive instincts operate unconsciously which are revealed in dreams and slips of the tongue
Self Serving Bias
we attribute our positive outcomes to internal factors and our negative outcomes to external factors ex: poor performance on test was teacher's fault vs. awesome performance... I'm brilliant!
Selective or Focused Attention
we encode what we are attending to or what is important to us selective hearing cocktail party affect
Collective Unconscious
we have shared, inherited ideas, memories and experiences from our species that inform thought and behavior, universal concepts example: ideas around paradise
Focused/Selective Attention
we home in on one particular stimulus in our environment such as a cat meowing or the sound of our own breathe filtering in relevant information filtering out irrelevant information cocktail party effect: -- attention drawn away if we hear our name across the room stroop effect -- read colors in black ink = easy -- incongruent colors = harder to read
How do we learn?
we learn by association our minds naturally connect events that occur in a sequence stomach growls --- hunger headache -- dehydrated
Association
we learn by association our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence John Locke (blank slate) and Davide Hume learning that two events occur together - 2 stimuli - a response and its consequences
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
what was originally unconnected stimulus (bell) becomes a trigger to conditioned response
Psychodynamic sentences
when I was a child
Peripheral Nervous System
when a threat is perceived, a message is sent to the peripheral nervous system to get prepared for movement
Operant conditioning repeated
when and how often reinforcement occurs can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of response
Leveling
when details are left out and altered when recalling events (minimized/simplified) - story condensed, simplified, emerges new impression without old info
Gestalt
when given a sum of sensation, we organize them into a gestalt the human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts the whole is greater then the sum of its parts
Mood Dependent Memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state
Group Polarization
when like-minded groups discuss views, the onions are strengthened ex: politics
Bystander Effect
when more people share the responsibility to help, any single observer is less likely to help Kitty Genovese
Inattentional Blindness
when our focus is directed at one stimulus, leaving us blind to the other stimuli change blindness - type
Spacing
when you cram then take a test, information tends to be gone tendency where practice conducted over time leads to better long term retention than mass practice (cramming) - restudying material enhances lifelong retention
Fovea
where cones are located central point of retina and parts of the macula
Blind Spot
where ganglion cells meet at the back of the eye hole in retina there are no photoreceptors there
Deindividualization
where individual abandons self restraint to power the group - individual becomes less conscious, self restrained, sense of anonymity, would do things they normally wouldn't mobs, riots, rock concert, football game
Axon terminal
where neurotransmitters are held waiting to be be released
Middle Ear
where sound waves vibrate the bones (auditory oracles) of the ear malleus (hammer) incus (anvil) stapes (stirrup) theses bones concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Linguistic Determinsm
whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Short Term Memory
working memory selects information from sensory memory, connects it with items in long term storage - dialing 7 digit number before forgetting capacity is fleeting information is fleeting unless without rehearsal about 20-30 seconds can hold 7 bits of information, +/- 2 hippocampys
Brain scanning
x-rays EEG MRI fMRI CAT scan PET scan
Example of operant conditioning
you do your homework every night to get good grades and avoid punishment voluntary stimulus follows behavior avoid punishment (behavior) good grades (stimulus) chose to do HW
Null hypothesis
IV no impact on DV when you reject, you say IV effect DV
Brain Stem
most inner region of the brain breathing blood pressure hear beat swallowing
Mood Disorders
seasonal affective disorder major depression bipolar disorder
Driving amygdala
"road rage" when someone cuts you off
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Taste
gustation or gustatory sense
Driving broca's area
initiates conversations with passengers
Intimacy vs. Isolation
young adulthood 20 - 40 question: can I love? relationship: partners, friendships action: romantic relationships struggle to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love, or feel socially isolated become capable of forming intimate relationships and willingly make sacrifices that such relationships require if inability for form intimate relationships = isolation
Holistic System
your senses almost always experience stimuli together sensory interacts reflect the way your brain assembles stimuli from different sensory systems to make sense of experience
Hindbrain
"old brain" structures on the top of our spinal cord life support system, controls basic biological structures cerebellum, pons, medulla, reticular formation brain stem anchored by the brain stem (most ancient and centra core of the brain)
Driving - Amygadla
"road rage" - when someone cuts you off
Driving - Amygdala
"road rage" - when someone cuts you off
Stress
"stress, in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself" - Hann Selye
Outgroup bias
"them" those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
Opponent-Process Theory
"three systems" or opponent channels - red or green, blue or yellow, black or white light waves with excite one color in a pair which will then inhibit the excitation of the opposing color
Ingroup bias
"us" people we share a common identity with tendency to favor our own group
Bait and Switch
"baiting" an individual by making an unrealistically attractive offer and then replacing it with a less attractive offer baited with a low offer, but product not available, but more expensive is
Central nervous system (CNS)
"brains of the operation" coordinates actions/interactions of other system brain and dominal part spinal chord - brain communicates with rest of body
Personality and Perspectives
"characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting" four main perspective on personality psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations humanistics - inner capacity for growth trait theory - what traits we possess socia cognitive - persons and situations
William Wundt (1832-1920)
"father of psychology" first person to study humans in a lab introspection: people would report their conscious experiences in relation to objects
Attitudes Affect Actions
2 conditions when attitudes guide action attitudes toward the behavior subjective social norms
Psychoactive drugs
- chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods - change consciousness by changing brain chemistry through specific affects on neurotransmitters - affect nerve synapses and neurotransmitters bind with receptors (agonists) on cell surfaces to support an action block receptor sites (antagonists) to suppress an action block reuptake of neurotransmitters
Ethics in psychology
- informed consent - the right to be protected from harm and discomfort - the right to confidentiality - the right to debriefing
Negative correlation
-1.0 to 0 variables have an inverse relationship
Illusory correlation
0 expected/suspected relationship that doesn't empirically exists
Positive correlation
0 to 1.0 independent and dependent variables move together n the same direction
Oral Psychosexual Stage
0-18 months focus - feeding = mouth, nursing, sucking, biting when child is weaned too early or too late - result in behavior: depending too much on others, rejecting others, sarcasm, over eating
Sleep pattern
1,2,3,2, REM repeat 90 minute segments 3-5 times
Anal Psychosexual Stage
1.5-2.5 years focus - potty training, coping with issues of control when too lenient or to harsh when potty training - results in behavior: stingy, controlling, sticking closely to the rules, rigid, irresponsible, rebellious - "anal retentive"
Romantic Love
2 types passionate love companionate love
Psychotherapy
3 basic characteristics 1. verbal interaction between therapist and client 2. development of a supportive relationship in which a client can bring up and discuss traumatic or bothersome experience that may have led to current problems 3. analysis of the client's experiences and/or suggested ways for the client to deal with or overcome their problems
Phallic Psychosexual Stage
3-6 year focus - genitals, coping with incestous feelings towards parents opedius (boys) /electra (females) complex - child experiences romantic interests in opposite sex parent and hostility and jealously towards same sex parent - boys fall in-love with their mothers, must lear to to identify with father - identification = children include parents views into supergo and learn to identify with same sex parent boys - oedipus complex, castration anxiety girls - electra complex, penis envy result in behavior: relationship problems
Secure Attachement
60% child will explore freely while caregiver is present and will engage with strangers - will be visibly upset when parent departs and happy and initiates contact upon return
Muller-Lyer Illusion
A famous visual illusion involving the misperception of the identical length of two lines, one with arrows pointed inward, one with arrows pointed outward.
Rational emotive therapy
Albert Ellis cognitive therapy feelings are produced by irrational beliefs Activating event (identifying event) Belief systems (identify negative self-talk) Consequence (self-defeating behavior)
Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow motivation, persons future, we have free will, we are responsible for our decisions, potential to do our best! personal growth
Big Five Personality Traits
Costa and McCrae spectrum -- high to low Openness to experiences - originality, creativity, curiosity, imagination, complexity Conscientiousness - careful, reliable, organization, self-discipline, perseverance Agreeableness - good-natured, courteous, forgiving, sympathetic Neurotiscm/Negative Emotionality - worrying, nervous, high-strung, insecurity, self-pitying OCEAN
Dissociative disorders
DID fuge disorders involving memory loss disconnection from personal identity
Example of classical conditioning
a child is attacked by a dog, the child now fears all dogs involuntary, stimulus precedes behavior dog attack (stimulus) fear (behavior) fear involuntary, generalized
Psychoanalysis
Freud focuses on the idea that each of us has an unconscious part that contains ideas, memories, desires, or thoughts that have been hidden or repressed because they're psychologically dangerous to threatening to our self-concept childhood conditions during psychosexual stages
Attribution Theory
Fritz Heider how we explain others behavior through either the situation or person's disposition - internal dispositions - external situations
Unconscious
Frued invisible force deep down within our minds unconscious conflicts between competing parts of our personalities id- life and death instincts supergo- societal/parental standards ego- self image
Ernst Weber (1795-1878)
German physician whose study of sensation using strict experimental techniques brought scientific credibility to psychology
Identity Achievement
HIGH commitment to new career and identity and HIGH exploration of possible new career options accepting of a new career and having positive action to explore the job market HIGH commitment HIGH exploration
Identity Foreclosure
HIGH commitment towards the prospect of a new career identity but LOW exploration activity have accepted the prospect of changing careers but unmotivated to start the process of job-seeking HIGH commitment LOW exploration
Place Theory
Herman von Helmholtzes higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea along the basilar membrane, each location responding differently to different pitch
Cognitive sentences
I think
Biological sentences
I was born with
Bandura's Experiment
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions.
Behavioral Approach
John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike an approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants explained by conditioning and modeling
Internal vs. External Locus of Control
Julian Rotter how you see the world external locus of control - those that have the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine ones' fate - learned helplessness internal locus of control - those that have the perception that one controls one's own fate - higher academic achievement, better health, less depressed
Identity Moratorium
LOW commitment to the prospect of a new career identity but HIGH level of engagement in exploring new opportunities so are more knowledgeable about possible options LOW commitment HIGH exploration
Identity Diffusion
LOW commitment towards considering a new career and LOW motivation to explore new options overwhelmed or unaware of number of possibilities so inertia sets in LOW commitment LOW exploration
Critical Period
Lorenz optimal period shortly after birth where events take place to facilitate development
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
NREM, stage 3, deep sleep
Stage 1 of sleep
NREM1 transition between awake and sleep lasts 1-5 minutes, occupies 2-5% of sleep eyes roll slightly theta brain waves brief periods of alpha waves falling alseep
Stage 2 of sleep
NREM2 considered the "baseline" of sleep parts of official cycle of sleep 40-60% of sleep time
Stages 3 and 4 of sleep
NREM3 "delta" sleep or deep sleep lasts 15-30 minutes brain activity slows down dramatically from "theta" rhythm, "delta" delta sleep is the "deepest" stage fo sleep that is not REM and most restorative - restores body delta sleep can occupy 40% of sleep time and this is what makes children unawake able or "dead asleep" during most of night decreases as night continues if you don't get enough sleep, you don't get deep sleep and you don't restore
Classical conditoning
Pavlov studied salvation in dogs developed a learning principle type of learning that occurs where an organism forms an association between two unconnected stimuli food (UCS) and bell (NS) organisms learns association between evens it doesn't control
Standford Prison Experiment
Philip Zimbardo theorized that situation/environment often determines how you behave more than who you are lucifer effect
Egocentrism
Piaget imaginary audience personal fable
Representative Heuristic
a cognitive bias in which an individual categorizes a situation based on previous experience or beliefs, which are similar to the present scenario. This can aid quick decision-making but can also lead to limiting information or stereotyping specific
Personality Assessment Strategies - Projective
Rorschach Inkblot Test TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
Seasonal affective disorder
SAD people get depressed in the winter when there is less daylight
Psychological Approach
Sigmund Frued unconscious: memories, feelings, drives (beyond conscious awareness) latent (hidden meaning of dreams) 3 conflicting parts of personality -id: ants/desires, sex, aggression -supergo: conscience "right thing" -ego: get what they want (society) unconscious + conscious, unresolved conflict
Schema
a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information -persons: appearance, personality, preferences, behavior -social: be respectful, pay for food -self: smart, hate broccoli -event: handshake, portfolio
Premack principle
The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity no dessert until you finish dinner people are more likely to do an activity if they know a desirable activity will follow
Overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses inner surface (basilar membrane) resonates to different sounds in different locations
Insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fufillment
Why we sleep
To Conserve Energy To Restore/Regulate Brain Function To Strengthen Learning & Memory Skills
Retinal Disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
Theories of Motivation
drive reduction theory optimum arousal maslows hierarchy of motivation incentive theory
Classical conditioning : timing
UCS and NS must be paired close together so than an association is made between the two
Classical conditioning : frequency
UCS and NS must be paired together
Types of Encoding
Visual Acoustic Sematic self refernece
Human factors psychologists
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
Microsleep
a brief shift in brain-wave patterns to those of sleep zoning out
Detection Thresholds Light
a candle flam at 30 miles on a dark night
Relative Height
a cause that makes object higher in your field of vision appear farther away
Refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired homeostasis sodium ions leave potassium inside - inside of the neuron contains more potassium and chloride ions than the outside - outside of neuron contains more sodium ions than the inside
Psychopath
a person suffering from chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior like when people are in pain
Sociopath
a person with a personality disorder manifesting itself in extreme antisocial attitudes and behavior and a lack of conscience no sense of reality moral compass off the mark sense of right and wrong different self-motivated
Subjective Well-Being
a person's sense of satisfaction with their lives your interpretation of your satisfaction of your own life
Scientific method
a process of systematic observation, measurement, and experiment for formulate/test hypothesis
Motivation
a psychological process that directs and maintains behavior towards a goal instinct motivate
Delayed reinforcers
a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior a paycheck that comes at the end of a week
Immediate reinforcers
a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior a rat gets a food pellet for a bar press dog training/ animal training
Pre-Operational Stage
about 2 to 6 years representing things with words and images, but lacking logical reasoning - language development lack of conservation - quantity remains the same despite changes in size egocentrism - world only exists of themselves - difficulty seeing others point of view magical thinking - pretend play, imaginary friends, animism (objects has feelings)
Concrete Operational Stage
about 7 to 11 years thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations - there is a real-world with real objects understand conservation mathematical transformations - 8+4=12
Conditioning process
acquisition extinction, spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination
Supergo
acts as your conscience/moral guardian recognizes societies rules part of personality that represents ideals, morals, standards for judgements operates from moral principle jimminey cricket
Positive punishment
addition of something unpleasant to decrease a behavior - spanking, parking ticket
Positive reinforcement
adds addition of something pleasant to increase behavior - food, stickers in grade school
Conformity
adjusting behavior to bring it in line with a group standard
Identity vs. Role Confusion
adolescence question: who am I, what can I be? relationship: peers, role models action: social relationships work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or become confused about who they are identity confusion task is to discover who we are as and separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society find it easy to substitute ideals for experience
Types of neurotransmitters
adrenaline noradrenaline dopamine serotonin GBA acetylcholine glutamate endorphins
Serotonin
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Amplitude
affects the psychological quality of loudness (sound pressure or intensity) how much pressure if being forced through the air decibles 0-150 each 10 descible increase, 10x
Tolerance
after long term use, the brain produces less of that specific neurotransmitters
Pheromones
airborne chemical signals that animals can perceive attraction
Autonomic Nervous System and The Sympathetic Nervous System
as part of the autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system increase activation of bodily systems that prepare the body to react either defensively or offensively flight or fight
Frequency Theory
as pitch rises, the entire basilar membrane vibrates at that frequency pitch perception depends on both place and frequency coding
Pragmatics
aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social "niceties" of language
School psychologists
assess and counsel students, consult with educators and parents, and perform behavioral intervention when necessary
Driving - Pons
assisted in coordination of driving motion and alertness
Driving pons
assisted in coordination of driving motion and alertness
Pons
assists in coordination of driving motion and alertness
Problem-focused solving
attempt to control a situation either by changing our behavior or changing the situation
External Situations
attributing behavior of person to situation ex: person is driving poorly because they just found out wife was cheating
Internal Dispositions
attributing behavior to person's personality ex: someone cuts you off, you say person is crazy
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
Parenting Styles
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved
Standard deviation
average distance from the means for a set of scores
Mean
average number in data set scores divided by number of scores extreme values change it
Language Development Stages
babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage
Visible Spectrum
band of wavelengths we can see
Repression
banishing anxiety arousing thoughts, feeling, and memories from consciousness underlying defense mechanism for all others traumatic event from childhood is forgotten or repressed in the unconscious pushing of painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness or consciousness
Convergence
based on how far inward the eyes need to move when focusing on an object the more convergence the eyes use, the closer the object is to the middle of face
Biomedical therapy
based on premise that symptoms of psychological disorders involve biological factors - chemical imbalances - psychopharmacology -- the study of how drugs affect mental processes and behavior antianxiety antipsychotics mood stabilizers antidepressants brain stimulation psychosurgery
DNA
basic building blocks of life specific characteristics of an individual/species pass from one generation to the next nucleus of cells contain chromosomes, made up of tightly wound coils of DNA
Evolutionary Approach
basis of Charles Darwin natural selection, survival of the fittest instead of physical traits, look for aspects of human thought adaptive reaction
Carl Jung Motivation
because of opposing forces in our psyche, we are fueled by the process of growth, development, and healing mental illness arise when these processes are thwarted part of motivation comes from the unconsciousness which is inherited from our ancestral experience
How We Organize Memory
memory is organized by sound, letter, and meaning
Sensorimotor Stage
birth to nearly 2 years experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) learning to associate objects to their effects object permanence - the awareness that things exist when not perceived stranger anxiety
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
body is not motionless or paralyzed during REM sleep, and you can physically act out a dream
John Locke (1632-1704)
born with "blank state" behaviorism empiricism : examining data nature (genetics) vs. nuture (environment)
Third variable effect
both variables affect one another
Cerebellum
bottom rear of the brain means "little brain" enables nonverbal learning and memory alter our emotions discriminate sounds judging time coordinates fine muscle movements coordination balance SARA BELLUM BALANCES ON HER BALANCE BEAM
Sensation Review
bottom-up processing thresholds - absolute - difference - signal detection theory - weber's law priming sensory adaptation sensor habituation visual transduction - rods and cones - color theory auditory trasnduction
Theta waves
brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep
Physiological
breathing, food, water, sex (reproduction), homeostasis, excretion
Corpus callosum
bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemisphere
GBA
calming
Accommodation
can change adapting understandings to apply new information seeing a horse and now knowing it is not a cow
Chronic Stress
can lead to negative mood states such as depression and anxiety then can affect how a person appraises new events the person often appraises the new events as more negative and thus a vicious cycle beings 1. stress is a risk factor for the development of a disease (heart disease) 2. stress may aggravate an existing disease or interfere with recover (migraines, headaches, asthma, hypertension, wound repair) 3. stress may reduce compliance with treatment for disease (taking medications, following)
Panic disorders
cannot relax and have frequent panic attacks (severe) hypersensitivity to body
Experimental research method
cause and effect relationship manipulate one variable, observe the effect of the manipulation IV and DV variables
Hallucinations/Psychedelics
cause hallucinations and distort perceptions of reality LSD marijuana
Nerve Deafness
caused by damage to the hair cells or the auditory nerve cochlear implant
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
caused by damage to the inner ear (cochlea and hair cells) the auditory nerve, or auditory processing areas of the brain once dead, they can no longer function or be replaced
Neuron structure
cell body dendrites axon myelin sheath neurotransmitters axon terminal
Cell body
cell's life support center
Nervous System
central nervous system peripheral nervous system
Pavlov
classical conditioning before conditioning food, unconditioned stimulus = salvation, unconditioned response bell, neutral stimulus = no salvation, no conditioned response during conditioning bell + food = salvation, unconditioned response after conditioning bell, conditioned stimulus = salvation, conditioned response
Flashbulb Memories
clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event JKF assassination / 911 usually traumatic, adrenaline
Transference
client expresses strong emotions towards the therapist as a substitute for someone important in the client's life, such as mother or father
Resistance
client reluctant to wrk through or deal with feelings or to recognize unconscious conflicts and repressed thoughts
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Irrational, dysfunctional thinking
cognitive
Justification of Effort
cognitive dissonance is at work whenever we need to justify our struggles
Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
Operant conditioning review
cognitive process operating from the environment depending on reinforcements and punishments organisms associates their own actions with consequences through reinforcement/punishment (swearing/getting time out) voluntary responses
Theory
coherent explanation or interpretation of facts and observations that have been identified in the past
Iris
colored part of the eye muscle that adjusts by opening and closing (dilating and constricting) in response to the brightness in the environment to let more or less light
Creative Thinking
combination of flexibility and reorganization of understand to produce innovative ideas and new or novel solutions
The information processing theory
combines Frued and activation synthesis theories dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of what we encounter during the day
Texture Gradient
combines several monocular cues closer the object is, the clearer the gradient or degree of detail further away, smoother and less detailed texture
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
combines the cognitive therapy technique of changing negative, unhealthy, or distorted thought patterns with behavior therapy conditioning - behavior modification by which a person comes to associate a desired behavior counterconditioning - undoing a learned behavior
Cross-sectional design
compare several groups based on variables - age, socioeconomic class, gender
Basic Fields of psychology
completing research, labs, increasing knowledge about human thinking and human and animal behavior biological psychologists cognitive psychologist developmental psychologists educational psychologists educational psychologists psychometric psychologists personality psychologists social physiologists
Instinct
complex inherited behavior characteristic of a species that is unlearned
Obedience
compliance with social pressure, usually to someone with authority
Foot in the Door Phenomenon
complying with a small request makes you more likely to comply with larger requests later ex: agree to give notes for day you missed, later asks to have notes for entire chapter
Noradrenaline
concentration
Sleep apnea
condition in which breathing stops and stars repeatedly during sleep obstructive sleep apnea - throat muscle relax/decrease opening of esophagus - wear a mask, helps force air into lungs fat presses on airway, cuts off oxygen
Fuge
condition of having amnesia; having no memory for large blocks of time (days-months) sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity (fracturing) fugues are usually precipitated by a stressful episode, upon recovery there may be amnesia for the original stressor can be related to physical trauma, psychiatric conditions such as delirium, dipolar disorder, or depression
John Garcia
conditioned taste aversion
Problems in Hearing
conductive hearing loss nerve deafness sensorineural hearing loss
Reinforcement schedules
continuous reinforcement partial reinforcement - ratio - interval - fixed schedules - variable schedules
Continuous data
contrasts discrete can take on any value, data you can measure rather than count intervale scale: represents data that can be placed in rank order and have equal measurements between values - temperature ratio scale: represents data that have equal values between measurements - weight
Reticular Formation RAS
controls arousal and ability to focus our attention filters incoming sensory information relays information to parts of the brain multiple parts - kinda the control center - middle brain and out UPS STATION RAS RUNS EVERYWHERE
Reticular formation
controls arousal and ability to focus our attention filters incoming sensory information and relays information to parts of the brains UPS STATION
Autonomic nervous system
controls functions we don't think about automatic, involuntary breathing digestion - sympathetic - parasympathetic
Right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial
Left hemisphere
controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math
Forebrain
controls thought and reaons
Somatoform disorders
conversion disorders hypochondria
Transduction
converting outside stimuli, such as light, sound, touch into neural activity sensory receptors are specialized forms of neurons that are stimulated, not by neurotransmitters, but by different kinds of energy (light, vibrations, pressure, temperature, chemical substances)
Driving - Cerebellum
coordinates left and right hand movements on steering wheel
Driving cerebellum
coordinates left and right hand movements on steering wheel
Structure of the Eye
cornea iris pupil lens aqueous humor vitreous humor retina - rods and cones fovea optic nerve
Myelin sheath
covers axon and speeds neural messages protects and ensures neural firing happening
Antisocial personality
criminal/inappropriate behavior with a complete lack of remove sociopaths - manipulation, deceit, exploration
Carol Gilligan
criticized Kohlberg for being too male-centered - favored principled way of reasoning that was more common to males, such as justice, while the moral concerns of women focus on caring and compassion
Stroop Effect
delay in reaction time when color of words on a test and their meaning differ
Robert Resclora
demonstrated that cognition is at work within classical conditioning
Major depression
depression that prevents a person from enjoying love and work lethargy worthlessness loss of interest "you don't seem like yourself"
Relative Size
depth cue that causes us to perceive something as farther away because it looks smaller than an object in the foreground that we assume is similar in size
Linear Perspective
depth cue that makes parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point on the horizon closer together the lines are, the greater distance
Monocular Cues
depth perception depth cues available to either eye alone linear perspective interposition relative size relative height relative clarity light and shadow texture and gradient motion parallax
Joseph Wolpe
described use of systematic desensitization to treat phobias
Mood-stabilizing drugs
designed to treat the combination of manic episodes and depression lithium
Attitudes Toward the Behavior
desirability of possible outcomes & likelihood of those outcomes ex: college: is going to college the right move for you?
Intrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior for its own sake spending hours practicing basketball because you love it
Extrinsic Motivation
desire to perform behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment spending hours practicing basketball because your parents are pushing you overjustication effect: too much extrinsic motivation decreases intrinsic motivation (getting back to read books)
Vomeronasal Organ
detects pheromones
Physical Attractiveness
determines initial attraction (first impression) associate attractiveness with health, success, happiness etc - attraction based on cultural definitions
Cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck assumes that we have autonomic negative thoughts that we typically say to ourselves without much notice repeating these autonomic negative thoughts causes distortion in how we perceive and interpret our world and influences how we behave and feel
Schemas in Cognitive Development
developing schemas require concepts and frameworks that organize and interpret information (change throughout development) seeing a cow, calling it a horse
Harry Harlow
development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort
Parallel Processing
different feature detectors can react to visual stimuli simultaneously the ability of the brain to do many things at once
Sympathetic - what it does
dilates pupils inhibits saliva production dilates bronchia raises heart rate inhibits the activity of the digestive organs inhibits the activity of the pancreas inhibits the gall bladder relaxes urinary bladder
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
discovered neurons in the visual association cortex that focuses specifically on edges, lines, angles, curves, and movements known as good old feature detectors!!
Projection
disguising own threatening impulses and feelings by attributing them to others you have a tendency towards jealously so you judge others on their over jealousy
Narcolespy
disorder in which a person suddenly falls into REM sleep during wake hours - lack of activity or staying still - lack of orexin : neuromodulator -- influences wakefulness, arousal, appetite
Types of schizophrenia
disorganized catatonic paranoid undifferentiated
Disorganized schizophrenia
disorganized speech or behavior, flat or inappropriate emotions lack of social awareness word salad (no context)
Pie charts
displaying nomial or categorial data or any data that can consists of percentages or portions
Bar graph
displays of categorical or non numerical data space between bars
DID
dissociative identity disorder multiple personality disorders when a person forms two or more alternating personalities that act independently; one personality does not know about the actions of the other usually in response to repeated childhood trauma - SYBIL
Experimental psychologists
do research to add new knowledge to the field labs
Persuasion Techniques
door in the face central route persuasion peripheral route persuasion framing effect bait and switch mere exposure effect
The activation synthesis theory
dreams come from a purely physiological and biological point of view dreams are meaningless
Nightmares
dreams occurring during REM sleep that have disturbing content
Trust vs. Mistrust
infancy to one year question: can I trust the world? relationship: mother action: feeding or abandonment if needs are met, infants develop a sense of trust if successful, we learn to trust that life is okay, confidence in the future if not successful, we fail to experience trust and may end up with a deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and distrust of the world in general
Conjunctivitis (pink eye)
inflammation of the conjunctiva -- transparent layer that lines the inside of the eyelid and covers the sclera (white part)
Informational Social Influence
influence is because of one's willingness to accept others opinions about reality when we don't know how to behave we look to others they act as information sources for how we behave ex: when traveling you are influenced by people who have been to same place ex: projects in school ex: crisis situations
Normative Social Influence
influence is because of person's desire to gain approval or disapproval ex: tattoos, dress, cars, non-conforming
cohort affects
influences of being part of a group bonded on the basis of a time period
Semantic Memory
information of factual nature, concepts, meaning, general knowledge dates, numbers, etc knowing what a blender is used for remembering golf terminology
Conformation bias
information that supports our preconceptions and ignore distort contradictory evidence
Bottom-Up Processing
information-processing approach that starts by noticing individual elements and the zooms out to appreciate the whole picture begins with sensory inputs and works up to mentally organizing them into a while inductive reasoning
Antagonist
inhibits the neurotransmitters release compound that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitters - ACh
Broca's Area
initiates conversations with passengers, or self??
Driving frontal lobe and motor cortex
initiates driving action (gas pedal, break, gear shift)
Driving - Frontal Lobe and Motor Cortex
initiates driving action gas pedal, break, gear shift
Frontal Lobe and Motor Cortex
initiates driving actions (gas pedal, brake, gear shift)
Driving - Broca's Area
initiates in conversation with passengers or ones self
Primary reinforcers
innate reinforcers as stimulus/one that satisfies biological need - food in skinner box - money
Importance of Attachment - Insecurely
insecurely attached children are more likely to - be overly dependent on teachers, demanding attention unnecessarily and clinging instead with other children and exploring their environment - be aggressive (if boys) - be overly dependent (if girls)
Different approaches
insight therapy cognitive - behavior therapy biomedical therapy eclectic approach
Sleep disorders
insomnia narcolepsy sleep apnea sleep walking nightmares REM sleep behavior disorder
Boderline personality
instability to self-image, interpersonal relationships, dependency, possessiveness, expressing alternating extremes of feelings of love and hatred towards a person on the edge
Pancreas gland
insulin : lowers blood sugar glucagon : raises blood sugar
Integrity vs. Despair
late adulthood 60s up question: is it okay to have been me? relationship: mankind action: reflection of life when reflecting on one's life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction contemplate accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life if we see our life as unproductive or feel that we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair
Cognitive process new theory
later, behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or aware of a stimulus - using cognition, animals don't just react! they expect and/or become aware of stimulus - alcohol and antabuse (makes you sick)
Persona
latin word for mask the personality we develop to use in social settings based on social expectations "it is a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be" also based on archetypes
Variable-Ratio schedule
leads to high, steady response rate reinforcers applied after an unpredictable number of responses action (reinforcer) changing strength of reinforcement ins't consistent - slot machines (gambling) - fishing - sales - work bonuses
Conditioned response (CR)
learned response (through conditioning) to previously neutral stimulus salivation resulting in ringing bell
Discrimination in Conditioning
learning ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli - dog's learned to response to the sound of a particular tone and not to others - fear of dogs: pitbull vs. golden retriever
Observational learning
learning by observing others
Latent learning
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful
Latent learning (Tolman)
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful
Vicarious learning
learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
Higher order learning
learning through exploring the foundations, justification, implications, and value of a fact, principle, skill, or concept.
Negatively skewed distribution
left few low scores many high scores left foot, big toe
Insanity defense
legal defense proposing that people shouldn't be held legally responsible for their actions if they weren't of "sound mind" when committing them
Visual Accomodation
lens flips an image and focuses the inverted image
Steps in Vision
light enters eye through cornea passes through pupil size regulated by iris lens focuses incoming light into image retina is lightsesntive, inner surface is where light is projected (visual processing beings) fovea - point of central focus optic nerve sends messages to brain's visual cortex light waves cornea pupil lens vitreous humor retina (rods/cones) bipolar cells ganglion cells optic nerve thalamus visual cortex
Photoreceptor
light receptor cells that transduce light energy into electrochemical energy (nerve impulses)
Rodopsin
light sensitive pigment in the rods that help the rods deal with low light conditions chemical change in the retina allows us to adapt quickly to changes in light as the pupil constricts
Vitreous Humor
light waves pass through jelly like fluid
Internal validity
likelihood of differences in the dependent variable caused by the IV rather than some other factor extraneous factors: confounding variables
Frequency polygon
line graph that is used to display continuous data generally recorded on interval or ratio scales
Correlational studies
link relationship allows researchers to determine if there is a relationship between two variables
Importance of Attachment - Securely
longitudinal studies suggest that securely attached children are more likely to - be competent in social and cognitive skills - be sought out as friends and chosen as leaders - interact with teachers in friendly and appropriate ways, seeking help when needed
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
Adolescence Frontal Lobe Proning
loss of unwanted/unused connections between neurons, which leads to strengthening of existing connections frontal lobe: last part to be "pruned" during adolescence - enables executive functioning and good decision-making - teenage years: impulsive, lack of understanding for long-term consequences
Locating Sound
loudness- the louder the sound the more likely it is to be closer, and timing as well
Low Ball technique
lowballing is presenting a option that a person agrees to thereafter changing it based on that you have committed yourself already ex: you ask a friend to lend you $ for lunch, after agreeing, you change to an expensive venue
Depressants/Sedatives
lower neural activity and slow body functioning alcohol sedatives benzodiazepines
Marijuana
lowers inhibitions and produce feeling of relaxation and mild euphoria - neurotransmitter anandamide to THC receptors
Conditions That Strengthen Conformity
made to feel incompetent group of at least 3 one admires group's status others in group observe one's behavior one's culture encourages respect for social standards
Motion Parallax
makes objects closer to use appear like they are moving faster than those farther away driving example
Driving - Hypothalamus
makes us aware when we are too hot or cold, hungry, thirsty, or in need of a restroom stop
Driving hypothalamus
makes us aware when we are too hot or cold, hungry, thirsty, or in need of a restroom stop
Neuroses
maladaptive thoughts and actions that arise from some unconscious thought or conflict and indicate feelings of anxiety
Undifferentiated schizophrenia
many and varied symptoms positive symptoms: hallucinations, disorganized or deluded speech, inappropriate laughter or tears negative symptoms: expressionless faces, rigid bodies
Signs of mental illness
marked by personality change inability to cope with problems and daily activities strange or grandiose ideas excessive anxieties prolonged depression and apathy marked by changes in eating or sleeping problems thinking or talking about suicide or harming oneself extreme mood swings; high or low abuse of alcohol or drugs excessive anger, hostility, or violent behavior
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
master clock resides in hypothalamus interprets info taken from the eye and signals the pineal gland to sleep secrete melatonin - sleep hormone secreted into bloodstream
Parietal Lobe
mathematical spatial reasoning recognizing faces sensory input temperature pain pressure sensory cortex: - front of parietal lobe -- sensory input for touch and body (phantom limb)
Electroencephalography (EEG)
measured electrical activity in the brain creates electroencephalogram attach electrodes to person's scalp, record waves of electrical activity that travels across brain's surface during states of consciousness
Psychiatrists
medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders
Oval Window
membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations closest to the last ear bone
Procedural Memories
memories of how to do something
Constructive Memory
memory can be distorted by prior knowledge or own schemas about what we know sometimes we alter memories when we have difficulty with retrieval
Sleep deprivation
memory impairment moodiness sleep dept: anxiety, lack of motivation, reduced energy, chronic irritability
Cognitive Development in Adulthood
memory: slowing down of memory abilities, reasoning, processes, and focusing of attention - young adults excel at encoding and recalling detail - mature adults excel at making sense of information but forget details intelligence - crystallized: increases through adulthood and is represented by one's vocabulary and accumulated knowledge of facts and world affairs - fluid: declines slowly in midlife age is represented by problem-solving skills and mental flexibility
Cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, processing, and communicating
Mindset
mental approach to problems and issues often connected to the psychological contrust of intelligence
Schemas
mental filters or maps that organize our information about the world differs person to person
Concepts
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people example: sports - basketball, baseball, volleyball, golf, hockey example: dogs - golden retriever, german shepard, corgi, poodle
Prototypes
mental image or best example of a category use when trying to place items example: - more likely to think of a robin as a bird than a goose
Leanred helplessness
mental state in which an organism continues to experience a painful or unpleasant stimulus
Anxiety attack
mental, overwhelmed longer
Perception
method by which our brain takes all the sensations people experience and allows them to be interpreted in some meaningful fashion top down processing
Defense Mechanisms
methods the ego used to protect itself from awkward or unpleasant situations by unconsciously distorting reality passive aggression repression reaction formation projection rationalization displacement denial sublimination
Generavity vs. Stagnation
middle adulthood 40 - 60 question: can I make my life count relationships: household, colleagues action: work, parenthood people discover a sense of contributing to the world through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose developmental tasks is contributing to society and helping to guide future generations person who is unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation - a dissatisfaction with the lack of productivity
Median
middle number half above, half below
Social Development in Adulthood
midlife transition - a shift in psychological perspective from viewing ourselves in terms of years we have left before death mid-life crisis - during mid life transition, people realize that life may be more than a halfway over and they reassess their achievements in terms of their dreams
Strabismus
misaligned eyes tighter muscles
Deception
misleading participants about the nature of the experiment and methodology debrief: explain deception at conclusion
Information-Processing Model
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
Archetypes
models of people, behaviors, or personalities they are innate, universal and are inherited through the collective unconscious hero, villain, damsel, mother, father, child, joker
Echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli if not paying attention, you can recall the last bits of what someone is saying
Iconic Memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli fleeting photographic memory
Harlow Study of Attachment
monkeys separate from mothers question: does attachment derive from nourishment or comfort? method: created two artificial mothers one made out of wire, one made out of cloth results: monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother -- attachment is based on warm comforting contact (comfort contact) attachment in humans - infants also become attached to parents - parent-infant emotional communication occurs through touch - secure base allows for exploration
Self Actualization
morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
Marcia's Identity Statuses
moratorium, achieved, foreclosed, diffused
Rods
more photoreceptor cells that detect black/white/gray works in very dim light for night vision essential for peripheral vision
Amygdala
more involved in volatile emotions like anger and fear inside and out man memory consolidation and emotion processes emotion fear and aggression tame when cut AMY IS ANGRY
Smell Sense
most evocative of the sense pheromones vomeronasal organ
Mode
most frequently occurring biomodial - 2 central tendency
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
nerves outside brain and spinal chord connect central nervous system to the rest of the body - sensory pathways (body to brain) - motor pathways (muscles/glands to behavior) somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system - sympathetic - parasympathetic
Somatic nervous system
nerves signals to brain to skeletal muscles voluntary movement walking jumping
Antipsychotics
neuroleptics diminish or eliminate positive symptoms of schizophrenia - work by decreasing activity and dopamine receptors in brain - atypical antipsychotics reduce negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Neuroadaption
neurons increase or decrease production of neurotransmitters in response to chemicals ingested
Biological explanation of observational learning
neurons that are in the frontal lobe that fire when observing another's actions - mirror neurons - monkeys observe another action then imitate, these neurons activate - humans 1. assist in language development 2. empathy, to infer another's emotional state 3. children imitating behavior
Techniques to reveal the unconscious
neuroses free association dream interpretation
Reuptake inhibitors
neurotransmitters are removed from the synapse by being transported back into the axon terminal
Pain
nociceptors types: - visceral pain - referred pain - somatic pain gate-control theory of pain
Implicit Memory
nondeclarative memory automatic processing occurs without conscious recall conditioning procedural memory - learning occurs early in life where memories become automatic -- example (riding bike)
The General Adaption Syndrome
normal level of arousal one enters a chronic, unabated stress - loss of job, divorce, death of a loved one, entering emergency level alarm phase: anxious, shocked - level of arousal lowered - very stressful resistance phase: unhealthy - increase arousal - get used to it exhaustion phase - decrease arousal - depression, hypertension, suicide (can't stand it any longer)
Reasons for Conforming
normative social influence informational social influence
Biological rhythms
not detected by our conscious awareness normal changes in our body
Frequency
number of wavelength cycles in a unit of time 20hz to 20,000 hz 20hz is 20 vibrations per second
Quantitate data
numbers discrete continuous
John Watson (1878-1958)
observed and empirically measured behaviorism: stimulus and response to learning classical conditioning
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation
observed child's behavior when mom was present, when mom left, when "stranger" enters, and when mom returns (reunion was most important)
Observational learning (modeling)
observing behavior and then imitating behavior
OCD
obsessive compulsive disorder repeated, irrational thoughts and performing certain acts over and over to control anxiety category of it's own glee : emma severity neat freak vs. unable to perform tasks compulsives: # of times, amounts
Reflexes
occur when a signal is sent from a sensory organ to spinal chord, process info instead of passing it to the brain
Sensory Adaptation
occurs when neural or sensory receptors alter or reduce their sensitivity to a continuous or unchanging stimulus when you jump into cold water, you adjust to the temp
Lightness Constancy
occurs when our perception of whiteness, blackness, or grayness of objects remain constant no matter how much the illumination changes black reflects little light white reflects most light constant proportion of lightness reflected rather than a total ammount
Shape Constancy
occurs when our viewing angle changes or an object rotates and we still perceive the object as staying the same shape
Sensory Adapatation
occurs when sensory receptors respond less to unchanging stimuli -- can't smell odor of house, because your receptors are responding less
Tip Of The Tongue Phenomenon
occurs when the retrieval process does not produce a complete response but only produces parts retrieval failure
Relative Motion
occurs when we ourselves are moving objects objects hat are fixed among us in one place appear to move along with us
Habituation
occurs when we stop having an interest in a stimulus or a lack of attention for it ears ringing, used to it, stop paying attention
Emotional Symptoms
of stress include: crying, nervousness, irritability, anger, sadness, anxiety, fear, feelings of dissatisfaction, feeling overwhelmed, powerless, apathetic, empty
Cognitive Symptoms
of stress include: memory problems distractibility, obsessiveness, problems in concentration
Behavioral Symptoms
of stress include: problems in relationships, alcohol and substance abuse, compulsive eating, teeth grinding, uncommunicativeness
Smell
olfactory or olfactory sense
Exception to Social Facilitation
on tougher tasks individuals perform less well when being observed
Biological predispositions
once believed that conditioning occurred the same in all animals and that you could associate any neutral stimulus now believed animals have biological predispositions to assonating certain stimuli over food food and getting sick, conditioned to associate the taste of the food with getting sick, not music, perfume, or class organisms are "hard-wired" to response to some stimuli more than others - rats taste, birds visual conditioning needs to be "ecologically relevant" - help you survive
Detection Thresholds Smell
one drop of perfume in a 3 bedroom apartement
Detection Thresholds Taste
one teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water
Hierarchy
one way we organize information in a category
Pupil
opening in iris creates pupil black part of the eye opening to eye
B.F. Skinner
operant chamber skinner box and shaping - measuring device that recorded responses of rats according to rewards - conditioning process where reinforcers guide behavior closer to desire behavior -- build on existing behavior -- used in animal tranininh
Optimum Arousal
organisms are driven to seek optimum levels of arousal driven to experience stimulation desire: alcohol, drugs lacking stimulation we feel bored and seek out arousal WAYNE CLARK
Chunking
organizing units into familiar manageable units type of mnemonic device acronyms PEMDAS
Balance and Movement Sense
otolith organs kinesthesis proprioception
Ego - Carl Jung
our "true self" out conscious self who we are when we are at our most comfortable there may be differences between our persona and our true self
Perceptual Constancy
our ability to need to perceive objects as unchanging even as changes may occur in distance, point of view, and illumination
Humanistic therapy
people are innately good and motivated to achieve their potential insight therapy - attempt to reduce inner conflicts that are impeding natural development by increasing awareness of underlying motives -- focus on present and future and conscious versus unconscious existential analysis - philosophical questions - what is the meaning of life? what am I doing with my life? Gestalt therapy - emphasizes need for clients to fully acknowledge and experience feelings to become self aware -- empty chair technique (Fritz Peris)
Similarity
people tend to stay with people who have shared interests
Conflict
perceived incompatibility of actions goals or ideas
Personal Fable
perceiving self as special and unique and that no one can relate to their personal experiences and problems - leads to thinking that individual is better or worse than others - invulnerability, uniqueness
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.
Sensitive period
period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences
Generalized anxiety disorder
person is constantly tense (low level), apprehensive in general overwhelming = anxiety attack underlying affects day to day life worry about health and safety of others
Social Cognitive Psychologists Emphasize...
personal control - do we see ourselves as having control or as being controlled by our environment
Genotype
persons specific genetic blueprint determined by pattern of chromosomes inherited from each parent
Acquisition
phase in which associating neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response - association is required - ringing bell when feeding dogs elicits salvation
Carol Gilligan Stages
preconventional - selfishness - goal is individual survival - transition is from selfishness to responsibility to others conventional - empathy/compassion - self-sacrifice is goodness - transition is from goodness to truth that she is a person too post-conventional - betterment of humanity - principle of nonviolence; do not hurt others or self
Initiative vs. Guilt
preschool 3-5 years question: is it okay for me to do, act? relationship: family action: exploring, using tools, art learn to initiative tasks and carry out plans or feel guilty about efforts to be independent take initiative by creating play situations make plans and carry them out
Door in the Face
presenting a big request first, before a smaller request
Central Route Persuasion
presenting facts, thoughtful consideration of the arguments
Operant conditioning reinforcers
primary reinforcers conditioned/secondary reinforcers
Self ActualizedPeople
problem centered rather than self-centered focus on their energies on a particular task few deep relationships, rather than many superficial ones
Insight
problem solving sudden realization of a solution to a problem
Trial and Error
problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
Imprinting
process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period in early life Konrad Lorenz and Geese
Association areas
process higher order functions thinking, remembering, planning, forming, judgements, speaking
Social learning
process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Encoding
process of getting information into the memory system or brain
Retrieval
process of getting the information that has been stored
Ablation
process of removing or destroying brain tissues leaving lesions (damaged tissues)
Driving - Wernicke's Area
process speech sounds from passengers, other drives, the radio
Systemic desensitization
process that first trains individuals with phobias in relaxation techniques and then exposes them to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli while they are relaxed
Driving - Temporal Lobe and Auditory Cortex
process the sounds of other vehicles horns, passing vehicles
Vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
Driving wernicke's are
processes speech sounds from passengers, other drivers, radio
Wernicke's area
processes spoken/written language
Temporal Lobe and Auditory Cortex
processes the sound of other vehicles (horns, passing vehicles etc)
Driving temporal lobe and auditory cortex
processes the sounds of other vehicles (horns, passing vehicles)
Occipital Lobe and Visual Cortex
processes the visual road signals (stop lights etc)
Temporal lobe
processing auditory info auditory memory visual pattern recognition wernicke's area language comprehension damaged: can produce sounds and rhythms not make no sense
Effortful Processing
processing memory that requires conscious effort how do you remember a phone number? - through rehearsal = conscious repetition - the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
Driving - Occipital Love and Visual Cortex
processing the visual road signals stop lights
Driving occipital lobe and visual cortex
processing the visual road signals stop lights
Driving - Parietal Lobe
processing touch pressure temperature pain somatosensory cortex: where signals are received
Occipital lobe
processing visual symbols recognizing lines, angles, shapes, shadows, movement visual cortex damage - agnosia: familiar objects become unrecognizable
Personality Development (Freud)
psychological symptoms are rooted in unresolved conflicts from early childhood psychosexual stages - children pass through stages where conflicts can occur - Ids energy focuses on pleasure sensitive areas of the body, erogenous zones oral anal phallic latent genital
Anti-anxiety drugs
psychotropics reduce anxiety and produce relaxation by lowering sympathetic activity in brain valium and xanax
Genital Psychosexual Stage
puberty on to adulthood - maturing sexual interests trying to find healthy adult love - trying to balance unconscious and conscious desire - all previous conflicts come back to haunt you
Operant conditioning: types of punishment
punishment positive punishment negative punishment
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
puzzle boxes: law of effect - satisfied effect = repeated - undesirable effect = not repeated can we condition kids into fear?
Correlational coefficient
r -1.0 and +1.0 0 - +1 : positive -1 - 0 : negative
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
radical behaviorism: behavior should be studied objectively using scientific method, only what can be seen is observable operant conditioning chamber - rewarded, repeated, robots - no free will
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
Genetic mutation
random errors in gene replications lead to changes in a species
Experimental design
randomly assign participants to groups manipulate IV observe effect on DV
REM
rapid eye movement very active stage of sleep composes 20-25% of a normal night's sleep also restorative sleep - restores brain in different way dreams occur paradoxical sleep - muscles are paralyzed - brain activity resembles same waves as when you are awake increases as sleep continues
Relearning
reacquiring knowledge that we'd previously learned but largely forgotten over time
Placebo effect
real response based solely on expectations not an actual properties of the action or substance
Temporal Lobe
receives auditory information balance and equilibrium smell emotion and motivation auditory memory visual pattern recognition wernicke's area: left temporal lobe - controls language reception - interprets auditory clues - language comprehension -- damage: can speak but words are meaningless, difficult in understand spoken language, but able to produce sounds, phrases, and word sequences in good rhythm, but no sense
Displacement
redirecting thoughts, feelings, and impulses at a person that is not the source of the feelings having problems in relationships but rather than yell at the person you take it out on your parents
Sedatives/Tranquilizers/Hypnotics
reduce anxiety or induce sleep - barbiturates: depress activity of central nervous system, reduce anxiety, but important memory and judgement receptor sites more efficient
Social cognitive theory
referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world attention - noticing something is happening in environment retention - recall what was noticed reproduction - producing action, mimics what noticed motivation - consequence from environment, changes likelihood of behavior recurring
Driving - Reticular Formation
regulates alertness or drowsiness as we drive
Driving reticular formation
regulates alertness or drowsiness as we drive
Reticular Formation
regulates alertness or drowsiness as we drive
Driving - Medulla
regulates breathing and heart rate while driving
Medulla
regulates breathing and heart rate while driving
Operant conditioning: types of reinforcements
reinforcer positive reinforcement negative reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing response every time it occurs - learning occurs quickly - so does extinction - difficult to administer not sustainable long term
Association Areas
related to higher mental functions - remembering, thinking, learning, speaking - more subtle - interpreting and integrating sensory input and linking up with memories
Regression
relating to a more childlike stage you don't get your way so you engage in childlike behavior
Variables
relationships IV (if) - experiment manipulates DV (then) - what researchers measures
Learning
relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience behaviorists
Driving - Thalamus
relays visual and auditory cues to areas of the cerebrum (cortex)
Driving thalamus
relays visual and auditory cues to areas of the cerebrum (cortex)
Pituitary gland malfunctions
release excess growth hormone - gigantism (excessive growth + height) - acromegaly (visible swelling of soft tissues = large hands, feet flip ears) no secretion of growth hormones - pituitary dwarfism (grows slowly, shorter)
Pineal gland
releases melatonin - hormone that helps regulate sleep and body rhythms circadian rhythm
Negative punishment
removal of something pleasant to decrease a behavior - taking away cell phone, taking away license
Psychosurgery
removing or lesioning brain tissue irreversible
Mere Exposure Effect
repeated exposure to novel stimuli the liking of it ex: SONIC COMMERCIALS
Exposure therapy
repeatedly exposing patient to thing they fear/avoid patients habituate (no longer stimulate and anxiety lessens)
Replication
repeating original study as close as possible clear operational definitions
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
researchers who worked with split brain patients to examine hemisphere specialization
External validity
researches can apply the results of an experiment to other similar populations
Partial reinforcement
responses are sometimes reinforced - learning slower - lasts longer and more hesitant to extinction ratio (relies on response) interval (relies on time) fixed (stays the same) variable (vary, change)
Fixed-Interval schedule
responses tend to increase gradually as the reinforcement time draws close reinforcing response after a time has been set amount of time always stays the same - every Friday is date night - Black Friday
Rods and Cones
responsible for transforming electromagnetic energy into electrochemical
Fixed-Ratio schedule
results in high, steady responding until the reinforcement is delivered behavior reinforced after a set (fixed) number of responses action (reinforcer) stays the same - loyalty card - production works (paid every 15 items produced)
Storage
retaining the encoded information short term and long term
Interference Theory
retroactive / recent - new memories impair retrieval of older memories proactive / previous - prior learning inhibits with recall of later learning
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
review any study and determine if ethical
Positively skewed distribution
right few high scores many low scores right foot, big toe
Exctinction
salvation (CR) would diminish - rang cell, no food, CR diminishes CR diminishes as a result of lost associationS between UCS and NS (food/bell)
Random sample
same chance of getting into the sample as anyone else in the population removes bias
Freud's theory of dream interpretation
saw dreams as a method of reaching into the unconscious mind wish fulfillment ego protects from open conflict manifest content: - what we recall from our dreams latent content: - what dream content actually represents
Cognitive Development
schemas assimilation accommodation how the mind develops: knowledge, thinking, memory Piaget wanted to study the growth of knowledge and thinkning divided cognitive development into 4 stages
Psychology
scientific study of human thought and human and animal behavior wants to understand biological and environmental influences on personality and behavior
Genes
segments of DNA that carry instructions to make proteins - active genes = expressed genes - inactive genes = don't make proteins to influence characteristic and behavior dominant: features appear if gene present recessive: feature appear if paired with other recessive ene
Rationalization
self justifying explanation in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reason for one's own actions you didn't study for a test, when you find out you failed, you make excuses rather than admitting that you didn't study
Carl Rogers
self theory people are inherently good and want to reach their potential - actualizing tendency need - genuineness, acceptance, empathy incongruence to congruence - tend to reach for it ideal self, true self, self image
Stereotype Threat
self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotypes - usually arises out of a situation higher degrees of stereotype threat on tasks they want to do well on and when they identify strongly with the stereotyped group - there's an expectation of discrimination
Esteem
self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
Gustation
sense of taste - 5 sensations sweet salty sour bitter umami (meat, broth)
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
sensorimotor pre-operational concrete operational formal operational
Adaptation of Sense
sensory adaptation sensory habituation
Afferent neurons
sensory neurons body to brain
Nociceptors
sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli
Superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation tips thank you cards returning favors gifts
Driving - Corpus Callosum
shares sensory and motor driving information from both hemisphere
Driving corpus callosum
shares sensory and motor driving information from both hemispheres
Mood Linkage
sharing up and down moods
Somatic Pain
sharp, bright, fast skin, joints, muscles, tendons
X-rays
shows bones solid structures
frequency distribution
shows us how often something occurs makes it easier to graph, summarize, analyze
Touch and Body Sense
signals received by the receptors are sent to the thalamus then to the corresponding part of the somatosensory cortex at the front of the parietal lobe the more receptors there are in a given body area, the more the brain area there is devoted to it
Generalization
similar conditioned stimulus initiates similar response - dog would response to a different bell to one that had it conditioned opposite of discrimination
Simple Cells and Complex Cells
simple - responds to certain lines complex - responds to motion help sort rushes of impulses from optic nerve to thalamus to visual cortex
Adrenal glands
sit on top of kidneys release adrenaline - regulate arousal and corticosteroids
Social Traps/Dilemmas
situations where conflicting parties where are pursuing own self-interesting and become caught in mutually destructive behavior - the prisoner's dilemma
Alcohol
slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity reducing activity in prefrontal cortex reduces awareness and impairs memory by suppressing events into longer term memory intensifies GABA - sluggish movements, and slurred speech can release dopamine in reward system
Difference Threshold or Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
smallest amount two stimuli had to differ for us to be able to tell them apart two different stimuli must differ by a constant percentage to produce constant JND, there is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity Gustave Fechner named this Weber's Law
Social Exchange Theory
social behavior is an exchange process - maximize benefits and minimize costs
Norms for Helping
social exchange theory reciprocity norm superordinate goals
Dysfunctional society
sociocultural
Personality disorders
sociopath psychopath boderline antisocial
Place Theory (Low Pitch)
soft cilia lower frequency sound waves travel down the length of the cochlea and stimulate the softer cilia in the wider rear, apex, or cochlea
Range
span of scores subtract lowest from highest
Hypothesis
specific and testable description of the expected outcome of a study if then statements supports existing theories or reveals errors in theories
American Psychological Association (APA)
specific criteria
Episodic Memory
specific incidences we have experienced, autobiographical events remembering your birthday party when you were 8 remembering where you bit your ball or that you played golf yesterday specific memory from your point of view
Anxiety-phobias
specific irrational fear phobias are specific impacts daily life
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
stage 1: obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment stage 2: individual interested: behavior driven by self-interested and rewards operant condition
Level 2: Conventional Morality
stage 3: interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval stage 4: authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order peer pressure
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality
stage 5: social contrast: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights stage 6: universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles laws and police
Assimilation
stays same interpret new experiences in terms of our own understanding
Place Theory (High Pitch)
stiff cilia higher pitched sounds displace the fluid in the inner ear, making the cilia stiff
Serial Position Effect
tendency to remember the last and first items on lists forget things in the middle regency effect - tendency to have better recall for last items, items still present in working memory primary effect - tendency to have better recall for the first items. more processing devoted to first items
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypothesis
Social Loafing
tendency where people in a group put forth less effort towards a common goal than when individually accountable
Pituitary Gland
the "master gland" influences the release of hormones in glands throughout the body hormones, growth, fertility hormones = glands middle limbic system endocrine
Pituitary gland
the "master gland: influence the release of hormones in glands throughout the body PETER THE GREAT GLAND
Perceptual Adaptation
the ability of the body and brain to adapt to an environment and filter out distraction sensory and habituation
Dark Adaptation
the ability of the eye to adapt quickly to darkening conditions - daylight to movie theater - pupil opening quickly to allow for more light ways to energy to eye
Psychokinesis
the ability to move objects with one's mind
Hue
the color we experience, comes in basic colors of red, green, or blue
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Self-efficacy
the degree to which a person believes in his or her own ability to complete tasks and reach goals and influence situations key to successful navigation of goals/tasks/challenges
Wave length
the distance from one wave peak to the next
Reciprocity Norm
the expectation that people will help those who have helped us - compels us to give as much as we receive
Heritability
the extent to which differences in the appearance of a trait across several people can be accounted for by differences in their genes
Peripheral Vision
the eye's ability to see things on the side of our field vision when looking straight ahead
Saccade
the eyes reflexive, rapid movement from side to side fills missing info in created by blindspot happens when reading
Figure and Ground
the figure is what is focused on and the background is the blurry background which is likely ignored ambiguous figures
Stanley Milgram Obedience
the following of commands or orders issued by others, usually people in positions of authority
Endocrine System
the hypothalamus also communicates with the endocrine system hormones released during the stress response have negative effects when released continuously
Optic Nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Critical Thinking
the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment
Authoritarian
the parent demands obedience and controls the child'd behavior through punishment limited communications between parent and child restrictive -- offers limited love and warmth
Authoritative
the parent established clear limits and provides explanation for consequences open communication between parent and child, but parent makes ultimate decisions collaborative -- offers love and warmth
Uninolved/Neglectful
the parent is uninvolved in child's life low in levels of responsiveness and lack of support see their lives as more important than the needs of their child
Permissive
the parent provides few expectations and rules allowing children to make their own decisions high levels of communication, as well as love and warmth
Percentile rank
the percentage of scores in a distribution that a particular score falls above
External locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate
External Locus of Control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate a belief that luck, chance, and powerful people determine events
Internal Locus of Control
the perception that one controls one's own fate beliefs that a person has control over rewards and punishment in life
Color Constancy
the perception that the color of an object reminds the same even if lighting conditions are changed
Internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate blame themselves for circumstances beyond their control
State-Dependent Memory
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Sensation
the process by which our brain and nervous system receive input from the environment through our five sense touch taste sigh sound smell bottom-up processing
Social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Imaginary Audience
the thinking that the individual is constantly being watched and judged by others - spending a long time getting ready
Just World Phenomenon
the thinking that the world works in a way that if bad things happen, they get what they deserved, if good things occur, they are rewarded ex: karma
Self-Actualization
the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self esteem is achieve motivation to fulfill one's potential
Pitch
the wavelength of sounds affects pitch
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Detection Thresholds Touch
the wing of a bee falling on your cheek
TAT
thematic apperception test seeks to identify inner feelings and interested by evaluating made up stories of ambiguous scene childhood therapy (drawing)
George L. Engel
theorized the biopsychosocial perspective
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
theory of evolution organisms change over time as they adapt to their environment and those adaptations that allowed them to survive were passed to offspring
Individualistic Culture
this culture values a sense of competition, personal freedom, individual achievement, working alone, confrontation priority is given to personal needs and individual success this is typical of North American and Western European countries
Collectivist Culture
this culture values working in a group, group goals, and group achievement, kinship, relationships, etc priority is given to group needs and group success this is typical of Asian, African and Central and and South American countries
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
this is when a person must chose a goal that has both attractive and unattractive features justin timberlake concert; expensive
Approach-Approach Conflict
this is when a person must chose between one f two attractive goals seeing an old friend; going to your favorite restaurant with family
Double Aprroach-Avoidance
this is when a person must chose between two alternatives, both of which have positives and negative features choosing a college
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
this is when a person must chose between two unattractive options, or the "lesser of two evils" cleaning your room; studying for psych
Sample
those who participate in the tudy
Schizophrenia
thought disorganization, hallucinations, delusions (false beliefs), inappropriate emotions (laughing at the death of a loved one) periods of psychosis may alternate with periods of clam and coherence - loosing touch with reality
Feature Detectors
thousands of specialized neurons react to the strength of visual stimuli
Trichometric Theory
three cone types in the retina, each producing only red, green, or blue work together to let us perceive a range of colors specific colors are from comparing responses from the three types of cones color depends upon the mix of cones firing
Hormones
through a combination of nerve and hormonal signals, the endocrine system prompts your adrenal glands, located atop of your kidneys, to release a surge of hormones including adrenaline and cortisol
Brain stimulation
through electrical currents electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - used to treat serious causes of depression, suicidal patients repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) - alternative to ECT that treats depression with minimal side effects
Detection Thresholds Light Sound
tick of a watch at 20 feet
Schachter-Singer Theory (Schachter-Two Factor)
to experience emotion one much be physically arouse and cognitively label the arousal
Autonomy vs. Shame
toddlers 1 - 3 years question: is it okay to be myself? relationships: parents action: toilet training, clothing self learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their own ability build self-esteem and autonomy as they require greater motor skills learn to assert will ... "NO" if we are shamed in this process, we might have areas of low esteem
Limbic System Parts
top of brain stem thalamus hippocampus amygdala hypothalamus
Perception Review
top-down processing illusion monocular cues binocular cues - depth perception - gestalt principles perceptual set parapsychology