Final Study Quide

The problem of stars "twinkling" due to atmospheric turbulence

can be corrected by using a guide star.

The Ptolemaic model of the Solar System has each planet moving along a

circular epicycle whose center, in turn, moves around the Earth.

In our Milky Way Galaxy, the Orion Spur is the

closest arm to our Sun.

Meteor showers are caused by

comet debris

The ion tail of a comet

consists of straight streamers

The strongest evidence that Earth life is all descended from a single self-copying molecule is that all Earth life

contains the same version of molecules that have different mirror-image forms.

Neptune's magnetic North and South poles are

displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet

Uranus' magnetic North and South poles are

displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet.

An advantage of carbon dioxide as the starting form of carbon for use by living things is that it

dissolves in liquid water.

You may hear about an Earth Impact Warning at a certain level on the Torino Scale. That scale ranges from zero to

10

As of July, 2018, The number of confirmed exoplanets found by the transit photometry method is closest to

2500.

The star π³-Orionis is 8 parsecs from our Sun. The light from π³-Orionis has been traveling for

26.4 years.

The star Kruger 60 shows a heliocentric stellar parallax of almost exactly 0.25 seconds of arc. The distance from our Sun to Kruger 60 is

4 parsecs.

Compared to the frequency of photons absorbed during a transition from a -5ev state to a -4ev state, transitions from the -5ev state to a -1ev state would correspond to absorbing photons whose frequency is

4 times as high.

Our own Sun has an absolute visual magnitude of 4.8. A starship that travels 10 parsecs from our Sun and looks back at the Sun will see it as having apparent visual magnitude

4.8.

A nearby cluster of several thousand galaxies is called

The Virgo Cluster.

absolute magnitude

The actual brightness of a star the magnitude that describes the absolute brightness

proper motion

The apparent angular motion across the sky of an object relative to the Solar System.

Giant Impact Theory

a mars size (Theia) meteoroid hit Earth and outside layer became moon (theory of how moon formed that is most accepted by people)

Spectroscopic Parallax refers to

a method for finding distances to stars

main sequence fitting

a method for measuring the distance to a cluster of stars by comparing the apparent brightness of the cluster's main sequence with that of the standard main sequence find absolute magnitude with hr diagram and can then find the distance modulus

terrestrial or Earthlike planets:

are small. are made of high density material (rock and iron). are close to the Sun. have solid surfaces. have no moons (of their own). do not have rings.

proper motion

are the actual motions of stars relative to each other

apparent motion

are what we see happening because of our own motion, such as the stars circling the North Celestial Pole because the Earth is rotating

​2010 Akatsuki

arrived at Venus, December 2010 but failed to achieve orbit when its main engine failed during the orbital insertion burn intended to focus on Venusian weather and will attempt to confirm the presence of lightning and continuing volcanic activity 2 out of the 5 cameras stopped working possibly due to a close encounter with the sun in December 2016 currently our only functioning spacecraft at Venus

Which of these moons has landmarks that are not rotating with the rest of the moon, indicating a subsurface ocean?

Titan.

Johannes Kepler

Tycho's assistant near the end of Tycho's life advocate of the Copernican system

Metallic Hydrogen

Under very high pressure electrons within hydrogen molecules are squeezed away from the hydrogen proton and become free to flow throughout the liquid. Chemically it behaves like molten sodium.

inverse square law for brightness

apparent brightness = luminosity/4pir^2 If you multiply the distance by some number, you divide the apparent brightness by the square of that number.

Earth's Core

appears to be made of iron and nickel outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid

Neptune

approximately the same size as Uranus but considerably more massive 30.1 au from the Sun, surface is one of the coldest in the Solar System, 353 degrees below zero Fahrenheit weather is extremely violent, probably driven by heat from its interior: Winds reach speeds of 2100 kilometers per hour probably made mostly of frozen gas and water ice nearly circular orbit: perihelion = 29.81au, aphelion = 30.33au, takes 164.79 years to go once around the Sun rotates on its axis once every 16.11 hours rotation axis has a tilt of 29.58 degrees from the perpendicular to its orbit sizable magnetic field: which has the magnetic north and south poles tilted at 47 degrees to the rotation axis and displaced from the center of the planet by about 0 .55 of its radius

Jovian (i.e. Jupiter-like) planets:

are large. are made of low density material (gas and ice). are far from the Sun. lack solid surfaces. have extensive systems of moons. all have rings.

comets

are made mostly of ice and frozen gases with some dust and rock --- "dirty snowballs." have extremely eccentric elliptical orbits that take them far from the Sun. evaporate and disintegrate when closer to the Sun than Mars, growing long tails.

Neptune's rings

are made of dark rocks that are difficult to see from Earth

An average star that is farther out from the galactic center than our sun would most likely be moving

at about the same speed as our sun.

Comets that originate in the Outer Oort Cloud have orbits that are

at all angles to the plane of the solar system.

Because of the electrical repulsion between atomic nuclei, nuclear fusion happens only

at high temperatures.

The Oort cloud of our Sun reaches

at least a quarter of the the way to the nearest star.

As of 2018, the search for near-Earth asteroids that could threaten global effects has most likely

found more than 90% of them.

fully extended Kuiper belt

from 30au to 55 au

Main Kuiper Belt

from 39.5au at its inner edge to about 48au at its outer edge

The reason the temperature rises as you go higher in the thermosphere is that the Sun's

high energy particles heat the ionosphere.

To measure the heliocentric stellar parallax of a star, you mostly need a telescope with

high resolving power.

Cassegrain telescope

hole in main mirror, convex secondary mirror, short tube, usually sealed against dust

If the acceleration of an object is zero, its speed

is not changing

Observations of the collision of two galaxyn clusters have shown that dark natter

is not the result of an incorrect theory of gravity.

Powers of a telescope - Light Gathering Power

is proportional to the area of the main mirror

When ice melts, the resulting liquid water occupies

less volume than the ice did.

The surface of Jupiter is marked by

light and dark bands circulating in opposite directions.

To see a large but faint object such as a nebula, you would need a telescope with large

light gathering power.

Stars appear to "twinkle" because

of turbulent air in our atmosphere that bends the starlight

The original source of energy for life forms that live near a black smoker is

often chemicals generated by the heat of the Earth's interior.

A converging lens will send the light from a distant star through a point

on the side of the lens opposite the star.

The Moon rotates on its axis relative to the distant stars

once every sidereal month.

Oxygen is

one of the four most common elements in the universe.

The habitable zone of a planetary system is defined to be the region where

planetary surfaces permit the existence of liquid water.

Ptolemaic Model​

the ancients assumed that each planet follows a small circular path (the epicycle) around a point (the deferent) which, in turn follows a circular path around the Earth.

The 'helium flash' refers to

the explosive ignition of a star's helium core.

A converging lens will send light rays that are parallel to the axis through

the focal point of the lens.

Mars retains a carbon dioxide atmosphere because

the pressure is very close to the triple point of water.

Celestial Equator

the projection into space of the earth's equator; an imaginary circle equidistant from the celestial poles.

Classical Kuiper Belt

region that is largely uninfluenced by the gravity of Neptune from 42 to 48au About 2/3 of the thousand or so Kuiper Belt objects found so far are in that region.

phase diagram of water

relationship between pressure and temperature The range of temperatures over which water stays liquid drops very fast when the pressure decreases At the pressure of the triple point and lower, water exists only as ice or vapor

Our Sun is a type G2V star on the main sequence. As it ages and uses up its fuel we expect it to

remain a G2V star until it leaves the main sequence.

Nuclear fusion requires high temperatures because nuclei

repel each other.

To see small but bright objects such as the ice caps on Mars, you would need a telescope with large

resolving power.

Asteroids can be made of

rock and possibly iron.

Venus

rotates backwards so that the Sun rises in the West.

Icy objects condensed from the outskirts of the Solar Nebula to form

the Kuiper belt.

1957 Sputnik

the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite powered by liquid fuel rocket engines Sputnik was followed by the first dog in space and, in 1961, the first man in space.

In Newton's Theory of planetary motion,

the Sun and Earth move around each other.

The term "greenhouse effect" refers to

the absorption of infrared light by gases in the atmosphere

In SETI programs, the "water hole" refers to

the range of signal frequencies between emissions caused by hydrogen and hydroxyl molecules.

The first indication that Cygnus X-1 might be a black hole was

the rapid fluctuations in its X-rays.

asteroid belt

the region of the solar system between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, where many asteroids are found the two largest objects are Ceres and Vesta

Our sun is roughly at the center of

the visible part of the Milky Way.

first law of motion

when the total force on an object is zero, its acceleration is also zero.

The Law of Inertia says that if an object is not acted on by any outside force, its acceleration

will always be zero.

The idea that a worthwhile model of a situation must predict what is actually observed seems to have started

with the ancient Greek philosophers

If we wish to find life with a carbon-return process similar to the one here on Earth, we should look for planets

with thin, unstable surfaces.

flat Earth model

would have an edge of completely unknown shape and that would need far more than a single number to specify it

In a region of the atmosphere in which the temperature falls with increasing altitudeyou expect rapid changes.

you expect rapid changes.

Which of the following magnitudes corresponds to the dimmest star?

+4

Which of the following magnitudes corresponds to the brightest star?

-1.5

The number of moons of Uranus that are larger than Earth's Moon is

0

The number of objects that have been observed to be orbiting in the Outer Oort Cloud is approximately

0

Which of the following magnitudes corresponds to the brightest star?

0

The mass of a carbon atom is 12.00amu while the mass of a helium-4 atom is 4.003amu. If a gamma ray photon splits a carbon atom into three Helium atoms, how much energy is converted into mass?

0.009amu

An ion rocket engine produces 100 Newtons of thrust. What acceleration can it give to a space probe with a mass of 10,000kg?

0.01 m/s².

The closest star to our sun is about four light years away. In the center of our galaxy, a typical distance between neighboring stars would be

0.04 light years.

In the Earth's atmosphere, the percentage that is Carbon Dioxide is roughly

0.04%

The mass of a carbon atom is 12.00amu while the mass of a deuterium atom is 2.014amu. If six deuterium atoms fuse to form a carbon atom, how much mass is converted into energy?

0.084amu

A star is seen to move by 0.2 seconds of arc between February 1, 1999 and August 1, 1999 and then back to its starting point on February 1, 2000. What is the parallax angle for this star?

0.1 seconds of arc.

A star is seen to move by 0.8 seconds of arc between March 1, 1999 and September 1, 1999 and then back to its starting point on March1, 2000. What is the parallax angle for this star?

0.4 seconds of arc.

As of 2018, how many space probes had flown past Uranus closely enough to take detailed pictures?

1

As of 2018, how many space probes have flown past Neptune closely enough to take detailed pictures?

1

The apparent brightness of our Sun is roughly 1000 watts per square meter. At a distance of 30 times the Earth-Sun distance, the apparent brightness of our Sun would be

1.1 watts per square meter.

The velocity of sound waves is roughly the same for all wavelengths. Suppose that a sound wave has a wavelength of one meter and a frequency of 500Hz. The wavelength of a 1000Hz sound wave would then be

1/2 m.

Saturn rotates on its axis once in about

10 hours

A star with a distance modulus of zero is at a distance of

10 parsecs

A star with a distance modulus of zero is at a distance of

10 parsecs.

A star is observed to have an apparent brightness which is 10⁻⁶ times its absolute brightness. How far away is it?

10,000 parsecs. 10 = 10p 10^2 = 100p 10^4 = 1000 10^6 = 10000

Our Sun is expected to last for about 10 billion years. Which of these is a likely lifespan for a star with 20 times the mass of our Sun?

10-15 million years.

Cruising far from the Sun, we notice that the Sun's apparent brightness has dimmed to 0.1 watts per square meter. We know that the apparent brightness at a distance of 1au is 1000 watts per square meter. How far from the Sun are we?

100 au

Our Sun is a G2V star with absolute magnitude 4.8. Suppose that a star of spectral type G2V is observed to have apparent magnitude 9.8. How far away is it?

100 parsecs.

Suppose that the color and behavior of a star identify it as a type that we know has absolute magnitude 4.8. If the star's apparent magnitude is found to be 9.8, how far away is it?

100 parsecs. 9.8-4.8 = 5 5/5 = 1 10^1 x 10 = 100

Compared to a magnitude 6 star, a magnitude 1 star would be

100 times as bright.

A star is observed to have an apparent brightness which is 10⁻⁴ times its absolute brightness. How far away is it?

1000 parsecs.

Barnard's star is a near neighbor of the Sun whose properties we know quite well. It is a type M4V with absolute magnitude 13.22. Suppose that another star of spectral type M4V is observed to have apparent magnitude 23.22. How far away is it?

1000 parsecs.

Suppose that the color and behavior of a star identify it as a type that we know has absolute magnitude -3. If the star's apparent magnitude is found to be 7, how far away is it?

1000 parsecs.

Suppose that the color and behavior of a star identify it as a type that we know has absolute magnitude 4.8. If the star's apparent magnitude is found to be 14.8, how far away is it?

1000 parsecs.

An asteroid whose impact generates a planet-wide catastrophe, changing the climate everywhere, probably has a diameter of about

1000 to 10,000 meters.

Barnard's star shows a proper motion of 10.36 arc seconds per year. In 100 years, its position in the sky changes by

1036 seconds of arc.

finding the magnitude of a star

10^-4 = 1/10000 1/10000 = 1/100 x 1/100 divided by 100 twice = add 5 twice 1+5+5= 11 Magnitude

A star at a distance of 10,000pc should have an apparent brightness equal to its absolute brightness multiplied by

10⁻⁶.

A star whose apparent brightness is 1/100 times that of a sixth magnitude star would have magnitude

11.

At 8pm, you see that the pointer stars of the Big dipper and the star Polaris are arranged in a vertical line. at what time. give or take a minute or so, would you see them arranged at 45 degrees to the vertical?

11pm the same day

Suppose that a flash of lightning from a cloud 2500 meters away is followed by a clap of thunder two seconds later. Assume that the light arrived in a negligible time and calculate the speed of the sound waves.

1250m/s

Suppose that a flash of lightning from a cloud 5000 meters away is followed by a clap of thunder four seconds later. Assume that the light arrived in a negligible time and calculate the speed of the sound waves.

1250m/s

Assume that the Hubble constant is 72 km/s/Mpc. If a galaxy is 20Mpc away, how fast is it moving away from us?

1440km/s

Pluto

1473 miles in diameter is the largest known object in the Kuiper Belt surface temperature varies between -369 Fahrenheit to -387 Fahrenheit not pushed and pulled by strong tidal forces Much of the surface is covered by frozen nitrogen and methane, with areas of frozen carbon monoxide (part of the "heart") and huge mountains made of water ice The lack of craters indicates a surface that is in constant change very elliptical orbit: perihelion = 29.7au, aphelion = 49.3au, takes 248 years to go once around the Sun. rotates on its axis once every 6.4 days, axis tilt of 119.68 degrees from the perpendicular to its orbit since it is so small and rotates so slowly its that no magnetic field is expected five known satellites: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Styx, and Kerberos. red areas: on Pluto and Charon, polymers called "tholins" form from methane and other organic compounds in the presence of nitrogen and ultraviolet light

Copernicus

1473-1543. Polish astronomer who was the first to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the earth from the center of the universe. This theory is considered the epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution. took the idea from Aristarchus that the daily motions of the heavens were due to the rotation of the Earth on its own axis, and that he figured that the motion of the Sun along the Ecliptic and the seasons of the year are due to the Earth moving around the Sun.

A star whose apparent brightness is 10⁻⁶ times that of a first magnitude star would have magnitude

16 10^-6 = 1/1000000 = 1/100 x 1/100 x 1/100 1 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 16

Van Allen Belts

2 doughnut shaped regions 1,000-25,000 kilometers above Earth that contain electrons and protons traveling at high speeds

The velocity of sound waves is roughly the same for all wavelengths. Suppose that a sound wave has a wavelength of one meter and a frequency of 1000Hz. The wavelength of a 500Hz sound wave would then be

2 m.

The star epsilon-Eridani shows a heliocentric stellar parallax near 1/3 seconds of arc. The distance from our Sun to epsilon-Eridani is near

3 parsecs.

Compared to the frequency of photons absorbed during a transition from a -5ev state to a -4ev state, transitions from the -5ev state to a -2ev state would correspond to absorbing photons whose frequency is

3 times as high.

The distance from our sun to the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is roughly

30,000 light years.

It now (2016) appears that, except for the universe itself, the largest structure in nature has a size of approximately

300 million light years.

The velocity of sound waves is roughly the same for all wavelengths. Suppose that a sound wave has a wavelength of one meter and a frequency of 1000Hz. The wavelength of a 250Hz sound wave would then be

4 m.

The violet lines in the Hydrogen spectrum are normally seen with wavelengths 410 nm and 434 nm. In the light of a star that is moving toward us, we might expect to see those lines at wavelengths of

400 nm and 424 nm

What total force will cause an object with a mass of 5kg to gain 10 meters per second every second?

50 Newtons.

Assume that the Hubble constant is 72 km/s/Mpc. If a galaxy is 10Mpc away, how fast is it moving away from us?

720km/s

At which of these times would you expect to see the sun in the east?

7:00am

Suppose that you want to double all of the dimensions of a telescope that uses a large lens to collect light. The amount of glass that you need to form the lens of the new, twice as large, telescope is

8 times the amount needed for the original telescope.

The star delta-Eridani shows a heliocentric stellar parallax of almost exactly 1/9 seconds of arc. The distance from our Sun to delta-Eridani is

9 parsecs.

A star leaves the main sequence when A it runs out of Hydrogen at its core. B Helium ignites at its core. C Hydrogen ignites at its core. D it runs out of Helium at its core. E its core collapses.

A it runs out of Hydrogen at its core.

In the Hertzsprung-Russelll Diagram shown, which point represents a star of type K with absolute magnitude +10?

A

Which of the following pictures is the most like the main sequence on a Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram?

A

The length of a sidereal month is 27 days. The time from one full Moon to the next is closest to A 29.5 days. B 32 days. C 27 days. D 24.5 days

A 29.5 days.

In the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram shown, which point represents a star of type K with absolute magnitude +10? A A B B C C D D E E

A A

Which of the following spectral classes corresponds to the second highest surface temperature (on this list)? A A B B C F D G E K

A A

Which of the following spectral types would you expect to look blue in color? A A B F C G D M

A A

Most Kuiper Belt Objects are similar in composition to A Comets. B Asteroids. C Stars. D Meteors. E Terrestrial Planets.

A Comets.

Which of the following statements is falsifiable? A Henry Ford invented the first automobile. B Fords are the best automobiles. C Henry Ford did not invent the first automobile. D Fords are not the best automobiles. E An automobile is a self-propelled vehicle.

A Henry Ford invented the first automobile.

Short-period comets are thought to be A Kuiper belt objects deflected by Neptune. B Asteroid belt objects deflected by Jupiter. C long period comets deflected by Neptune. D long period comets deflected by Jupiter. E Kuiper belt objects deflected by Jupiter.

A Kuiper belt objects deflected by Neptune.

Which of the following statements best describes the presence of water on Mars? A Mars probably had liquid water flowing on its surface at some time in the past. B At the present time, Mars is completely without water in any form. C Mars has liquid water flowing steadily on its surface at the present time. D At the present time, Mars is completely covered by a thin layer of frozen water ice.

A Mars probably had liquid water flowing on its surface at some time in the past.

Which of the following statements is falsifiable? A Passenger pigeons are extinct. B Passenger pigeons are not extinct. C Passenger pigeons taste good. D Passenger pigeons taste terrible. E Passenger pigeons were pests.

A Passenger pigeons are extinct.

Einstein's Theory of Relativity has passed every observational test for over 100 years. Cliff has analyzed a large family of alternative theories and figured out what each one predicts for the results of observational tests. Cliff presents his analysis at a scientific meeting as a way to evaluate such observational tests. Which of the following would be the most likely reaction of the scientists at the meeting to this new development? A There is great interest because the analysis suggests new tests that could prove that Relativity is wrong, so lots of scientists come to Cliff's talk to congratulate him. B There is great hostility because the alternative theories challenge the established theory, so lots of scientists come to Cliff's talk to debate the issue. C There is great disinterest because there is no need to replace a theory that has passed every observational test. Nobody at all comes to Cliff's talk.

A There is great interest because the analysis suggests new tests that could prove that Relativity is wrong, so lots of scientists come to Cliff's talk to congratulate him.

In the falsificationist philosophy of science that we have been discussing, all but one of the following types of statements are possible. Which one is NOT possible? A Well-tested and proven to be true. B Well-tested and proven to be false. C Untested and true. D Untested and false.

A Well-tested and proven to be true.

The ancient Greeks concluded that the Sun is larger than the Moon because A a total solar eclipse happens over a very small part of the Earth. B a total lunar eclipse happens only over a very small part of the Earth. C total lunar eclipses never happen. D a total solar eclipse happens everywhere on Earth at once. E a total lunar eclipse happens everywhere on Earth at once.

A a total solar eclipse happens over a very small part of the Earth.

In a particular binary star system, we are able to determine the masses of both stars in the system as well as the angle between our line of sight and the plane of the stars' orbits but cannot determine the diameters or atmospheric compositions of the two stars. This system is most likely A a visual binary system. B a spectroscopic binary system. C an eclipsing spectroscopic binary system.

A a visual binary system.

When nuclear fusion reactions stop in a star similar to our own Sun, the star A becomes a white dwarf. B becomes a nova. C has a core collapse. D becomes a brown dwarf.

A becomes a white dwarf.

luminosity class

A category describing the region of the H-R diagram in which a star falls. 1a = bright supergiant Ib = Supergiant II = Bright Giant III = Giant IV = Subgiant V = Main Sequence

If you are looking down over the south pole of the Earth, you will see the Earth rotate A clockwise. B counterclockwise. C upward. D downward.

A clockwise.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. adenine to thymine, guanine to cytosine A DNA molecule acts as a template for making a copy of itself by splitting each nitrogenous base pair to make two half-ladders which then act as patterns to form their missing halves.

Protostar

A contracting cloud of gas and dust with enough mass to form a star

Copernicus said that the rotation of the Earth on its axis caused the A daily motions in the heavens. B phases of the Moon. C retrograde motion of the planets. D eclipses of the Moon E motion of the Sun along the ecliptic.

A daily motions in the heavens.

Aristarchus measured the angle between the Sun and the Moon when exactly half of the Moon was illuminated. If he had measured the angle when 3/4 of the Moon was illuminated, he would have found that angle to be A greater than 90 degrees. B exactly 90 degrees. C less than 90 degrees by an amount too small for him to measure. D less than 90 degrees by an amount that was easy for him to measure.

A greater than 90 degrees.

Constellation

A group of stars that form a pattern in the sky

A converging mirror of the sort that is used to collect light in astronomical telescopes A has a focal point on the same side of the mirror as the light source. B has a focal point on the side of the mirror that is farthest from the light source. C brings parallel light rays to a focus at a point in the center of the mirror. D spreads parallel light rays apart so that they look as if they are coming from a virtual focal point.

A has a focal point on the same side of the mirror as the light source.

Ultraviolet light is sometimes described as either UV-A or UV-B. The UV-B variety is supposed to be more damaging to your skin. You can conclude that of the two types, the UV-B variety has the A higher frequency. B lower frequency. C higher intensity. D lower intensity.

A higher frequency.

For stars on the main-sequence, stars with increasing mass have A increasing surface temperature and absolute brightness. B decreasing surface temperature and absolute brightness. C increasing surface temperature and decreasing absolute brightness. D decreasing surface temperature and increasing absolute brightness.

A increasing surface temperature and absolute brightness.

Stars with more than 15 times the mass of our Sun usually evolve off the main sequence along a path in the HR diagram that A is mostly horizontal. B is mostly vertical. C starts out horizontal and then goes almost vertical. D starts out vertical and then goes almost horizontal.

A is mostly horizontal.

An artificial satellite such as the International Space Station stays up because A it falls below a straight-line path in exactly the same way that the curved surface of the Earth does. B Earth's gravity does not extend beyond the atmosphere, so the Space Station is weightless. C its speed weakens the pull of gravity. D it is fixed in the fabric of space. E the shortest distance between two points on the surface of the Earth is a great circle.

A it falls below a straight-line path in exactly the same way that the curved surface of the Earth does.

When a star first moves off the main sequence, A its surface temperature drops and its brightness first stays about the same and then increases. B its surface temperature drops and its brightness first increases and then stays about the same. C its surface temperature rises and its brightness first stays about the same and then increases. D its surface temperature rises and its brightness first increases and then stays about the same. E its surface temperature drops and its brightness also drops.

A its surface temperature drops and its brightness first stays about the same and then increases.

solar nebula

A large cloud of gas and dust such as the one that formed our solar system

Craters

A large round pit caused by the impact of a meteoroid. very different from volcano craters. The floor of an impact crater is lower than the surrounding terrain. The floor of a volcanic crater is higher.

converging lens

A lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges and that refracts parallel rays to a focus. works by refracting light

When ice melts, the resulting liquid water occupies A less volume than the ice did. B the same volume that the ice did. C more volume than the ice did.

A less volume than the ice did.

Negative magnitude

A magnitude -5 star would be 100 times as bright as a magnitude zero star such as Vega

spectrocopic parallax

A measurement of the apparent magnitude of the star then gives the distance modulus and thus the distance to the star. finding the distance using the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

When the fireball of its entry into the atmosphere was spotted from a KLM airliner, asteroid 2008 TC₃ had officially become a A meteor. B meteoroid. C meteorite. D comet.

A meteor.

meteorite

A meteoroid that passes through the atmosphere and hits Earth's surface.

The observed magnetic field of Mercury is surprising because it was expected to have A no magnetic field at all because it rotates so slowly. B no magnetic field at all because its density indicates only a small iron core. C a much larger magnetic field because of its huge iron core. D a magnetic field similar to Earth's because it is a terrestrial planet.

A no magnetic field at all because it rotates so slowly.

The earliest known measurement of the circumference of the Earth used A noon Sun angles at two locations to determine the angle between the Earth radii to those locations. B noon Sun angles to determine the longitudes of two different locations. C the angle between the Sun and the quarter Moon at two locations to determine the angle between the Earth radii to those locations. D the duration of a lunar eclipse to determine the angle swept out by the Moon during the eclipse. E the angle between the Sun and the quarter Moon to determine the angle between the Sun radii to the Earth and Moon.

A noon Sun angles at two locations to determine the angle between the Earth radii to those locations.

As viewed from the star Polaris, Venus A rotates clockwise and goes around the Sun counter-clockwise. B rotates counter-clockwise and goes around the Sun clockwise. C rotates clockwise and goes around the Sun clockwise. D rotates counter-clockwise and goes around the Sun counter-clockwise. E does not rotate at all.

A rotates clockwise and goes around the Sun counter-clockwise.

red shift

A shift toward longer wavelengths of the spectral lines emitted by a celestial object that is caused by the object moving away from the earth.

Aristotle said that the amount of force on a moving earthly object determines its A speed. B acceleration. C time in motion. D distance travelled.

A speed.

In the core of a high-mass star, the formation of `degenerate neutron matter' which consists entirely of neutrons that touch one another A starts a supernova explosion. B starts the collapse of the star's core. C releases a burst of neutrinos. D triggers a nova. E causes a gamma-ray burst.

A starts a supernova explosion.

meteor

A streak of light in the sky produced by the burning of a meteoroid in Earth's atmosphere.

adaptive optics

A technique in which telescope mirrors flex rapidly to compensate for the bending of starlight caused by atmospheric turbulence

If you are told that an object that weighs 20 Newtons is raised a distance of 10 meters, you know that. A the force of gravity on the object is 20 Newtons. B the mass of the object is 20 Newtons. C the force of gravity on the object is 10 meters. D the mass of the object is 10 meters. E the acceleration of the object is 200 kilogram-meters.

A the force of gravity on the object is 20 Newtons.

sideral month

A time period based on the revolution of the Moon around Earth with respect to the stars takes about 27 days Earth-Moon system is orbiting the Sun at about one degree per day (27º a month)

You are standing at the edge of a great desert at noon time. In front of you is a sea of hot sand. Behind you is the coolness of a green and growing forest. Which way is the wind most likely blowing? A toward the desert. B toward the forest. C along the line between desert and forest.

A toward the desert.

According to our current model of how magnetic fields arise, the magnetic field of Earth's Moon is A understandable since the Moon rotates slowly and probably has no iron core. B difficult to understand since the Moon rotates slowly and probably has no iron core.. C understandable since the Moon rotates slowly but probably has a large iron core. D difficult to understand since the Moon rotates rapidly.

A understandable since the Moon rotates slowly and probably has no iron core.

In a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, the absolute brightness of stars increases going A upward. B downward. C to the right. D to the left.

A upward.

spectral type

A way of classifying a star by the lines that appear in its spectrum; it is related to surface temperature OBAFGKM with O for the hottest stars and M for the coolest, and are subdivided with numbers from 0 through 9 The lowest number corresponds to the hottest star

The Van Allen Belts are A where Earth's magnetic field traps charged particles from the Sun. B ionosphere currents that help sustain the Earth's magnetic field. C where the Earth's magnetic field exactly balances its gravitational field. D regions where large numbers of asteroids orbit the Earth.

A where Earth's magnetic field traps charged particles from the Sun.

In a region of the atmosphere in which the temperature falls with increasing altitude A you expect rapid changes. B you expect no changes.

A you expect rapid changes.

If we should find micro-organisms on Mars that reproduce using a DNA/RNA scheme and set of amino acids that are mirror images of those used in all Earth life-forms, that would support the

Abiogenesis Model.

Mesosphere

Above 45 km the temperature falls as we get farther from the heated ozone layer. This region, up to about 80 km

Thermosphere

Above 80 km the temperature rises approaching the ionosphere

small asteroids air bursts

An airburst releases all of the kinetic energy of the asteroid at once in an explosion capable of devastating a wide area

Underneath the Atlantic Ocean is an undersea mountain range called the MidAtlantic Ridge. That ridge is caused by

An upward current in the Earth's Mantel.

Which of these is a statement of the Fermi Paradox?

Any long-lasting technological civilization should be obvious and might even be visiting us, so where are they?

circumpolar constellations

Any of the constellations so close to the celestial pole that they never set (or rise) as seen from a given latitude. examples: Ursa Minor (Polaris and the Big Dipper), Ursa Major (Big Dipper), Cepheus, and Cassiopeia some however behave like the sun, ​rising in the east and setting in the west.

predicting asteroid paths

Asteroids are in free fall, with no random thrusts from non-gravitational forces

Ionosphere

At about 500 km above the surface of the Earth, ultraviolet light from the Sun knocks electrons from atoms

Which of the following temperatures is closest to what you might expect on the planet Jupiter? A -150F B -250F C 50F D -350F E 100F

B -250F

A solar sail is a large sheet of light-reflecting plastic spread on an extremely low-mass framework and attached to a spacecraft. Sunlight exerts a force on the sail and moves the spacecraft. Suppose the spacecraft has a total mass of 100kg (including the sail) and sunlight exerts a total force of 2N on the sail. What will be the acceleration of the spacecraft? A 50m/s². B 0.02m/s². C 100m/s². D 2m/s². E 0.2m/s².

B 0.02m/s².

How many of the moons of Saturn are larger than the Earth's Moon? A 0 B 1 C 2 D 4

B 1

A star is seen to move by 2 seconds of arc between February 1, 1999 and August 1, 1999 and then back to its starting point on February 1, 2000. What is the parallax angle for this star? A 2 seconds of arc. B 1 seconds of arc. C 3 seconds of arc. D 4 seconds of arc. E 5 seconds of arc.

B 1 seconds of arc.

As of 2018, how many space probes had flown past Uranus closely enough to take detailed pictures? A 0. B 1. C 2. D 3. E 4.

B 1.

As of 2018, how many space probes have flown past Neptune closely enough to take detailed pictures? A 0. B 1. C 2. D 3. E 4.

B 1.

A starship observes that a nearby star has apparent magnitude 4.0. The spectrum of the star indicates that it is a type that normally has absolute magnitude 4.0. From these observations, the starship knows that it is A 1 parsec from the star. B 10 parsecs from the star. C 100 parsecs from the star. D 1000 parsecs from the star. E 10,000 parsecs from the star.

B 10 parsecs from the star.

The diameter of a white dwarf star might be A 10 miles. B 10,000 miles. C 1,000,000 miles. D 100,000,000 miles.

B 10,000 miles.

The number of near-Earth asteroids that are more than one kilometer in diameter appears to be close to A 10. B 1000. C 30,000. D 300,000. E 3,000,000.

B 1000.

Suppose that you lift an object by exerting an upward force of 22 Newtons on it. If gravity exerts a force of 10 Newtons downward on the object, what is the total force on the object? A 22 Newtons. B 12 Newtons. C 10 Newtons. D 2 Newtons. E 120 Newtons.

B 12 Newtons.

Compared to the frequency of photons absorbed during a transition from a -6ev state to a -4ev state, transitions from the -6ev state to a -2ev state would correspond to absorbing photons whose frequency is A the same. B 2 times as high. C 3 times as high. D 4 times as high. E 5 times as high.

B 2 times as high.

There are 365.242199 solar days in a year. From this fact, you can conclude that, relative to the distant stars, earth rotates closest to A 365.242199 times in a year. B 366.242199 times in a year. C 364.242199 times in a year. D a number of times in a year that cannot be determined from the information given.

B 366.242199 times in a year.

Compared to the Earth, the planet Uranus is roughly A the same size. B 4 times as large. C 11 times as large. D twice as large. E half as large.

B 4 times as large.

Epsilon Eridani shows a proper motion of 0.97661 arc seconds per year. In 100 years, its position in the sky changes by A 0.97661 seconds of arc. B 97.661 seconds of arc. C 0 seconds of arc. D 9.7661 seconds of arc. E 1036 seconds of arc.

B 97.661 seconds of arc.

Which of the following statements is falsifiable? A There are green fish in Lake Nyak. B All of the fish in Lake Nyak are green. C All of the fish in Lake Nyak are beautiful.

B All of the fish in Lake Nyak are green.

Which of the following types of objects can be made of rock and iron? A Comets. B Asteroids. C Kuiper Belt Objects. D Centaurs. E Jovian Planets.

B Asteroids.

Which of the following pictures is the most like the main sequence on a Hertzsprung-Russelll Diagram? A A B B C C D D

B B

Jupiter's moons

Currently 69 moons are known. The number of moons with official names and confirmed status is 53

The Galilean satellites of Jupiter are A Titan, Ganymede, Callisto, and Io. B Callisto, Europa, Ganymede, and Io. C Janus, Epimethus, Iapetus, and Titan. D Ganymede and Callisto. E Io and Titan.

B Callisto, Europa, Ganymede, and Io.

In current Earth life, the self-copying molecule that contains the information needed to construct and operate a life-form is A chlorophyll. B DNA. C RNA. D glucose. E glycoaldehyde.

B DNA.

In the 1990s astronomical telescopes began to switch from recording images on film to recording them digitally using Charge Coupled Devices. This led to the discovery of new asteroids at a rapid rate because A The CCD imagers could detect fainter objects than film. B Digital images could be processed by computers. C More pictures could be taken, since they did not need to buy film.

B Digital images could be processed by computers.

In the Hertzsprung-Russelll diagram shown, point number 2 could be a A B0 star of absolute magnitude -5. B F0 star of absolute magnitude -5. C B0 star of absolute magnitude 10. D F9 star of absolute magnitude 5. E K2 star of absolute magnitude 10.

B F0 star of absolute magnitude -5.

Which of the following star-like objects would most likely be considered to be a brown dwarf? A Gliese, luminosity and temperature -- type M3V. B Gliese 229B, luminosity and temperature both below type M9V. C Barnard's Star, luminosity and temperature -- type M4V. D Lalande 21185, luminosity and temperature -- type M2V. E The planet Jupiter.

B Gliese 229B, luminosity and temperature both below type M9V.

In the Hertzsprung-Russelll diagram shown, point number 5 could be a A F9 star of absolute magnitude 5. B K2 star of absolute magnitude 10. C B0 star of absolute magnitude -5. D F0 star of absolute magnitude -5. E B0 star of absolute magnitude 10.

B K2 star of absolute magnitude 10.

In a solar day, the sun comes back to the same place in the sky but, in relation to the distant stars, the Earth actually rotates A Exactly one revolution. B More than one revolution. C Less than one revolution. D More or less than one revolution, depending on the season.

B More than one revolution.

The search for extrasolar planets has started to find "super-Earths," planets several times as large as Earth but with about the same density. From what we understand so far about plate tectonics on Earth, how likely is it that these super-Earths would have active surfaces like ours? A Impossible because these planets are the wrong size. B Possible if other conditions are also present. C Certain because all you need is size.

B Possible if other conditions are also present.

You would expect to see a waning crescent Moon A Setting in the West right after the Sun. B Rising in the East just before the Sun. C Setting in the East right after the Sun. D Rising in the West just before the Sun. E In the North at around midnight.

B Rising in the East just before the Sun.

The first successful soft landing on the Moon was A Surveyor 1 in 1969. B Surveyor 1 in 1966. C Luna 21 in 1973. D Luna 21 in 1976. E Apollo 10 in 1969.

B Surveyor 1 in 1966.

It is currently thought that moons typically do not form near A Jovian planets such as Jupiter and Saturn. B Terrestrial planets such as Earth and Mars. C Any planets of isolated stars. D Any planets of binary star systems.

B Terrestrial planets such as Earth and Mars.

Which of the following models for the formation of life on Earth would most likely apply if it turns out that the first step of forming a self-copying molecule is rather easy and happens as soon as conditions are right for it? A The Abiogenesis Chimera Model. B The Abiogenesis Model. C The Panspermia Model. D The Spontaneous Generation Model.

B The Abiogenesis Model.

The Earth is farther from the Sun than Mercury. Which of the following statements is true? A The Earth takes more time to go around the Sun but moves faster than Mercury because it has farther to go. B The Earth takes more time to go around the Sun and also moves slower than Mercury. C The Earth takes less time to go around the Sun and moves slower than Mercury. D The Earth takes less time to go around the Sun and moves a lot faster than Mercury.

B The Earth takes more time to go around the Sun and also moves slower than Mercury.

A technological civilization that lasts for astronomically significant periods of time should make an obvious and visible impact on the galaxy and should have figured out how to visit us by now. That leads to the question "So, where are they"? This statement and question is usually referred to as A The Drake Equation. B The Fermi Paradox. C The Copernican Principle. D The Twin Paradox. E The Third Law of Thermodynamics.

B The Fermi Paradox.

Uranus's magnetic North and South poles are A displaced from its rotation axis poles, but still symmetrical about its center, much like Earth's. B displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet. C almost exactly aligned with its rotation axis. D near the equator of the planet.

B displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet.

Why don't we just shoot all of our really nasty waste products into the Sun where they could not possibly bother anyone? A One person's trash is another person's treasure. Maybe someone will buy it from us. B The Sun is actually the hardest part of the Solar System to get to from here. C If we drop our trash out of orbit, it might end up anywhere. D It might bounce back at us. E The Space Shuttle is not flying anymore and the Russians do not want to cart our trash.

B The Sun is actually the hardest part of the Solar System to get to from here.

The Ptolemaic model of the Solar system accounted for the daily rising and setting of the Sun by assuming that A The Earth rotates on its axis once a day. B The Sun moves around the Earth once a day. C The Sun drops below the surface of the Earth when it sets and travels underground to get back to where it rises each day. D The Earth moves around the Sun once a day.

B The Sun moves around the Earth once a day.

Suppose that some very strange creatures are found in a long-isolated place such as underneath the ice of Antarctica. Which of the following would be the strongest evidence that these creatures are descended from a different `first replicating molecule' than the rest of life on Earth? A The creatures are powered by heat-driven Iron and Sulfur chemistry instead of by sunlight. B The creatures use amino acid molecules that are mirror-images of the usual ones. C The creatures use several amino acid sequences that Earth life does not normally use. D The creatures use RNA as their basic genetic information-storage material instead of DNA. E The creatures absorb chlorine and excrete carbon tetracholoride.

B The creatures use amino acid molecules that are mirror-images of the usual ones.

Which of the following statements describes the relation between what we observe and the predictions of the nebular model of the formation of the Solar System? A The model predicts icy planets nearest to the Sun and we observe rocky planets there. B The model predicts rocky planets nearest to the Sun and we observe rocky planets there. C The model predicts rocky planets throughout the Solar System and we observe rocky planets everywhere. D The model predicts rocky planets throughout the Solar System and we observe rocky planets only far from the Sun. E The model predicts rocky planets throughout the Solar System and we observe rocky planets only nearest to the Sun.

B The model predicts rocky planets nearest to the Sun and we observe rocky planets there.

The motion of the Moon around the Earth causes A Daily motions in the Heavens. B The phases of the Moon. C The seasons. D Meteor Showers. E Dandruff.

B The phases of the Moon.

Suppose that you observe a planet that reflects mostly green light and absorbs both red and infra-red light. Which of the following conclusions can you make? A The planet has Earth-type green plants on its surface. B The planet does not have Earth-type green plants on its surface. C The planet could have Earth-type planets or just green rocks There is no way to tell.

B The planet does not have Earth-type green plants on its surface.

Which of these moons could have two levels of oceans, with oceans of liquid hydrocarbons on the surface and oceans of liquid water beneath the surface? A Ganymede. B Titan. C Enceladus. D Europa.

B Titan.

The axial tilt of Pluto is most similar to that of A Earth. B Uranus. C Venus. D Neptune.

B Uranus.

An example of a planet with no liquid water at all and a dense carbon dioxide atmosphere is A Mercury B Venus C Earth D Mars

B Venus

The sun usually sets in the A East. B West. C North. D South. E Ocean.

B West.

An area of the sky that is marked by a recognizable pattern of stars is called A a celestial sector. B a constellation. C an asterism. D a stellar neighborhood. E an astral house.

B a constellation.

Jupiter has A no ring system at all. B a few rings made of dark rocks. C an extensive ring system made of ice-covered rocks.

B a few rings made of dark rocks.

Civilizations capable of sending out broadcast messages that we could possibly detect across interstellar distances would have to be technologically advanced and would probably be much more advanced than we are. That makes it difficult to decide what sort of signals they would send. The SETI program has decided to listen for microwave signals rather than more exotic types of signals (such as laser light, gamma rays, neutrinos, gravitational waves, etc.). The main reason for this choice is that A microwave technology will always be easier to use than more exotic communication technologies, even for unknown advanced civilizations. B a microwave signal can send the largest amount of information for a given amount of energy used to generate the signal. C a microwave signal can be beamed directly at us, greatly increasing the signal strength that we receive. D a microwave signal is easier to receive by less advanced civilizations and thus would have a wider potential audience.

B a microwave signal can send the largest amount of information for a given amount of energy used to generate the signal.

A rising convection current in the Earth's mantle is expected to cause A a deep ocean trench where tectonic plates are pulled together. B a mid-ocean ridge where tectonic plates are spreading apart. C a deep ocean trench where tectonic plates are spreading apart. D a mid-ocean ridge where tectonic plates are pulled together. E a magnetic domain in the Earth's core.

B a mid-ocean ridge where tectonic plates are spreading apart.

In a particular binary star system, we are only able to determine a minimum mass for each star and cannot determine the angle between our line of sight and the plane of the stars' orbits. This system is most likely A a visual binary system. B a spectroscopic binary system. C an eclipsing spectroscopic binary system.

B a spectroscopic binary system.

When the iron nuclei in the core of an evolved high-mass star start to come apart, they A release energy and raise the core temperature. B absorb energy and limit the core temperature. C trigger a new round of nuclear fusion. D cause the core to expand.

B absorb energy and limit the core temperature.

In addition to being accurate, Tycho Brahe's observations focused on measuring the positions of the planets A during the solstices. B all the time. C when they were in retrograde motion. D near the horizon. E during conjunctions.

B all the time.

Galaxies A and B are 100Mpc from us in exactly opposite directions while galaxy C is 200Mpc away in the same direction as galaxy B. From the viewpoint of galaxy A, we are moving away while

B and C both move away.

The main reason that telescope mirrors can be much larger than lenses is that the mirrors A can be made of metal. B are lighter because they are thinner. C are stronger because they are thicker. D can have holes in them.

B are lighter because they are thinner.

Comets that originate in the Outer Oort Cloud have orbits that are A mostly close to the plane of the solar system. B at all angles to the plane of the solar system. C mostly perpendicular to the plane of the solar system.

B at all angles to the plane of the solar system.

Because of the electrical repulsion between atomic nuclei, nuclear fusion happens only A at low temperatures. B at high temperatures. C in dark places. D in solids. E at low pressures.

B at high temperatures.

Think of the `front' of a telescope as the end that light enters. A telescope with Cassegrain Focus has the eyepiece A inside the telescope barrel. B at the back of the telescope. C off to one side in a position that stays fixed when the telescope moves. D sticking out the side near the back. E sticking out the side near the front.

B at the back of the telescope.

According to the current model of the early history of the Solar System, the rain of comets that supplied water to the Earth and other planets happened A before the formation of the Oort Cloud. B at the same time as the formation of the Oort Cloud. C after the formation of the Oort Cloud.

B at the same time as the formation of the Oort Cloud.

A star that is hotter than most other stars will probably look A red. B blue. C yellow. D peach. E orange.

B blue.

From the way that lunar eclipses happen, the Ancient Greeks were able to A conclude that the Sun is farther from the Earth than the Moon. B calculate the distance from the Earth to the Moon. C calculate the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

B calculate the distance from the Earth to the Moon.

Meteor showers are caused by A the Sun passing through a spiral arm. B comet debris. C asteroids. D exploding stars. E the Solar Wind.

B comet debris.

The discovery that there is water ice on the Moon has motivated many nations to launch Moon missions because it A indicates that life might have originated on the Moon. B could make a Moon base possible. C complicates the already difficult problem of explaining how the Moon formed. D could be mined and sent back to the Earth.

B could make a Moon base possible.

According to our current (very tentative) estimates, a spaceship travelling from our Sun to one of the nearest stars such as Alpha Centauri A probably A would have to make the whole trip in one, very long, jump. B could make the trip in many short hops between rogue planets along the way.

B could make the trip in many short hops between rogue planets along the way.

Apollo 11 made the first A landing on the Moon by a spacecraft. B crewed landing on the Moon. C crewed orbit of the Moon. D test of docking procedures in lunar orbit.

B crewed landing on the Moon.

Neptune's magnetic North and South poles are A displaced from its rotation axis poles, but still symmetrical about its center, much like Earth's. B displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet. C almost exactly aligned with its rotation axis. D near the equator of the planet.

B displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet.

An advantage of carbon dioxide as the starting form of carbon for use by living things is that it A freezes to form dry ice. B dissolves in liquid water. C is the result of burning carbon.

B dissolves in liquid water.

The dark side of the Moon, where the Sun never shines, A is the side that always faces away from Earth. B does not exist. C is the side that always faces toward the Earth.

B does not exist.

Copernicus said that the retrograde motion of the planets was caused by the A earth turning on its axis. B earth and the planets orbiting the Sun. C planets turning on their axes. D planets speeding up and slowing down. E planets moving on epicycles.

B earth and the planets orbiting the Sun.

As Saturn orbits the Sun, we see its rings from different angles. We see the rings A as perfect circles exactly once each orbit. B edge-on as a straight line exactly twice each orbit. C edge-on as a straight line exactly once each orbit.

B edge-on as a straight line exactly twice each orbit.

Which of the following particles would be electrically attracted by a positron? A proton. B electron. C neutron. D neutrino.

B electron.

The semi-liquid rock that is found inside the Earth A is a liquid suspended in a solid. B flows like a liquid under gradual pressure but is stiff like a solid under sudden pressure. C flows like a liquid under sudden pressure but is stiff like a solid under gradual pressure. D is a solid suspended in a liquid.

B flows like a liquid under gradual pressure but is stiff like a solid under sudden pressure.

Supernova explosions tend to A burn up elements heavier than iron. B form elements heavier than iron. C fuse lighter elements to form mostly iron.

B form elements heavier than iron.

Carbon is essential for all life we know about because it A is a good solvent that promotes chemical reactions. B forms complex compounds. C forms unstable compounds that can store and release energy. D combines easily with oxygen.

B forms complex compounds.

A spectrum is defined to be the set of A energy levels in a light source. B frequencies or colors present in a light source. C frequencies or colors missing from a light source. D energy levels missing from a light source. E photons present in a light source.

B frequencies or colors present in a light source.

The range of distances of a planet from its primary star that will permit the existence of liquid water on the planet's surface is called the A water hole. B habitable zone. C inner system. D triple point.

B habitable zone.

According to our current (very tentative) estimates, a spaceship travelling from our Sun to one of the nearest stars such as Alpha Centauri A would probably be traveling through the Oort cloud of our Sun and that of Alpha Centauri A for a distance that is A the whole trip. B half of the whole trip. C less than one tenth of the whole trip.

B half of the whole trip.

The second most common element in the universe is A water. B helium. C silicon. D hydrogen. E carbon.

B helium.

The troposphere is where one finds A atoms with missing electrons. B hurricanes. C the upper ozone layer. D no vertical air movement. E absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

B hurricanes.

The Kuiper Belt is thought to have originated when A a planet failed to form near Jupiter. B icy objects condensed out just beyond Neptune. C icy objects were ejected outward from among the Jovian planets. D icy objects were ejected inward from among the Jovian planets. E icy objects condensed out of the interstellar medium.

B icy objects condensed out just beyond Neptune.

A model in which the Moon forms by breaking away from the Earth would predict that the Moon's orbit should be A in the plane of the ecliptic. B in the plane of the Earth's equator. C perpendicular to the plane of the Earth's equator. D somewhat tilted relative to the plane of the Earth's equator.

B in the plane of the Earth's equator.

If there is life on one of the Jovian moons, we would expect that life to most likely be A on the surface, using solar energy through photosynthesis. B in the subsurface oceans, using chemical and thermal energy. C in the surface lakes of liquid hydrocarbons, using tidal energy. D in the rocks, using magnetic energy.

B in the subsurface oceans, using chemical and thermal energy.

The range of signal frequencies between absorption bands caused by hydrogen and hydroxyl molecules A is always avoided by SETI programs because signals there are strongly absorbed. B is referred to as the "water hole" and is the frequency band that SETI programs usually choose. C is referred to as the "hydrogen band" and is usually avoided by SETI programs. D has no particular significance for SETI programs.

B is referred to as the "water hole" and is the frequency band that SETI programs usually choose.

The gravitational attraction of the Earth for other objects, A is the same no matter where those objects are. B is smaller for objects farther from the Earth but never vanishes entirely. C extends only as far as the Earth's atmosphere and vanishes for objects like an orbiting space station. D is larger for objects farther from the Earth.

B is smaller for objects farther from the Earth but never vanishes entirely.

Pluto A is always closer to the Sun than Uranus. B is sometimes closer to the Sun than Neptune and sometimes farther from the Sun. C is always farther from the Sun than Neptune. D is sometimes closer to the Sun than Uranus and sometimes farther from the Sun E is always closer to the Sun than Neptune.

B is sometimes closer to the Sun than Neptune and sometimes farther from the Sun.

If we wish to find life with a carbon-return process similar to the one here on Earth, we should look for planets A with thick, stable surfaces. B larger than Mars. C with volcanoes.

B larger than Mars.

Ancient lava flows on the Moon are called Lunar A planitia. B maria. C craters. D valleys. E terrae.

B maria.

At midsummer in Murmansk (which is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle), the Sun stays above the horizon for several days. This observation would conflict with the predictions of a model of the Sun's motion that has the Sun A moving around the Earth. B moving over and under a flat Earth. C remaining still while the Earth goes around the Sun.

B moving over and under a flat Earth.

Heliocentric Stellar Parallax causes A nearby stars to shift steadily in the same direction. B nearby stars to shift back and forth once a year. C all stars to jump randomly around. D all stars to move away from a point in the constellation Hercules.

B nearby stars to shift back and forth once a year.

One conclusion that was drawn from the gradual slowing of the radio signals from the Crab Nebula was that they were probably A from a source moving away from us. B of natural origin. C of artificial origin. D from a source moving toward us. E an obvious hoax.

B of natural origin.

The original source of energy for life forms that live near a black smoker is A always the Sun by means of dead plant and animal matter that falls from the surface of the ocean. B often chemicals generated by the heat of the Earth's interior. C often tube worms. D often bacteria.

B often chemicals generated by the heat of the Earth's interior.

An RNA molecule consists of A one long chain of amino acids with sugar phosphate molecules attached to the side of it. B one sugar phosphate chain with single nitrogenous bases attached to the side of it. C two sugar phosphate chains connected by pairs of nitrogenous bases. D two long chains of nitrogenous bases connected by pairs of sugar phosphate molecules.

B one sugar phosphate chain with single nitrogenous bases attached to the side of it.

When a seismometer detects an earthquake, the first signal to arrive is usually the A shear wave. B pressure wave. C local news.

B pressure wave.

The phase diagram for water is presented on a graph with axes for temperature and A mass density. B pressure. C volume. D physical state.

B pressure.

Which of the following particles would be attracted to a neutron through the strong force? A positron. B proton. C electron. D neutrino.

B proton.

The upper right of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is where one finds A white dwarf stars. B red giant stars. C main sequence stars.

B red giant stars.

As seen from North America, the constellation Orion A sets in the east and southeast. B sets in the west and southwest. C sets in the northwest. D sets in the northeast. E never sets.

B sets in the west and southwest.

One property of a model such as the shape of the Earth is the number of adjustable parameters it has --- the number of numbers that are needed to determine the model. For a model to be regarded as `elegant', this number A does not really matter. B should be small. C should be large so that the model can fit all kinds of measurements.

B should be small.

Eratosthenes of Cyrene is generally credited with using the angle of the noon Sun at Alexandria and Syene to determine the A size of the Sun. B size of the Earth. C distance from the Earth to the Sun. D time of the summer solstice. E length of a solar year. Solution

B size of the Earth.

Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter you find A the Kuiper Belt. B the Asteroid Belt. C The Oort Cloud. D The Planet Saturn. E The Planet Neptune.

B the Asteroid Belt.

Because the radiant of the Lyrid meteor shower is in the constellation Lyra, you can conclude that A the comet that gave rise to the Lyrids originally came from Lyra. B the Earth is moving toward Lyra when it passes through the remains of the comet. C the comet that gave rise to the Lyrids was moving in the direction of Lyra when it broke up. D the Sun is moving in the direction of the constellation Lyra.

B the Earth is moving toward Lyra when it passes through the remains of the comet.

The capture theory, in which the Moon forms as a separate object similar to Earth and is then captured by the Earth, would predict that A the Moon's orbit should be in the plane of Earth's equator. B the Moon should have an iron core similar to Earth's. C the Moon should not have an iron core. D the Moon's orbit should be in the plane of the ecliptic.

B the Moon should have an iron core similar to Earth's.

From the duration of a lunar eclipse, the Ancient Greeks were able to calculate A the size of the Moon. B the distance from the Earth to the Moon. C the distance from the Earth to the Sun. D the Size of the Sun. E the Size of the Earth.

B the distance from the Earth to the Moon.

A converging lens will send light rays that are parallel to the axis through A a point on the same side of the lens as the source. B the focal point of the lens. C the center of the lens. D one edge of the lens. E no one actual point.

B the focal point of the lens.

The magnetic field of Jupiter is A lined up with the planet's rotation axis and passing through its center. B tilted relative to the planet's rotation axis but not offset from its center. C lined up with the planet's rotation axis and offset from its center. D tilted relative to the planet's rotation axis and also offset from its center.

B tilted relative to the planet's rotation axis but not offset from its center.

A planet that is following Kepler's Laws, accelerates A in the direction of the planets motion. B toward the Sun. C away from the Sun. D between the direction of the planets motion and the direction from the planet to the Sun. E opposite to the direction of the planets motion.

B toward the Sun.

Once a space probe has gotten far enough from the Earth, it can reach the inner planets by A turning off its rocket motor and falling in toward the Sun. B using its rocket motor and the gravity of various planets to change its speed and direction. C pointing itself toward those planets. D discarding spent rocket stages so that it slows down.

B using its rocket motor and the gravity of various planets to change its speed and direction.

A world with both liquid water on its surface and carbon dioxide in its atmosphere is unstable because A water and carbon dioxide tend to combine explosively. B water dissolves carbon dioxide and takes it out of the atmosphere. C carbon dioxide causes water to disassociate into hydrogen and Oxygen. D water and carbon dioxide combine to form solid carbon hydrate, which precipitates out of the atmosphere.

B water dissolves carbon dioxide and takes it out of the atmosphere.

Astronomy is known for claiming to have measured many things that cannot possibly be probed directly. These measurements are made by combining actual measurements with A wild guesses. B well-tested models. C fictitious measurements. D arrogant claims.

B well-tested models.

The idea that a worthwhile model of a situation must predict what is actually observed seems to have started A only in modern times, since the Renaissance in Europe. B with the ancient Greek philosophers. C with the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.

B with the ancient Greek philosophers.

Which of the following full spectral types corresponds to a star on the main sequence?

B4V

long period comets

Believed to originate at a much greater distance from the Sun, in a cloud (the Oort cloud) consisting of debris left over from the condensation of solar nebula Comets are thrown from the outer planets or nearby stars, or as a result of collisions

The average radius of the Earth's orbit is A 0.1 au. B 0.01 au. C 1.0 au. D 2.0 au. E 5 au.

C 1.0 au.

A star is observed to have an apparent brightness which is 10⁻² times its absolute brightness. How far away is it? A 10⁶ parsecs. B 10 parsecs. C 100 parsecs. D 1000 parsecs. E 10,000 parsecs.

C 100 parsecs.

Barnard's Star shows a heliocentric stellar parallax near 1/2 seconds of arc. The distance from our Sun to Barnard's Star is A 0.25 parsecs. B 0.75 parsecs. C 2 parsecs. D 4 parsecs. E 8 parsecs.

C 2 parsecs.

In the Earth's atmosphere, the percentage that is Oxygen is roughly A 80%. B 50%. C 20%. D 1%. E 0.04%.

C 20%.

If the planets are numbered from 1 to 8, going outward from the Sun, the planet Earth is number A 1. B 2. C 3. D 4. E 5.

C 3.

The Earth's distance from the Sun is defined to be 1 astronomical unit. Neptune is about 30 astronomical units from the Sun. An object in the Outer Oort Cloud might be at a distance from the Sun of A 40 astronomical units. B 3 astronomical units. C 40,000 astronomical units. D 15,000 astronomical units. E 0.5 astronomical units.

C 40,000 astronomical units.

The density of water is 1000kg/m³, the density of rock is about 3000kg/m³, and the density of iron is 7800kg/m³. Which of the following densities would indicate an object that might consist of rock surrounding an iron core? A 500kg/m³ B 1000kg/m³ C 4000kg/m³ D 8000kg/m³ E 20,000kg/m³

C 4000kg/m³

The violet lines in the Hydrogen spectrum are normally seen with wavelengths 410 nm and 434 nm. In the light of a star that is moving away from us, we might expect to see those lines at wavelengths of A 400 nm and 424 nm B 410 nm and 434 nm C 415 nm and 439 nm

C 415 nm and 439 nm

The star Vega is 25 parsecs from our Sun. The light from Vega has been traveling for about A 25 years. B 7.5 years. C 80 years. D 12.5 years. E 0.04 years.

C 80 years.

The fact that the surface of Mars shows no tectonic activity means that one of the requirements for continuing life might be missing. A An energy source. B Liquid water. C A carbon-return process. D A portable form of carbon.

C A carbon-return process.

Which of the following computer programs is the most likely to be considered a scientific model? A An animated screen-saver that shows waves crashing on the beach. B A simulation game in which people can spend a day at the beach. C A simulation,using well-tested physical laws, of waves crashing on the beach.

C A simulation,using well-tested physical laws, of waves crashing on the beach.

A multiple star system close to the Earth that is known to have stable orbits in the habitable zones of each of its stars is A Epsilon Aurigae. B Albireo. C Alpha Centauri. D Sirius. E Procyon.

C Alpha Centauri.

The closest star to Earth (other than the Sun) is part of a multiple star system called A Epsilon Aurigae. B Albireo. C Alpha Centauri. D Sirius. E Procyon.

C Alpha Centauri.

Underneath the Atlantic Ocean is an undersea mountain range called the MidAtlantic Ridge. That ridge is caused by A A continuing collision between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. B The pressure exerted by the water in the Atlantic Ocean C An upward current in the Earth's Mantel. D The remains of an ancient asteroid impact. E The remains of an ancient collision between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

C An upward current in the Earth's Mantel.

You read in an Astronomy book that our Milky Way Galaxy consists of about 200 billion stars. How do you suppose this number was determined? A By using a computer and a large telescope to count them all. B By counting the stars in our immediate neighborhood and assuming that to be typical of every neighborhood. C By using a model of the galaxy that correctly accounts for everything that has been measured so far. D By picking a number more or less at random since nobody could ever check it.

C By using a model of the galaxy that correctly accounts for everything that has been measured so far.

Which of the following spectral types corresponds to the star with the highest surface temperature? A G0 B G5 C F0 D F5

C F0

Which of the following statements is the most likely to be a reproducible observation: A I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm. B I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm in Richmond, VA. C I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm on December 22 in Richmond VA. D I saw the Sun set twelve hours after it rose.

C I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm on December 22 in Richmond VA.

The International Space Station (ISS) is in a roughly circular orbit near the surface of the Earth, moving at around 5 miles per second. Suppose that it is desired to raise it to a new circular orbit, farther from the surface by having a rocket give it one or more short boosts. Which of the following schemes will work? A Increase its speed to 6 miles per second to put it on a rising path. B Increase its speed to 8 miles per second to put it on a rising path. C Increase its speed to 6 miles per second to put it on a rising path and give it another speed boost when its distance from the Earth stops increasing. D Push it directly upward, away from the Earth. E Decrease its speed to 4.9 miles per second and then give it a speed boost when its distance from the Earth stops decreasing.

C Increase its speed to 6 miles per second to put it on a rising path and give it another speed boost when its distance from the Earth stops increasing.

The Ptolemaic System continued to be accepted long after such people as Aristarchus and Copernicus had proposed alternatives. All of the following reasons why it lasted so long are at least partly true. Which reason is the one that would be stressed by the philosophy of science that we have been discussing? A Church authorities supported it and did not want it replaced. B It was easier to understand and people do not like to learn new things. C It correctly predicted what was observed and thus did not need to be replaced.

C It correctly predicted what was observed and thus did not need to be replaced.

The statement that the orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus is due to A Copernicus. B Galileo. C Kepler. D Newton.

C Kepler.

Mars is farther from the Sun than Earth. Which of the following statements is true? A Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than the Earth because it has farther to go, but actually moves faster than the Earth. B Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than the Earth because it has farther to go, but actually moves at the same speed as the Earth. C Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than Earth and moves more slowly than the Earth does. D Mars takes less time to go around the Sun than the Earth and moves much faster. E Mars takes less time to go around the Sun than the Earth does but moves slower because the Earth keeps making rest stops.

C Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than Earth and moves more slowly than the Earth does.

Changes in the intensity of sunlight due to shifts in both the Earth's orbit and rotation axis cause A the seasons. B the phases of the Moon. C Milankovich cycles. D the precession of the equinoxes.

C Milankovich cycles.

Which of these planets has a rotation axis that is inclined in much the same way as that of Earth? A Jupiter B Uranus C Neptune D Mercury

C Neptune

The Moon Charon orbits a point that is A at the center of Pluto. B about halfway between the center and the surface of Pluto. C Not inside Pluto at all. D Inside Pluto but not at the center.

C Not inside Pluto at all.

The temperature at the poles of Mercury is expected to be A Very hot all of the time because Mercury is close to the Sun. B Very hot during the Mercurian summer when the Sun shines to the bottoms of the craters. C Very hot all of the time on mountain peaks hit by the Sun and very cold all of the time in craters never hit by the Sun.

C Very hot all of the time on mountain peaks hit by the Sun and very cold all of the time in craters never hit by the Sun.

Which of the following magnitudes corresponds to the brightest star? A +1 B +2 C +3 D 0 E +4

D 0

Which of the following systems is closest to the plan of most current Earth life-forms? A One DNA molecule carries out all of the chemical processes needed to construct and operate a life-form. B One RNA molecule carries out all of the chemical processes needed to construct and operate a life-form. C One DNA molecule is used to make RNA molecules which, in turn make the proteins and enzymes that construct and operate a life-form. D One RNA molecule is used to make the proteins and enzymes that carry out all of the chemical processes needed to construct and operate a life-form. E Lots of RNA molecules copy themselves and also act as enzymes which construct and operate a life-form.

C One DNA molecule is used to make RNA molecules which, in turn make the proteins and enzymes that construct and operate a life-form.

Which of these Mars rovers operated on the surface of Mars for fourteen years? A Pathfinder B Spirit C Opportunity D Curiosity E Surveyor

C Opportunity

Fred reports that a special arrangement of wire coils can draw electrical power from the air. Actually he just made up that story. The most likely outcome of his fraud is that: A Nobody bothers to check his observation and he becomes famous as the discoverer of a source of endless electrical power. B Nobody bothers to check his observation and nobody believes him either. C Other people build the proposed device. They do not see any electrical power, and attack his report as a mistake or a fraud. D Other people build the proposed device. It generates power just as he said and he becomes famous as the discoverer of a source of endless electrical power.

C Other people build the proposed device. They do not see any electrical power, and attack his report as a mistake or a fraud.

Which of the following spacecraft were the first to fly past Jupiter? A Mariner 9 and Mariner 10 B Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 C Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 D Viking 1 and Viking 2

C Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11

The closest star to the North Celestial Pole that is visible to the naked eye is A Sirius. B Altair. C Polaris. D Alcor. E Mizar.

C Polaris.

Which of the following planets has a system of rings made of ice-covered rocks? A Mars B Jupiter C Saturn

C Saturn

The first telescope was (possibly) built by A Galileo. B Newton. C Someone in the Netherlands. D Tycho Brahe.

C Someone in the Netherlands.

Sven, a well-known Loch Ness Monster fanatic, often reports seeing the monster but is usually ignored. Finally he persuades a local university to sends a biologist to the Loch with a truckload of cameras when the monster is supposed to appear. The cameras record nothing but waves and seagulls. Sven's observations are ignored by the scientific community because A Sven was a fisherman and did not belong to the scientist club. B Scientists would not believe that Loch Ness could support a large monster. C Sven's observations were not reproduced by others. D Sven was a sloppy observer.

C Sven's observations were not reproduced by others.

Which of Kepler's Laws governs how a particular planet speeds up and slows down? A The Period-Radius Relation. B Orbits are Ellipses. C The Equal Area Law. D The Law of Inertia. E The Law of Averages.

C The Equal Area Law.

Compare the magnitude of the acceleration of Earth's Moon to the acceleration of falling objects on the surface of the Earth. A the accelerations are the same. B The Moon's acceleration is larger. C The Moon's acceleration is smaller.

C The Moon's acceleration is smaller.

Which layer of the Earth has a thickness of only about ten miles? A The liquid part of the iron core. B The mantle. C The crust.

C The crust.

A horse is pulling a cart along a road. Which of the following pairs of forces is an action-reaction pair? A The force of the horse on the cart and the force of the road on the horse. B The force of the horse on the cart and the force of the horse on the road. C The force of horse on the road and the force of the road on the horse. D The force of the cart on the horse and the force of the horse on the road. E The force of the cart on the horse and the force of the road on the horse.

C The force of horse on the road and the force of the road on the horse.

Einstein's Theory of Relativity has passed every observational test for over 100 years. Among other things, it predicts that no material object can go faster than the speed of light. Fred Zveistein (twice as smart as Einstein) has a new theory that predicts that some material objects can go faster than light. Fred presents his new theory at a scientific meeting (in 2009). Which of the following would be the most likely reaction of the scientists at the meeting to this new development? A There is great interest because the new theory proves that Relativity is wrong, so lots of scientists come to Fred's talk to congratulate him. B There is great hostility because the new theory challenges the established theory, so lots of scientists come to Fred's talk to debate the issue. C There is great disinterest because there is no need to replace a theory that has passed every observational test. Nobody at all comes to Fred's talk.

C There is great disinterest because there is no need to replace a theory that has passed every observational test. Nobody at all comes to Fred's talk.

It has been said that the "facts" of science are actually "revisable facts." When do these "revisable facts" get revised? A A scientific professional society votes them out. B More elegant "revisable facts" are discovered. C They conflict with reproducible observations. D They are on the losing side of a debate. E They are successfully challenged in court.

C They conflict with reproducible observations.

A large asteroid impact can affect the Earth's climate primarily by A heating the air with the heat of impact. B producing strong winds from its passage. C blocking the sunlight with its smoke and dust. D poisoning the air with its fumes.

C blocking the sunlight with its smoke and dust.

The star Wemadeit shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.3 seconds of arc while the star Waytoofar shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.2 seconds of arc. From this, you can conclude that A Both stars are at the same distance from our Sun. B Waytoofar is closer to our Sun than Wemadeit. C Wemadeit is closer to our Sun than Waytoofar. D Waytoofar is moving faster than Wemadeit. E Wemadeit is moving faster than Waytoofar.

C Wemadeit is closer to our Sun than Waytoofar.

A star that is named Delta Cepheus is most likely A the brightest star in the constellation Cepheus. B the brightest star in the constellation Centaurus C a fairly dim star in the constellation Cepheus. D a fairly dim star in the constellation Centaurus.

C a fairly dim star in the constellation Cepheus.

When a hydrogen atom on one molecule is attracted to an oppositely charged part of another molecule, the result is A a new molecule. B a salt. C a hydrogen bond. D a covalent bond.

C a hydrogen bond.

An encounter between Earth and an iron asteroid fifty meters in diameter would most likely cause A a meteor that quietly burns up. B a large explosion in the air. C a large explosion on the ground. D the extinction of all life on earth.

C a large explosion on the ground.

The Celestial Sphere is A the surface of the Earth. B the Sun. C a map of the stars. D an orbiting basketball.

C a map of the stars.

For a star to give rise to a Nova, the star must be A a red supergiant star undergoing core collapse. B an isolated white dwarf star. C a member of a multiple star system. D a main sequence star. E a horizontal branch star.

C a member of a multiple star system.

A steady X-ray signal with sudden bursts lasting a few seconds each is probably caused by A an isolated neutron star. B a white dwarf in a binary system. C a neutron star in a binary system. D a main sequence star. E a supermassive star.

C a neutron star in a binary system.

Which of the following objects is closest in size to a black hole formed from the collapse of a star? A a white dwarf star. B a yellow dwarf star. C a neutron star. D a red giant star.

C a neutron star.

Type II supernovas have the following properties: A a spectrum with hydrogen lines and a standard maximum brightness. B a spectrum with no hydrogen lines and a standard maximum brightness. C a spectrum with hydrogen lines and a variable maximum brightness. D a spectrum with no hydrogen lines and a variable maximum brightness.

C a spectrum with hydrogen lines and a variable maximum brightness.

A type Ia supernova occurs when A the core of a star collapses. B a white-dwarf flares briefly. C a white-dwarf begins to collapse. D material falls onto a neutron star. E two neutron stars merge.

C a white-dwarf begins to collapse.

The atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars is A essentially zero. B 90 times the surface pressure of Earth's atmosphere. C about 1% the surface pressure of Earth's atmosphere. D about the same as the surface pressure of Earth's atmosphere.

C about 1% the surface pressure of Earth's atmosphere.

In comparison to the Copernican Theory, the Ptolemaic Theory made predictions that were of A much higher accuracy. B much less accuracy. C about the same accuracy.

C about the same accuracy.

Since 1990, the major spacefaring nations, Europe, China, Russia, Japan, India, and the U.S., have begun to return to the Moon. As of 2009, of these six space programs, A all except the European Space Agency have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon. B all except NASA have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon. C all except Russia have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon. D all except the Indian Space Research Organisation have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon. E all except the Japan Space Agency have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon.

C all except Russia have sent probes or orbiters to the Moon.

In a particular binary star system, we are able to determine the masses and diameters of both stars This system is most likely A a visual binary system. B a spectroscopic binary system. C an eclipsing spectroscopic binary system.

C an eclipsing spectroscopic binary system.

The onset of Helium burning at the core of a star normally begins with A a core collapse. B a quiet transition to helium burning C an explosion in the helium core. D blowing out the hydrogen burning shell. E a complete shutdown of all nuclear reactions.

C an explosion in the helium core.

Hydrated minerals on the Moon A are present in the same proportions as on Earth. B are more abundant than on Earth. C are almost completely absent.

C are almost completely absent.

Here is the Drake Equation. In this equation, n_{e} stands for the A expected lifetime of a communication-capable civilization. B number of communication-capable civilizations in our galaxy. C average number of habitable planets in a planetary system. D number of extraterrestrial messages that we might expect to detect in a year. E average number of new stars that form in a year.

C average number of habitable planets in a planetary system.

A star that forms an iron core most likely has a mass of A less than one solar mass. B between 1 and 4 solar masses. C between 15 and 20 solar masses. D more than 20 solar masses.

C between 15 and 20 solar masses.

The objects of the Kuiper belt are mostly orbiting A between the orbits of Earth and Mars. B within the asteroid belt. C beyond all of the Jovian planets. D among the Jovian planets.

C beyond all of the Jovian planets.

Which of the following systems do most living things on Earth now use to reproduce themselves?

Each DNA molecule splits in half and each half acts as a pattern to complete its other half.

As Saturn rotates, A both its magnetic poles follows large circular paths around its geographic poles just as they do on Earth. B its north magnetic pole follows a large circular path around its north geographic pole but its south magnetic pole hardly moves at all. C both its magnetic poles remain almost motionless at its geographic poles. D its south magnetic pole follows a large circular path around its north geographic pole but its north magnetic pole hardly moves at all.

C both its magnetic poles remain almost motionless at its geographic poles.

Suppose that you drop two objects from the same height at the same time. Both objects are heavy enough to be unaffected by air resistance. If one object is twice as heavy as the other, Galileo predicted that A the heavier object would hit the ground long before the lighter one. B the lighter object would hit the ground long before the heavier one. C both objects would hit the ground at the same time.

C both objects would hit the ground at the same time.

Several gases can absorb and re-radiate infra-red light. The one that is thought to be most affected by human activities is A methane. B water vapor. C carbon dioxide. D oxygen. E nitrogen.

C carbon dioxide.

The currently accepted model of the formation of the Solar System says that the planets A formed in interstellar space and were captured by the Sun. B condensed from a cloud of matter pulled out of the Sun by a passing star. C condensed from a disk of matter formed from the rotating Solar Nebula. D resulted from the breakup of the Sun's sister star.

C condensed from a disk of matter formed from the rotating Solar Nebula.

The intense magnetic field of the Crab pulsar causes its rate of spin to A increase. B vary up and down. C decrease.

C decrease.

Ham radio operators sometimes operate receivers for the 2 meter wavelength. The 2 meters refers to the A length of the required radio antenna. B size of the near-field zone of the receiver. C distance from one maximum of the radio waves to the next. D maximum amplitude of the radio waves. E frequency of the radio waves.

C distance from one maximum of the radio waves to the next.

The point at which even an outwardly directed light ray is pulled into a black hole is called the A tipping point. B critical point. C event horizon. D particle horizon.

C event horizon.

The atmosphere of Pluto is now known to A be non-existent B extend just a few miles above its surface. C extend a thousand miles above its surface. D extend about a hundred miles above its surface.

C extend a thousand miles above its surface.

The nucleus of a comet consists of A a cloud of vaporizing gas and dust. B mostly rock and iron. C frozen gas, ice, and dust. D atoms that have gained or lost electrons. E freely falling individual dust particles.

C frozen gas, ice, and dust.

Tycho Brahe's work at Uraniborg was A a small operation for its time. B funded from Tycho's personal fortune. C funded by a large fraction of the national budget of Denmark.

C funded by a large fraction of the national budget of Denmark.

The side of the Moon that faces away from the Earth A looks exactly like the side that faces the Earth. B consists almost entirely of lunar maria. C has only a few small lunar maria.

C has only a few small lunar maria.

The current model for the way that planets acquire magnetic fields suggests that a rapidly rotating planet will A always have a magnetic field. B never have a magnetic field. C have a magnetic field if its core contains enough liquid electrical conductor. D have a magnetic field if it has a large enough iron core. E have a magnetic field if it has a large enough liquid core.

C have a magnetic field if its core contains enough liquid electrical conductor.

The molecules of both water ice and liquid water are attached to one another by A ionic bonds --- Each molecule carries a net charge. B covalent bonds ---Nearby molecules share electrons. C hydrogen bonds --- .Different parts of each molecule have opposite charges. D Van der Waals bonds --- Small changes in charge distribution in one molecule induces changes in another

C hydrogen bonds --- .Different parts of each molecule have opposite charges.

Protostars are very bright because of their large surface areas. Most of this energy comes out as A gamma rays. B visible light that we can see with an ordinary telescope. C infra-red light with wavelengths too long to see with an ordinary telescope. D ultra-violet light with wavelengths too short to see with an ordinary telescope. E sound waves.

C infra-red light with wavelengths too long to see with an ordinary telescope.

Which of the following types of radiation has the lowest frequency on this list? A ultraviolet light. B green light. C infrared light. D X-rays. E red light.

C infrared light.

The portion of the Earth that is solid iron and nickel is the A crust. B mantle. C inner core. D outer core. E mesosphere.

C inner core.

The Moon's orbit around the Earth A is exactly circular. B is somewhat elliptical but not enough to affect eclipses. C is elliptical enough to give us an annular solar eclipse when the Moon is near its apogee. D is elliptical enough to give us an annular lunar eclipse when the Moon is near its perigee.

C is elliptical enough to give us an annular solar eclipse when the Moon is near its apogee.

The Ptolemaic System was replaced when A astronomers realized that Aristarchus had been right when he said it was unreasonable for the giant Sun to orbit the tiny Earth. B Copernicus produced a system with the Sun at the center. C it came into conflict with reproducible observations.

C it came into conflict with reproducible observations.

Mercury rotates so that, relative to the Sun A it does not rotate at all. B it rotates just once during each orbit around the Sun. C it rotates just once during two complete orbits around the Sun. D it rotates just once during three complete orbits around the Sun. E it rotates three times during each orbit around the Sun.

C it rotates just once during two complete orbits around the Sun.

One reason that the Copernican System failed to fit Tycho's observations was that A it placed the Earth at the center of the universe. B it used elliptical orbits instead of circles. C it used circular orbits instead of ellipses. D it placed the Sun at the center of the system.

C it used circular orbits instead of ellipses.

To see a large but faint object such as a nebula, you would need a telescope with large A magnification power. B resolving power. C light gathering power.

C light gathering power.

The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is A close to zero. B about the same as at the surface of the Earth. C many times the pressure at the surface of the Earth. D about 1% of the pressure at the surface of the Earth.

C many times the pressure at the surface of the Earth.As viewed from the star Polaris, Venus

The X-rays that reveal the possible presence of a black hole are the result of A starlight accelerated in the hole's gravity. B vibrations of the hole's event horizon. C matter heating up as it falls toward the hole. D gravitons converted to photons by the hole.

C matter heating up as it falls toward the hole.

The blue color of the planet Uranus is caused by the presence in its atmosphere of A hydrogen and helium. B oxygen. C methane. D carbon dioxide. E cyanide.

C methane.

The stars that form the Big Dipper (in England it is called the Plough) are A all at nearly the same distance from the Earth. B all at very different distances from the Earth. C mostly at nearly the same distance from the Earth, but with exceptions.

C mostly at nearly the same distance from the Earth, but with exceptions.

Because different molecules vibrate with distinctive radio frequencies, it is possible for radio telescopes to identify the chemical compounds that are present in interstellar clouds. When they look for complex compounds (more than four atoms) they find A no such compounds at all. B mostly Silicon compounds. C mostly carbon compounds. D about the same numbers of Silicon compounds and Carbon compounds.

C mostly carbon compounds.

When the temperature of a gas increases, its molecules A get larger. B get smaller. C move faster. D move slower.

C move faster.

When the helium fuel runs out at the center of a low-mass star like our Sun, A collapses to a white dwarf star. B moves on to the horizontal branch. C moves off of the horizontal branch. D leaves the main sequence. E returns to the main sequence.

C moves off of the horizontal branch.

The gravitational energy that is released when the core of a massive star collapses is usually A much less than the nuclear energy that the star has generated. B about the same as the nuclear energy that the star has generated. C much larger than the nuclear energy that the star has generated.

C much larger than the nuclear energy that the star has generated.

The mass of Betelgeuse is about 20 times the mass of our own Sun. Our Sun is expected to have a total life span of about 10 billion years. The life span of Betelgeuse is expected to be A about the same. B much longer. C much shorter.

C much shorter.

Which of the following particles has almost the same mass as a proton? A positron. B deuteron. C neutron. D electron. E neutrino.

C neutron.

One of the experiments carried out by the Viking Landers was to use a mass spectrometer to analyze the gas given off from a heated soil sample. The results of that experiment (as interpreted at the time) established that Martian soil contains A more carbon compounds than would be expected on a planet with a carbon-dioxide atmosphere. B just about the amount of carbon compounds that would be expected on a planet with a carbon-dioxide atmosphere. C no carbon compounds at all. D large organic hydrocarbons.

C no carbon compounds at all.

Suppose that a comet is spotted while it is still far from the Sun (beyond the orbit of Mars). The tail of this comet is most likely A extending almost to the orbit of Jupiter. B spherical in shape. C not yet formed. D elliptical in shape.

C not yet formed.

Suppose that an asteroid, about 1 kilometer in diameter, shows a 1 in 100 probability of an Earth impact fifty years in the future. Assume that an impact will trigger climate changes that would kill one billion (1,000,000,000) people. Also assume that each of these deaths represents $100,000 in lost production. Using the cold economic logic that we discussed in class, how much money should be budgeted to deflect the asteroid? A one billion dollars ($1,000,000,000) B one hundred billion dollars ($100,000,000,000). C one trillion dollars ($1,000,000,000,000). D one hundred trillion dollars ($100,000,000,000,000).

C one trillion dollars ($1,000,000,000,000).

The part of a protostar where the density first becomes low enough for light to escape is called the A outer boundary. B central core. C photosphere. D fragmentation point. E core boundary.

C photosphere.

It has been theorized that planets do not easily form in binary star systems. If they do form, there are three possible arrangements: (1) Planets with orbits similar in radius to the distance between the two stars. (2) Planets with orbits much smaller in radius than the distance between the two stars. (3) Planets with orbits much larger in radius than the distance between the two stars. Observations so far (2018) indicate that A none of these possibilities actually happens. B possibilities (1) and (3) actually happen. C possibilities (2) and (3) actually happen. D possibilities (1) and (2) actually happen. E all of these possibilities actually happen.

C possibilities (2) and (3) actually happen.

Our Sun is a type G2V star on the main sequence. As it ages and uses up its fuel we expect it to A drift along the main sequence and become a type G3V star. B drift along the main sequence and become a type G1V star. C remain a G2V star until it leaves the main sequence.

C remain a G2V star until it leaves the main sequence.

When a red giant star begins to burn helium, it A returns to the main sequence in an HR diagram. B drops far below the main sequence in an HR diagram. C returns part way to the main sequence in an HR diagram. D moves to the very top of an HR diagram. E moves to the far right of an HR diagram.

C returns part way to the main sequence in an HR diagram.

A full cycle of day and night on Mars is called a `sol.' In terms of 24 hour Earth days, a Martian sol is A about 27 Earth days. B slightly shorter than one Earth day. C slightly longer than one Earth day. D about 687 Earth days. E about 11 hours.

C slightly longer than one Earth day.

Jupiter has the most mass of any planet in our Solar System and is also the largest planet. Objects that have still more mass than Jupiter and are not stars are usually A larger than Jupiter. B about the same size as Jupiter. C smaller than Jupiter.

C smaller than Jupiter.

According to Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, as planets orbit the sun, they A move at constant speed. B speed up when farthest from the Sun. C speed up when closest to the Sun. D speed up when in retrograde motion.

C speed up when closest to the Sun.

At midsummer in Murmansk (which is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle), you would expect the Sun to A rise and set every day. B rise and set twice a day. C stay above the horizon all day, every day. D stay below the horizon, all day, every day.

C stay above the horizon all day, every day.

From his observations of the phases of Venus, Galileo concluded that the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion was wrong because it predicted A a Full Venus and no such phase was ever seen. B a New Venus and no such phase was ever seen. C that there could never be a Full Venus, but Galileo saw one. D that there could never be a New Venus, but Galileo saw one. E that Venus should not show any phases at all.

C that there could never be a Full Venus, but Galileo saw one.

The observation that there are constellations that can be seen from Egypt but not from Greece convinced the ancient Greeks that A stars hang close to the Earth. B the Earth is flat. C the Earth is round.

C the Earth is round.

The time when the noon sun is highest in the sky is called A the Spring Equinox. B the Winter Solstice. C the Summer Solstice.

C the Summer Solstice.

The period of a proto-star's evolution when its size and brightness decrease just before the ignition of nuclear reactions in its core is called A the photosphere phase. B the pre-ignition phase. C the Tau Tauri phase. D the Tau Ceti phase.

C the Tau Tauri phase.

The Kuiper Belt was named after Gerard Kuiper, who said that A the belt formed early in the history of the solar system and should still be there, stabilized by orbital resonances with Neptune. B the belt formed early in the history of the solar system but should not still be there because Neptune would have cleared its neighborhood of smaller objects. C the belt formed early in the history of the solar system but should not still be there because Pluto would have cleared its neighborhood of smaller objects. D no such belt ever formed because of the disruptive effects of Neptune's gravity.

C the belt formed early in the history of the solar system but should not still be there because Pluto would have cleared its neighborhood of smaller objects.

The recoil or 'kick' of a gun that is firing a bullet is a force exerted on the gun by A the gun itself. B the air around the gun. C the bullet. D the inertia of the gun. E the hand of the shooter.

C the bullet.

By measuring the angle between the Sun and the Moon when the Moon was in its first or third quarter, the ancient Greeks were able to calculate A the size of the Moon. B the distance from the Earth to the Moon. C the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

C the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

Electron degenerate matter is matter in which A all of the electrons have combined with protons to make neutrons. B the electrons have paired off and conduct electricity without resistance. C the electrons are touching each other so that they cannot be compressed. D the electrons all occupy the same quantum state.

C the electrons are touching each other so that they cannot be compressed.

According to Galileo, a thrown spear keeps moving after it has left the spear thrower's hand because A the force of the hand keeps acting on the spear. B the force of the air disturbed by the spear keeps it in motion. C the force of friction with the air is not enough to stop the spear. D the force of inertia keeps the spear going.

C the force of friction with the air is not enough to stop the spear.

The ecliptic is A the path of the Moon on the Celestial Sphere. B an image of the Earth's equator. C the path of the Sun on the Celestial Sphere. D halfway between the North and South Celestial Poles. E the set of points with zero right ascension.

C the path of the Sun on the Celestial Sphere.

The first indication that Cygnus X-1 might be a black hole was A the intensity of its X-rays. B its detailed X-ray spectrum. C the rapid fluctuations in its X-rays. D the weakness of its X-rays. E the steadiness of its X-ray signal.

C the rapid fluctuations in its X-rays.

Suppose that an object with a mass of one kilogram and an object with a mass of two kilograms are both in free fall near the Earth's surface. As compared to the one kilogram object, the two kilogram object accelerates A more because gravity pulls on it more strongly. B less because it has more inertia. C the same because gravity pulls on it more strongly and it has more inertia. D more because gravity pulls on it more strongly and it has less inertia. E less because gravity pulls on it less strongly and it has more inertia.

C the same because gravity pulls on it more strongly and it has more inertia.

You hear about an asteroid impact threat at level 10 on the Torino Scale. You should A forget about it, nothing is going to happen. B suspect an error because the scale does not go that high. C think about ways to get off the planet. D hang loose until the situation becomes clearer.

C think about ways to get off the planet.

The two hydrogen atoms in a water molecule are both attached A to the oxygen atom, on exactly opposite sides of the oxygen atom. B to each other to form a pair that is then attached to the oxygen atom. C to the oxygen atom, but offset so that the molecule looks bent.

C to the oxygen atom, but offset so that the molecule looks bent.

Retrograde Motion refers to the A eastward motion of the Sun relative to the stars. B westward motion of the Moon relative to the horizon. C westward motion of the planets relative to the stars. D westward motion of the planets relative to the horizon.

C westward motion of the planets relative to the stars.

One advantage of the spherical Earth model is that it completely explains A what causes the Sun to rise and set. B the retrograde motion of the planets. C what holds up the surface of the Earth. D the existence of oceans.

C what holds up the surface of the Earth.

If an object is moving at constant speed in a straight line, its acceleration is A positive in its direction of motion. B negative in its direction of motion. C zero. D changing.

C zero.

You see a reflecting telescope with a short, stubby tube and the eyepiece at the back. This telescope uses the

Cassegrain Focus.

Seasons

Caused by the tilt of Earth on its axis as it revolves around the Sun

CHANG'E 3, Launched December , 2013.

Chang'e 3 achieved lunar orbit on December 6, 2013, and soft-landed a rover on December 14, 2013. The rover deployed onto the lunar surface and spent 31 months exploring. The rover included ground-penetrating radar to help survey the lunar subsurface.

interferometer

Collection of two or more telescopes working together as a team, observing the same object at the same time and at the same wavelength. The effective diameter of an interferometer is equal to the distance between its outermost telescopes.

scattered disk

Composed of ice balls from sent from Neptune into highly-tilted orbits, it overlaps the Kuiper belt on its inner edge and extend 150 km from the Sun. It had short period comets innermost part of this region, out to about 100au

The mass of a carbon atom is 12.00amu while the mass of a helium-4 atom is 4.003amu. If a gamma ray photon splits a carbon atom into three Helium atoms, how much energy is converted into mass? A 0.002amu B 0.004amu C 0.006amu D 0.009amu E 0.012amu

D 0.009amu

Compared to a magnitude 16 star, a magnitude 1 star would be A 100 times as bright. B 1000 times as bright. C 10,000 times as bright. D 1,000,000 times as bright. E 10,000,000 times as bright.

D 1,000,000 times as bright.

The velocity of sound waves is roughly the same for all wavelengths. Suppose that a sound wave has a wavelength of one meter and a frequency of 250Hz. The wavelength of a 1000Hz sound wave would then be A 250 m. B 1000 m. C 4 m. D 1/4 m. E 1 m.

D 1/4 m.

What total force will cause an object with a mass of 1kg to gain 10 meters per second every second? A 1 Newton. B 9.8 Newtons. C 5 Newtons. D 10 Newtons. E 2.5 Newtons.

D 10 Newtons.

The apparent brightness of our Sun is roughly 1000 watts per square meter. Saturn is at roughly 10 astronomical units from our Sun (slightly less actually). Viewed from Saturn, the apparent brightness of our Sun would be A 10000 watts per square meter. B 100 watts per square meter. C 100,000 watts per square meter. D 10 watts per square meter. E 1000 watts per square meter.

D 10 watts per square meter.

A star is found to have absolute magnitude 9 and apparent magnitude 24. How far away is it? A 10 parsecs. B 20 parsecs. C 200 parsecs. D 10,000 parsecs E 100,000 parsecs.

D 10,000 parsecs

Suppose that a flash of lightning from a cloud 5000 meters away is followed by a clap of thunder four seconds later. Assume that the light arrived in a negligible time and calculate the speed of the sound waves. A 2500m/s B 2m/s C 5000m/s D 1250m/s E 1000m/s

D 1250m/s

As of July, 2018, The number of confirmed exoplanets found by the transit photometry method is closest to A 10. B 50. C 1250. D 2500. E 25,000.

D 2500.

If the planets are numbered from 1 to 8, going outward from the Sun, the planet Neptune is number A 5. B 6. C 7. D 8. E 4

D 8.

The inclination angle of a planet's rotation axis is defined so that a planet that is rotating in the usual direction about an axis that is perpendicular to the plane of the solar system would have an inclination of 0°, while a planet that is rotating in the opposite (retrograde) direction about an axis that is perpendicular to the plane of the solar system would have an inclination angle of 180°. The inclination angle of the planet Uranus is closest to A 0°. B 180°. C 30°. D 98°. E 200°.

D 98°.

Most of the ancient Greek astronomers believed that the Earth was fixed at the center of the universe. There was at least one, however, who thought that the Sun was fixed and a rotating Earth moved around the Sun. That was A Aristotle B Eristarchus of Syene. C Plato. D Aristarchus of Samos. E Ptolemy.

D Aristarchus of Samos.

Which of these Mars rovers has been operating on the surface of Mars for six years so far (as of 2018). A Pathfinder B Spirit C Opportunity D Curiosity E Surveyor

D Curiosity

An example of a planet which may occasionally have liquid water but retains an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide is A Mercury. B Venus. C Earth. D Mars.

D Mars.

Sarah reports that she saw a green star close to the star Betelgeuse. She really saw it and was quite surprised. The most likely outcome of her report is that: A Nobody bothers to check her observation and she becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star. B Nobody bothers to check her observation and nobody believes her either. C Other people look near Betelgeuse. They do not see the green star, and attack her report as a mistake or a fraud. D Other people look near Betelgeuse. They see the star and confirm her report. She becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star.

D Other people look near Betelgeuse. They see the star and confirm her report. She becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star.

The first space probe to place a robotic rover on the surface of Mars was A Mariner 9. B Viking 1. C Surveyor 1. D Pathfinder. E Spirit and Opportunity.

D Pathfinder.

Which of these was the Solar System model that assumed the Earth is fixed and the Sun, Moon, and planets all move on epicycles that, in turn move on circular orbits around the Earth? A Copernican model. B Tychonic model. C Keplerian model. D Ptolemaic model.

D Ptolemaic model.

Pioneer 11 was an early space probe sent to fly past A Venus. B Earth's Moon. C Mars. D Saturn. E Mercury.

D Saturn.

Which of the following Trans Neptunian Objects is thought to be a visitor from the Inner Oort Cloud? A Quaoar. B Eris. C Pluto. D Sedna. E Varuna.

D Sedna.

We can use the pointer stars in Orion to locate a point in the sky near the A Celestial Equator. B North Celestial Pole. C South Celestial Pole. D Star Sirius. E East Celestial Pole.

D Star Sirius.

You see the Moon almost directly in the south at 10pm. What phase is it? A New. B Waxing crescent. C Waxing quarter. D Waxing gibbous. E Full.

D Waxing gibbous.

The Cassini-Huygens spacecraft A landed on the planet Mars. B Flew past the planet Jupiter and photographed its moons. C Went into orbit around the planet Jupiter and dropped a probe into its atmosphere. D Went into orbit around the planet Saturn.

D Went into orbit around the planet Saturn.

A star that is named Epsilon Eridani is most likely A the brightest star in the constellation Eridanus. B the brightest star in the constellation Cepheus. C a fairly dim star in the constellation Cepheus. D a fairly dim star in the constellation Eridanus.

D a fairly dim star in the constellation Eridanus.

The magnetic field of Jupiter indicates that its core must contain large amounts of A solid iron. B liquid iron. C a solid that can conduct electricity. D a liquid that can conduct electricity. E solid rock.

D a liquid that can conduct electricity.

We see what appears to be a single star. However, when the light from the star is put through a spectrometer, we see that its spectrum is shifting back and forth. The star is most likely A just a single star with a weird spectrum. B a visual binary system. C a double-line spectroscopic binary system. D a single-line spectroscopic binary system. E an astronometric binary system.

D a single-line spectroscopic binary system.

A star that evolves off the main sequence in about 10 million years probably has A much less mass than our Sun. B about the same mass as our Sun. C about four times the mass of our Sun. D about 20 times the mass of our Sun.

D about 20 times the mass of our Sun.

So far (as of 2018), the planet Venus has been visited by A no successful space probes. B just one successful space probe. C two or three successful space probes. D about 28 successful space probes. E about 48 successful space probes.

D about 28 successful space probes.

The ozone layer is where one finds A atoms with missing electrons. B hurricanes. C smoke and dust lingering for years. D absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

D absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

Jupiter has A almost no atmosphere. B an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with about 90 times the surface pressure of Earth's. C an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with about 1% the surface pressure of Earth's. D an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with no real surface. E an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with some methane.

D an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with no real surface.

An atom of ordinary hydrogen consists of a proton and A a negatron. B a positron. C a neutron. D an electron. E a neutrino.

D an electron.

The newspaper says that the Moon was full last night. That statement is most likely A an unsupported opinion of the newspaper editor. B an actual observation of the natural world. C a proven mathematical theorem. D based on some authoritative reference such as the U.S. Naval Observatory.

D based on some authoritative reference such as the U.S. Naval Observatory.

The light from a new-born white dwarf star will most likely be A red. B white. C yellow. D blue. E green.

D blue.

At present (within the last few hundred years), the distance from Mars to the Sun A never changes. B changes a little, but not enough to affect the intensity of sunlight. C changes enough to make the intensity of sunlight vary by 6 percent. D changes enough to make the intensity of sunlight vary by 40 percent.

D changes enough to make the intensity of sunlight vary by 40 percent.

Stars usually come in clusters, all born at about the same time, because A the formation of one star triggers others. B supergiant stars often explode into pieces. C that is statistically the most probable situation. D collapsing interstellar clouds usually fragment.

D collapsing interstellar clouds usually fragment.

The impacts of large objects on the surface of the Moon have caused A scarps. B highlands. C jumbled terrain. D craters. E rift valleys.

D craters.

The rotation rate of Saturn A has been exactly determined only by tracking the motion of surface features. B has been exactly determined only by tracking radio signals from its upper atmosphere. C has been exactly determined only by tracking the motion of its magnetic poles. D has not been exactly determined because different methods give somewhat different results. E has been exactly determined because different methods all give the same result.

D has not been exactly determined because different methods give somewhat different results.

The stars of the Milky Way are all near a great circle on the Celestial Sphere. This great circle A is the Celestial Equator. B is the Ecliptic. C passes through the Celestial Poles. D is none of the other things listed here.

D is none of the other things listed here.

Aristarchus measured the angle between the Sun and the Moon when exactly half of the Moon was illuminated. If the Sun were actually just two or three times as far away as the Moon, he would have found that angle to be A greater than 90 degrees. B exactly 90 degrees. C less than 90 degrees by an amount too small for him to measure. D less than 90 degrees by an amount that was easy for him to measure.

D less than 90 degrees by an amount that was easy for him to measure.

The eclipse or transit photometry method of searching for exoplanets can be expected to find A any exoplanets that are out there. B all exoplanets that are Jupiter-size or larger. C about half of all exoplanets. D less than one out of every 10 exoplanets.

D less than one out of every 10 exoplanets.

Comparing asteroids hitting the Earth at the same speed, the energy released by an asteroid impact is proportional to (Be careful here!) the A density of the asteroid. B diameter of the asteroid. C volume of the asteroid. D mass of the asteroid.

D mass of the asteroid.

The epicenters of earthquakes are located A at random places on the Earth's surface. B mostly near the Earth's equator. C mostly along continental boundaries. D mostly along the edges of moving plates. E mostly in the centers of oceans.

D mostly along the edges of moving plates.

The gravitational influence of the planets causes asteroids to A stay out of the inner solar system. B remain in the asteroid belt. C move from the inner solar system to the asteroid belt. D move from the asteroid belt into the inner solar system.

D move from the asteroid belt into the inner solar system.

Suppose that a star has a spectrum that includes red, blue, and violet lines spaced in the pattern of the lines from hydrogen but the red line is has a wavelength of 660 nm instead of the usual 656 nm. From this evidence, you can conclude that the star is A unusually hot. B unusually cold. C moving toward us. D moving away from us. E rotating.

D moving away from us.

The patent for inventing the telescope was obtained by A Galileo. B Newton. C someone in the Netherlands. D nobody because it was too simple an idea to patent.

D nobody because it was too simple an idea to patent.

On Earth, a stable long-term carbon cycle could not exist without A plants turning carbon dioxide into organic material. B the burning of fossil fuels. C the decay of dead plant matter. D plate tectonics recycling the sea floor into the Earth' interior. E animals breathing out carbon dioxide.

D plate tectonics recycling the sea floor into the Earth' interior.

Neutron stars are often observed as A novas. B Tau Tauri stars. C quasars. D pulsars. E asteroids.

D pulsars.

Most plants here on Earth are green because the process of converting carbon dioxide and water into organic matter uses only A green light. B red light. C blue and violet light. D red, blue, and violet light. E red, blue, green, and violet light.

D red, blue, and violet light.

The stratosphere is where one finds A atoms with missing electrons. B hurricanes. C the upper ozone layer. D smoke and dust lingering for years. E absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

D smoke and dust lingering for years.

Consider a light source whose absolute magnitude can be deduced from the properties of the light that reaches us from that source. Astronomers often refer to this sort of object as a A reference object. B distance marker. C spectroscopic standard. D standard candle. E brightness reference.

D standard candle.

The Soviet Union had a secret program to put the first human on the Moon. This program A never got beyond the planning stage. B built a Moon rocket, but never test fired it. C successfully test launched a Moon rocket that worked but was cancelled by the Politburo. D test launched their Moon Rocket several times, but it blew up each time.

D test launched their Moon Rocket several times, but it blew up each time.

A star with an apparent magnitude of 8.4 and an absolute magnitude of -1.0 would appear in our sky as a star A of dazzling brightness. B of average naked-eye brightness. C that is barely visible to the naked eye. D that is visible only with a telescope.

D that is visible only with a telescope.

The first major failure of the Ptolemaic Theory to predict the results of observations was A the retrograde motion of the planets. B the Moons of Jupiter. C the mountains of the Moon. D the phases of Venus.

D the phases of Venus.

In order to use spectroscopic parallax to find the distance to a star, you need to know A only the spectral type (O, B, A, etc.) B only the spectral type and luminosity class (B2V for example). C the spectral type and luminosity class (B2V for example) and the absolute magnitude. D the spectral type and luminosity class (B2V for example) and the apparent magnitude. E the spectral type (O, B, A, etc.) and the absolute magnitude.

D the spectral type and luminosity class (B2V for example) and the apparent magnitude.

In the picture that we used in class, with the Sun above the top of the picture and the Earth shown with its North Pole facing you, the part of the Earth that is experiencing sunrise would be A below the North Pole in the picture. B above the North Pole in the picture. C to the left of the North Pole in the picture. D to the right of the North Pole in the picture.

D to the right of the North Pole in the picture.

Which of the following phases of the Moon would be seen high in the south at dawn? A waxing crescent. B waning crescent. C waxing quarter. D waning quarter. E full.

D waning quarter.

A planet whose atmospheric pressure is exactly at the triple point of water and whose surface temperature has a range that includes the triple point will have A all three forms of water on its surface. B water only as ice. C water only as vapor. D water as ice or vapor, depending on the temperature.

D water as ice or vapor, depending on the temperature.

A spectral type G star could be a main sequence star like our own Sun or it could be one of several different types of red giant stars. Can we tell which it is just by looking at its spectrum? A no. All we can get from the spectrum is the spectral type. B yes. The detailed positions of the spectral lines tell us which it is. C yes. The relative intensities of the spectral lines tell us which it is. D yes. The widths of the spectral lines tell us which it is.

D yes. The widths of the spectral lines tell us which it is.

Maria

Dark, flat areas on the moon's surface formed from huge ancient lava flows. made of basalt, the same material as the Moon's mantle and are lower and younger than the rest of the Moon's surface.

Summer Solstice

Day with the most hours of sunlight and the fewest hours of darkness the noon Sun rises the highest above the horizon, the sunlight strikes the ground at a steep angle so that more heat is delivered to each unit of area.

Which of these answers describes the fundamental assumption that is behind all of the methods that astronomers refer to as the "distance ladder?"

Distant objects are similar to nearby objects.

Galilean Satellites

Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto largest moons of Jupiter

The velocities with which stars and gas clouds orbit the center of our galaxy is measured by observing their

Doppler shifts.

In the Earth's atmosphere, the percentage that is Carbon Dioxide is roughly A 80%. B 50%. C 20%. D 1%. E 0.04%.

E 0.04%.

Barnard's star is a near neighbor of the Sun whose properties we know quite well. It is a type M4V with absolute magnitude 13.22. Suppose that another star of spectral type M4V is observed to have apparent magnitude 23.22. How far away is it? A 1 parsec. B 5 parsecs. C 10 parsecs. D 100 parsecs. E 1000 parsecs.

E 1000 parsecs.

Suppose that the color and behavior of a star identify it as a type that we know has absolute magnitude 4.8. If the star's apparent magnitude is found to be 14.8, how far away is it? A 5 parsecs. B 10 parsecs. C 50 parsecs. D 100 parsecs. E 1000 parsecs.

E 1000 parsecs.

At 8pm, you see that the pointer stars of the Big dipper and the star Polaris are arranged in a vertical line. at what time. give or take a minute or so, would you see them arranged at 45 degrees to the vertical? A It will never happen. B 8:00 p.m. the next day. C 10:00 p.m.. the same day. D 2:00 am. the next day. E 11:00 p.m. the same day.

E 11:00 p.m. the same day.

Uranus rotates on its axis once in about A 10 hours. B 24 hours. C 10 Earth days. D 88 Earth days. E 17 hours.

E 17 hours.

You hear a 1000Hz tone from a radio that is 10 feet away from you and listen for 5 seconds. How many pressure maxima pass by your ear? A 100. B 5. C 10. D 200. E 5000.

E 5000.

You see a waning quarter Moon high in the night sky. What time is it? A 8:00pm. B 10:00am. C Midnight. D 6:00pm. E 5:00am.

E 5:00am.

Of all the things that might go wrong with distances found by using the method that astronmers refer to as the "distance ladder," which of these is the one that an astronomer would say is most likely? A The parallax-distance formula is incorrect. B The distance-distance modulus formula is incorrect. C The parallaxes of nearby objects have been measured incorrectly. D The apparent magnitudes of distant objects have been measured incorrectly. E Distant objects are not behaving the same as nearby objects.

E Distant objects are not behaving the same as nearby objects.

Which of the following objects has a magnetic field similar in intensity to the Earth's field? A Mercury B Earth's Moon C Mars D Jupiter E Saturn

E Saturn

Why couldn't we just fly a Space Shuttle to the Moon for at least a fly-by? A The Space Shuttle needed the support of Earth's atmosphere. B All of the Space Shuttle flights were reserved for other things. C We had already been to the Moon. D The Space Shuttle would not have enough fuel to make it back to Earth. E The Space Shuttle did not have enough fuel to reach escape velocity.

E The Space Shuttle did not have enough fuel to reach escape velocity.

A star whose full spectral type is B5V is A a red supergiant star. B a red giant star. C a red subgiant star. D a red main sequence star. E a bright blue main sequence star.

E a bright blue main sequence star.

Neptune has A almost no atmosphere. B an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with about 90 times the surface pressure of Earth's. C an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with about 1% the surface pressure of Earth's. D an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with no real surface. E an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with some methane.

E an atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium with some methane.

The problem of stars "twinkling" due to atmospheric turbulence A cannot be corrected. B can only be corrected by putting telescopes in space. C can be corrected by going to larger telescope mirrors. D can be corrected by using a more powerful eyepiece. E can be corrected by using a guide star.

E can be corrected by using a guide star.

If the frequency of electromagnetic radiation goes from 6×10¹⁴Hz, to 2×10¹⁴Hz, the energy of each individual photon in the radiation A does not change. B is multiplied by 2. C is divided by 2. D is multiplied by 3. E is divided by 3.

E is divided by 3.

The first signal received from the 1987 supernova SN1987A came in the form of A light. B radio waves. C gravitational waves. D neutrons. E neutrinos.

E neutrinos.

As seen from North America, the constellation Ursa Major A sets in the east. B sets in the west. C sets in the north. D sets in the south. E never sets.

E never sets.

A galaxy that is a featureless spherical ball of stars would be called a type

E0.

A galaxy that is a featureless flattened ball of stars would be called a type

E7.

The temperature on Jupiter is

Much colder than anywhere on Earth

relativistic perihelion precession

Each time Mercury orbits the Sun, the long axis of its elliptical orbit shifts by that missing half second of arc. Over the course of 100 years, the shift adds up to about 43 seconds of arc.

Copernicus said that the daily motions in the heavens were caused by the

Earth turning on its axis.

Tidal Lock

Earth's gravity pulls on one side of the Moon keeping only one side facing us

Kepler's Second Law

Equal Area Rule A line drawn from a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

In the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram shown, point number 2 could be a

F0 star of absolute magnitude -5.

Aristotle (born in 384 BCE)

Felt that if the Earth is a sphere, then gravity pulls things toward its center. In contrast, the flat Earth fails to be self-consistent because it leads one to ask what is holding the Earth up against gravity and provides no good answer to that.

large asteroids kinetic energy

For objects moving at a given speed, the energy of motion or kinetic energy is proportional to the mass of the object. For objects made of the same material, the mass is proportional to the volume.

​Which phase of the Moon can be seen all night?

Full Moon

Which of the following spectral types corresponds to the star with the lowest surface temperature?

G5

The first spacecraft to go into orbit around Jupiter was

Galileo.

Gary the ghostbuster takes his crew, with a truckload of cameras and electronic instruments, to a house that is supposed to be haunted. Sure enough, the ghost shows up and does an on-camera interview while the instruments record all sorts of odd readings. After Gary's press conference and TV show, a skeptical scientist takes the same sort of equipment to the same house on a similar evening and records nothing but cricket noises and dogs barking. Gary's evidence is ignored by the scientific community because

Gary's observations were not reproduced.

greenhouse gases

Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and ozone in the atmosphere which are involved in the greenhouse effect carbon dioxide - the greenhouse gas that is most sensitive to human activities

Vegetation Red Edge

Green plants absorb red light but are strong reflectors of infra-red light, just below red in frequency. Infra red photons do not have enough energy for normal chlorophyll to split water directly, so absorbing them would result in waste heat, which plants do not want, so the plants reflect them.

Neptune's moons

Has 13 satellites Triton, large enough to be spherical, about 80% the size of our Moon with about 30% of its mass, which suggests that it is made mostly of ice a period of just 5.877 days It is the only major moon in the solar system that is orbiting backwards, indicating that it is actually a captured dwarf planet from the Kuiper Belt Nereid was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered (by Gerard Kuiper) and is notable for its extreme orbit. It has a periapsis of 1,372,000 kilometers and an apapsis of 9,655,000 kilometers.

Gerard Kuiper predicted that the region we now call the "Kuiper Belt" should be empty.

He was incorrect because he assumed a mass for Pluto that is now known to be too large.

Which of the following types of radiation has the second lowest frequency on this list?

Heat Radiation order (low to high): radio, tv, microwave, heat, infrared, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, ultra-violet, x-rays, gamma rays

The second most common element in the universe is

Helium

Wavelength

Horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves

Scarps

Huge cliffs thought to have formed as the planet cooled and contracted

20 solar mass star

Hydrogen burning = Lasts 10 million years. Helium burning = Lasts 1 million years. Carbon burning = Lasts 1000 years. Oxygen burning = Lasts 1 year. Silicon burning = Lasts 1 week. Formation of an inert Iron core = Lasts 1 day.

Parallax Shift

If a star appears to move back and forth relative to other stars over a six-month period, this motion is due to the star's

local maximums

In the evolution of life, living species constantly get stuck at such local maximums. For example, crocodiles have not changed for hundreds of millions of years because they are already the best river predators there could ever be and any small changes would make them less likely to survive

The Ptolemaic System continued to be accepted long after such people as Aristarchus and Copernicus had proposed alternatives. All of the following reasons why it lasted so long are at least partly true. Which reason is the one that would be stressed by the philosophy of science that we have been discussing?

It correctly predicted what was observed and thus did not need to be replaced.

2011 Juno - Obiter

It entered Jupiter orbit in July, 2016. main purpose to study the atmosphere and magnetic field of Jupiter in detail look for evidence of a solid core, map the magnetic field, measure the amount of water and ammonia in the deep atmosphere and observe the planet's auroras. It is expected to dive into Jupiter in July, 2021

It has been argued that hydrogen-powered automobiles can solve our energy problems because we can get all of the hydrogen that we need from sea water. Which of the following comments about the energy needed to separate the hydrogen and oxygen in water is correct?

It is the same as the energy released when the hydrogen is burned, so we get no net gain of energy.

Titan

It is the second largest moon in the solar system It has a dense and complex atmosphere that obscures its surface when viewed with ordinary light atmospheric pressure on the surface is about 60% higher than on Earth 289 Fahrenheit degrees below zero: triple point of methane main ingredient in the atmosphere is Nitrogen

​CHANG'E 4-relay, Launched May 20 2018.

It serves as a radio relay for the Chang'e 4 mission, which has placed the first lunar lander and lunar rover on the far side of the Moon A lunar orbiter as well as a lander and lunar rover, combined with the communications satellite already hovering over the Moon's far side will begin to explore the Von Karman crater in the South Pole - Aitken Basin on the far side of the Moon.

The most likely candidate for a second star in our Solar system was

Jupiter

The New Horizons space probe made close approaches to

Jupiter and Pluto

average density of jovian planets

Jupiter: 1300 kg/m3 Saturn: 700 kg/m3 Uranus: 1300 kg/m3 Neptune: 1600 kg/m3 These planets consist mostly of gas and ice with very small rocky cores

Lagrange points

L1, L2, and L3: are unstable so that a spacecraft must use its thrusters to stay at these points L2: is said to be in a Lunar Halo orbit, is ideal for a communication satellites L4 and L5: are stable, which means that objects placed there will resist being moved away, have been proposed for space colonies because they do not need any active measures to stay in place.

​1978 Pioneer Venus Orbiter

Launched May 20, 1978 Inserted into orbit around Venus on December 4, 1978 Radar mapping of the planet was done until July 1980, 1991 and 1992 the Radar Mapper was reactivated to finish mapping carried infrared and ultraviolet cameras, which revealed information about the upper atmosphere of the planet

Kepler's First Law

Law of Planetary Motion The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

Which of the following statements qualifies as a falsifiable working hypothesis of the sort that Karl Popper would favor?

Life arose on Earth and exists only there.

The cluster of galaxies that our own galaxy belongs to is called the

Local Group.

Mercury is closer to the Sun than Earth. Which of the following statements is true?

Mercury takes less time to go around the Sun and moves faster than the Earth.

planet order

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

average density of the terrestrial planets and moon

Mercury: 5400 kg/m3 Venus: 5200 kg/m3 Earth: 5500 kg/m3 Mars: 3900 kg/m3 Moon: 3300 kg/m3

In a solar day, the sun comes back to the same place in the sky but, in relation to the distant stars, the Earth actually rotates

More than one revolution (it has to go 361º)

Milankovich cycles

Natural cycles in the Earths position (changes in orbit, axis tilt and precession) that are used to explain climate changes over the last 400,000 yrs. the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit varies so that the difference in sunlight intensity between perihelion and aphelion can be as large as 23%.

Relative to the Milky Way family of stars, our sun is

Neither at the center nor at the edge.

Which of the following objects has a magnetic field whose North and South poles are displaced from its rotation axis poles and also from the center of the planet?

Neptune

Ultima Thule

New Horizons flew past Ultima Thule on New Year's Day, 2019 about 22 miles long and consists of two flat pancake-shaped objects fused together The object is mostly ice and frozen gas and is the oldest undisturbed object ever seen by humans

You see a telescope with a long tube and the eyepiece sticking out the side near the top. This telescope uses the

Newtonian Focus.

main components of Earth's atmosphere

Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 20% Water 1% Argon 0.9% Carbon Dioxide 0.04%

As seen from far above the Earth's North Pole, the Earth orbits the Sun counter clockwise and

No planet orbits the Sun clockwise.

As seen from far above the Earth's South Pole, the Earth orbits the Sun clockwise and

No planet orbits the Sun counterclockwise.

Trans-Neptunian Objects

Objects that circle the sun beyond the orbit of Neptune TNOs or Trans-Neptunian Objects - beyond the orbit of Neptune KBOs or Kuiper Belt Objects - in the extended Kuiper Belt SDOs or Scattered Disk Objects - beyond the Kuiper Belt out to about 100 au Plutinos - About 200 objects that orbit the Sun twice for every three times that Neptune does. Cubewanos - Objects in the Classical Kuiper Belt. Named after the first such object: 1992QB1

New Horizons 2006

On July 14, 2015 it gave us our first close look at the Pluto system It passed just 6200 miles from Pluto

Near Earth Objects

Over 1 km in diameter - 1000 (894 actually observed by July 2018) Over 140 m in diameter - 25,000 (8237 actually observed by July 2018) Over 30 meters in diameter - 200,000 (14,799 actually observed by July 2018) Under 30 meters in diameter - 1,000,000 (3596 actually observed by July 2018)

Pressure wave

P-waves move material back and forth in the direction that the wave is moving. These waves can travel through either a solid or a liquid

rogue planet

Planets that used to orbit a star, but have unstable orbits and are now roaming the galaxy

The search for extrasolar planets has started to find "super-Earths," planets several times as large as Earth but with about the same density. From what we understand so far about plate tectonics on Earth, how likely is it that these super-Earths would have active surfaces like ours?

Possible if other conditions are also present.

When a seismometer detects an earthquake, the first signal to arrive is usually the

Pressure wave

Convection

Process by which, in a fluid being heated, the warmer part of the mass will rise and the cooler portions will sink.

ozone layer - Stratosphere

Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation at about 45 km stable because the colder air is at the bottom and the warmer air is at the top no vertical air circulation chlorofluorocarbons - the ultraviolet light in sunlight breaks them up into fragments, which proceed to convert O3 ozone molecules into normal oxygen O2 molecules without themselves being used up

You are having central air conditioning installed in your two-story house and you have a choice between putting the vents on the second floor and putting them on the first floor. Of course, it would be best to put them in both places but you can't do that. Which of the options that you have is best?

Put the vents on the second floor so that the cooled air will descend to the first floor.

A single sugar phosphate chain with nitrogenous bases attached along it describes a molecule of

RNA

A star that is cooler than most other stars will probably look

Red

Which of the following features in the light reflected from a planet would indicate the presence of Earth-type plants (rather than just colored rocks) on its surface?

Red light is not reflected, but infra-red light is strongly reflected.

The first space probes to land on another planet were from the

Russian Venera series.

​Shear waves

S-waves move material perpendicular to the direction that the wave is moving. If solid rock is sheared sideways like this, it will spring back, so shear waves can travel through solid rock. However, a liquid will not spring back, so these waves do not travel through a liquid. ​S waves travel at about half the speed of P waves.

A galaxy with thick spiral arms and a large bar-shaped central bulge would be a type

SBa.

Which of the following planets has a hexagon-shaped pattern of clouds near its North Pole?

Saturn

A galaxy with thin spiral arms and a small spherical central bulge would be a type

Sc.

A rocket is in a roughly circular orbit near the surface of the Earth, moving at around 5 miles per second. Suppose that it is desired to lower it to a new circular orbit, slightly closer to the surface. The rocket flips over and fires its main rocket engine in a short burst to slow its speed to 4.96 miles per second. What must it do next?

Slow it's speed again by a bit when its distance from the Earth stops decreasing.

small asteroids ground impacts

Some asteroids are made of iron and hold together until they hit the ground. Their kinetic energy then vaporizes the rock and creates a large crater

comet nucleus

The 'dirty snowball' a few kilometers across

magnitude scale

The astronomical brightness scale; the larger the number, the fainter the star brightness ends up increasing from bottom to top Objects in the upper right of the HR diagram are bright, but have low surface temperatures = "red giants" Objects in the lower left of the HR diagram are very hot objects which are also very dim. That situation can only happen if they have very small surface area. Thus, these are "dwarfs."

magnitude scale

The astronomical brightness scale; the larger the number, the fainter the star. Add 5 to the magnitude = Divide the brightness by 100. Subtract 5 from the magnitude = Multiply the brightness by 100. ex: A magnitude 1 star is 100 times as bright as a magnitude 6 star. A magnitude 2 star is 100 times as bright as a magnitude 7 star. The star Vega has magnitude 0, so it is 2.512 times as bright as a magnitude 1 star.

distance modulus

The difference between the apparent and absolute magnitudes of an object dm = apparent magnitude - absolute magnitude

You are standing in an elevator that is accelerating upward at 1m/s². Which of the following pairs of forces is an action-reaction pair that has to be exactly equal and opposite to each other?

The force that the floor of the elevator exerts on you and the force that you exert on the floor of the elevator.

Einstein's Theory of Gravitation

The gravitational field is the warping of space-time by a planet and warped space-time affects the motion of other objects gravity is actually due to the curvature of space and time, predicts that space close to the Sun will be curved by its gravity.

naive falsification

The idea that a single observation can falsify a statement ex: a single fossil that appears to show a human footprint inside a dinosaur footprint would not be enough to disprove the Theory of Evolution.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere temperature falls with increasing height up to about 12 km unstable because temperature falls as you go up where weather happens

neutrino burst

The neutrons move inward until they touch each other and the collapse stops the energy of motion of the falling core is instantly converted into heat and gamma rays More energy than the star has released in its entire lifetime is released in a fraction of a second, creating a supernova explosion

The frequency of a wave is defined to be

The number of crests that pass in one second.

Exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space from 500 km out to 10,000 km in which the temperature falls again

synodic month

The period of revolution of the Moon with respect to the Sun; the length of one cycle of lunar phases; 29 1/2 Earth days.

frequency and color

The range of frequencies that corresponds to visible light is rather narrow compared to the enormous range of frequencies for all the types of electromagnetic radiation An electromagnetic wave that is oscillating at 750THz (7.5×1014 cycles per second) would be seen as violet light. A wave oscillating at 566THz would be seen as green light . A wave oscillating at 430THz would be seen as red light.

full spectral type

The spectral type of a star is usually combined with its luminosity class to give all of the information that can be determined from a star's spectrum ​The full spectral type of Rigel is B8Ia, a class B8 bright supergiant star: a blue supergiant. The full spectral type of our Sun is G2V, a main sequence type G2 star: a yellow dwarf. The full spectral type of Arcturus is K2III, which makes it a type K2 giant: a red giant.

Kepler's Third Law

The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. T = time that planet takes to go once around the Sun R = planets average distance from the Sun (R is half of the longest diameter of the planets elliptical orbit) T2/R3 has the same value for every planet. Earth: T = 1 R = 1 T2/R3 = 1. when you compare the speeds at which different planets move, closer is faster

Red Supergiant

The stage in the life cycle of a massive star during which the star increases in size and becomes very bright.

To account for motions in the heavens they assumed:

The stars are attached to a crystal sphere, which rotates around the Earth. The Sun and Moon rotate around the Earth separately from crystal sphere. Each planet moves around the Earth in a complicated path.

star names

The stars within a constellation are named according to their brightness. Brightest Star order: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta

The Viking Landers carried out several experiments on Martian surface soil. The final conclusion from those experiments (as interpreted at the time) was:

The surface of Mars is extremely hostile to all forms of organic matter.

comet dust tail

The tail of a comet that is composed of dust driven off the coma by solar radiation pressure; its particles then move on their own orbits. It always points away from the Sun. rock fragments Forms close to the Sun

comet ion tail

The tail of a comet that is composed of gas and reacts to the solar wind and thus always points directly away from the Sun Atoms with electrons missing as large as the Earth's orbit

formation of the moon

The tilt of the Moon's orbit argues that its formation involved an outside body. If the Moon simply split from the Earth, it would be orbiting in the plane of the Earth's equator. The similarities in chemical composition imply that all of the objects involved formed in the neighborhood of Earth's orbit. The lack of iron on the Moon implies that the Moon could not be a captured object that formed separately. If it formed near Earth's orbit, it would have an iron core. The chemical dryness of lunar rocks implies that they were heated to high temperatures which drove off any water.

Luminosity

The total light energy per unit time that is emitted by the star

average density

The total mass of an object divided by the total volume D=m/v

escape velocity

The velocity an object must reach to fly beyond a planet's or moon's gravitational pull. about 7 miles per second

The Dynamo Theory

Theory that explains planetary and stellar magnetic fields in terms of rotating, conducting material flowing in an object's interior. heat-driven flows within the rotating core. In many planets the liquid core is liquid iron, but it does not have to be iron. "self-excited dynamo" = when a rotating planet has a liquid core and a electrical conductor, makes the magnetic field

CHANG'E 2, Launched October 1, 2010.

This probe captured high resolution images of the proposed landing site of the Chang'e 3 lunar rover and then left lunar orbit to visit both the L2 lunar Lagrange point and the asteroid 4179Toutatis. It provided a full test of the Chinese Deep Space Tracking System.​

KAGUYA (SELENE) JAXA (Japan Space Agency), Launched Sep 2007.

This probe consisted of one main orbiter and two smaller ones. The probe entered Lunar Orbit on October 18, 1007 and shifted to regular observation mode on December 21, 2007. It orbited the Moon for 19 months, creating a complete map of the Moon's surface.

short period comets

Thought to originate in the Kuiper Belt, or associated scattered discs, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune

Which of the following planets or moons has an atmosphere with about 1.6 times the surface pressure of Earth's?

Titan

Which of these moons could have two levels of oceans, with oceans of liquid hydrocarbons on the surface and oceans of liquid water beneath the surface?

Titan

Which of the following planets is about 4 times the size of the Earth?

Uranus

comet coma

Vaporizing gas and dust as large as the planet Jupiter

The first soft landing on Mars was by the

Viking Landers

Which of the following spacecraft was the second to fly past Saturn and the first to target the moon Titan?

Voyager 1

1977 Voyager 1, Voyager 2 - Fly-by

Voyager 1 was aimed at passing Titan and followed a trajectory through the ring plane and then out of the plane of the solar system. Voyager 2 remained in the plane of the solar system on a gravitational slingshot path that would take it on to Uranus and Neptune.

Which of the following spacecraft is the only one to have flown past Uranus?

Voyager 2

1977 Voyager 1, 2 - Fy-by and Grand Tour

Voyager 2 launched first, on August 20, 1977. It was on a slower trajectory that would reach Jupiter after Voyager 1 and would not give the best look at the moons of Saturn, but was lined up for the Grand Tour Voyager 1 arrived at Jupiter on March 5, 1979 while Voyager 2 arrived on July 9, 1979. These probes provided the first close views of the moons and rings around Jupiter and witnessed the first volcanic eruption beyond

average density of common materials

Water: 1000 kg/m3 Granite Rock: 2700 kg/m3 Iron: 7800 kg/m3 ex1: a planet with an average density of 2700 kg/m3 is most likely made entirely of rock ex2: between 2700 kg/m3 and 7800 kg/m3 is probably made of rock with a core of iron

The star Wemadeit shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.2 seconds of arc while the star Waytoofar shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.3 seconds of arc. From this, you can conclude that

Waytoofar is closer to our Sun than Wemadeit.

The star Wemadeit shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.3 seconds of arc while the star Waytoofar shows a stellar parallax angle of 0.4 seconds of arc. From this, you can conclude that

Waytoofar is closer to our Sun than Wemadeit.

x-rays

When a neutron star has a normal star for a partner, gas from the normal star spirals in to the neutron star, emitting a steady stream of X-rays. When enough nuclear fuel builds up on the surface of the neutron star, a short fusion reaction starts and emits a burst of X-rays until the fuel is gone = x-ray bursters the collapsed object is much smaller, the gravitational field is much stronger, and the energies are much higher

Gravitational Microlensing

When a single nearby star passes between us and a distant object, it can cause gravitational lensing as well. But the effect is not large enough to produce separate images of the distant object

defraction limit

When a telescope is pointed at a light source and turns a bit away from it, the light intensity that is sent to its focus does not drop off to zero immediately. ​The telescope must turn until its outer edge has moved through about one wavelength of the incoming light before the intensity drops. That one-wavelength turning angle is called the diffraction limit of the telescope's resolving power.

1971 Mariner 9 (orbiter)

When it arrived, its view of the surface was completely obscured by a planet-wide dust storm,January, 1972, the dust had settled and the orbiter was able to map the surface

The Tau-tauri Wind

When the Sun began the final collapse that would raise its central temperature into the range needed to ignite the nuclear fusion reaction that powers stars, its outer layers blew off

Volcanos

When the liquid rock or magma from the mantle finds its way to the surface, we have volcanic eruptions and the carbon dioxide that is dissolved in the magma is released into the atmosphere to begin the carbon cycle again.

Visual Binary Star Systems

When the members of a binary star system are well separated and the system is nearby we can sometimes resolve images of both stars we have a full picture of both orbits and can determine everything about the system, by using Newton's Laws We get the masses of both objects and the viewing angle between our line of sight and the plane of the orbits

A spectral type G star could be a main sequence star like our own Sun or it could be one of several different types of red giant stars. Can we tell which it is just by looking at its spectrum?

Yes. The widths of the spectral lines tell us which it is.​

Epimetheus and Janus

`square dancing moons' These two moons share the same orbit and exchange positions whenever one overtakes the other

When an interstellar cloud fragment does not have enough mass to form a star powered by nuclear fusion, but gets hot enough to glow for a while, it is called

a brown dwarf.

The Earth's core consists of

a central core of solid iron and an outer core of liquid iron

Meteriod

a chunk or rock or dust in space, smaller than asteriods

main sequence

a diagonal area on an H-R diagram that includes more than 90 percent of all stars S-shaped curve that weaves from the lower right to the upper left

atmospheric turbulence

a disturbance of particles in the atmosphere

wave

a disturbance that transfers energy from one place to another

We see what appears to be a single star. However, when the light from the star is put through a spectrometer, we see two distinct spectra, shifting back and forth. The star is actually

a double-line spectroscopic binary system.

inner Oort cloud

a doughnut-shaped region with objects above and below the plane of the solar system is a wide toroidal shaped region from 50 to 20,000au that starts where the Kuiper Belt stops

Jupiter has

a few rings made of dark rocks

ecliptic

a great circle on the celestial sphere representing the sun's apparent path during the year, so called because lunar and solar eclipses can occur only when the moon crosses it. The sun moves eastward along the ecliptic by about 1° per day, circling back to its starting point after one year. is titled with respect to the Celestial Equator. defines the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun

Clemintine

a joint project of NASA and the Strategic Defense Initiative used its radio transmitter to bounce signals from the Moon's South Pole to the antennas of the Deep Space Network on Earth. The signals were consistent with the presence of ice at the pole. The results were inconclusive, but were enough to start the lunar water hunt and a race to the lunar South Pole basin.

Civilizations capable of sending out broadcast messages that we could possibly detect across interstellar distances would have to be technologically advanced and would probably be much more advanced than we are. That makes it difficult to decide what sort of signals they would send. The SETI program has decided to listen for microwave signals rather than more exotic types of signals (such as laser light, gamma rays, neutrinos, gravitational waves, etc.). The main reason for this choice is that

a microwave signal can send the largest amount of information for a given amount of energy used to generate the signal.

A rising convection current in the Earth's mantle is expected to cause

a mid-ocean ridge where tectonic plates are spreading apart.

How many stars similar to our sun would need to be collected at one place to equal the power output of Sgr A*?

a million: 1,000,000.

Armillary Sphere

a model of the celestial globe constructed from rings and hoops representing the equator, the tropics, and other celestial circles, and able to revolve on its axis.

aurora borealis

a natural electrical phenomenon characterized by the appearance of streamers of reddish or greenish light in the sky, usually near the northern or southern magnetic pole.

nuclear fusion

a nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of energy.

focal plane

a plane perpendicular to the principal axis that passes through either focal point of a lens ​Light from a star that is off-axis will be focused somewhere in a plane that is perpendicular to the axis and crosses the axis at the focal point

The idea that a supernova is preceded by a huge burst of neutrinos is

a prediction that has now been observed.

globule

a small spherical body

Light that has been spread out to show the frequencies or colors that are present is called

a spectrum

Type II supernovas have the following properties:

a spectrum with hydrogen lines and a variable maximum brightness.

Oort Cloud

a spherical region that surrounds the solar system, that extends from the Kuiper Belt to almost halfway to the nearest star, and that contains billions of comets

The overall shape of our Milky Way Galaxy is thought to be

a spiral somewhat like the nearby Andromeda Galaxy.

binary star system

a star system that contains two stars

Type II Supernova

a supernova explosion in which the degenerate core of an evolved massive star suddenly collapses and rebounds it lasts for weeks because it takes a long time for the blast to work its way out from inside the giant star. Because the star still had a hydrogen outer envelope when it exploded, hydrogen lines are seen in the spectrum of the supernova.

The ancient Greeks concluded that the Sun is larger than the Moon because

a total solar eclipse happens over a very small part of the Earth.

In a particular binary star system, we are able to determine the masses of both stars in the system as well as the angle between our line of sight and the plane of the stars' orbits but cannot determine the diameters or atmospheric compositions of the two stars. This system is most likely

a visual binary system.

A nova occurs when

a white dwarf steals fuel from a neighbor.

A type Ia supernova occurs when

a white-dwarf begins to collapse.

You are looking down on the Earth from a spacecraft hovering far above. After watching for a while, you notice that, from your perspective, it is rotating counterclockwise. The part of the Earth that is directly below you must be the Earth's a. North Pole. b. Equator. c. South Pole.

a. North Pole.

Which of the following statements is falsifiable? a. Passenger pigeons are extinct. b. Passenger pigeons are not extinct. c. Passenger pigeons taste good. d. Passenger pigeons taste terrible. e. Passenger pigeons were pests.

a. Passenger pigeons are extinct.

Copernicus said that the rotation of the Earth on its axis caused the a. daily motions in the heavens. b. phases of the Moon. c. retrograde motion of the planets. d. eclipses of the Moon. e. motion of the Sun along the ecliptic.

a. daily motions in the heavens.

Low Earth Orbit

an orbit located a few hundred kilometers above the earth's surface

As the two foci of an ellipse are moved apart, the shape of the ellipse becomes a. more like a line between the foci. b. more like a circle around the foci. c. more like a triangle drawn around the foci. d. more like a sphere around the foci.

a. more like a line between the foci.

The stars, as seen from the Earth, appear to be attached to a. the Celestial Sphere, a sphere that surrounds the Earth. b. the top of the Earth's atmosphere. c. the Celestial Net, a mesh of wires surrounding the Earth. d. the Heliopause, an off-center surface surrounding the Sun. e. the North Celestial Pole.

a. the Celestial Sphere, a sphere that surrounds the Earth.

You see a waxing Gibbous Moon directly south. What time might it be?

about 10pm

phobos

about 17 miles across orbits Mars in 7 hours and 39 minutes, rises in the West and sets in the East. periapsis of 9235.6 kilometers or 2.76 times the radius of Mars, which brings it closer to the surface of its primary than any other moon in the Solar System. density: 1870 kg/m3

Saturn

about ten times the size of the Earth 9.58 au from the Sun is heated almost entirely from within, surface temperature is - 270°F mostly hydrogen and helium There are bands and vortexes similar to Jupiter, but they are concealed by a high ice-cloud layer unique to Saturn is a hexagonal cloud system at its North Pole, first seen by the Voyager probes in 1980 elliptical orbit: perihelion = 9.01au, aphelion = 10.06au, takes 29.46 years to go once around the Sun no solid surface, rotation axis is tilted at 27 degrees from the perpendicular One observable effect of the tilt is that we see the ring system at different angles as Saturn goes through its orbits magnetic field is of about the same intensity as Earth's magnetic North and South poles of Saturn are almost exactly aligned with its rotation axis, the magnetic poles do not move as the planet rotates

Coudé Focus

adds a mirror to the Cassegrain design and diverts the light out the side to a location that can stay fixed as the telescope moves

Saturn's magnetic North and South poles are

almost exactly aligned with its rotation axis.

suppose that someone who works at the U.S. Naval Observatory says that he saw the Moon rise at 6:45pm on April 25, 2008. This statement is most likely

an actual observation of the natural world

Mars has

an atmosphere of carbon dioxide with about 1% the surface pressure of Earth's.

annular eclipse

an eclipse of the sun in which the edge of the sun remains visible as a bright ring around the moon.

Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion is that the orbit of each planet is

an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

Once its rockets have ceased firing, an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile will follow a path that is best described as

an ellipse with the center of the Earth at one focus.

Kepler found that the orbit of Mars is best described as

an ellipse.

The first red giant stage of a one solar mass star's life usually ends with

an explosion in the helium core.

Celestial Sphere

an imaginary sphere of which the observer is the center and on which all celestial objects are considered to lie. appears to rotate from East to West, carrying each star completely around in slightly less than 24 hours.

The luminosity class of a star is

an indication of the broadening of its spectral lines

standard candle

an object for which we have some means of knowing its true luminosity, so that we can use its apparent brightness to determine its distance with the luminosity-distance formula

The theory that dark matter is not real and is just a a problem with our theory of gravity has been falsified by

an observation of what happens when clusters of galaxies collide.

Mars

atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with about 1% of the Earth's atmospheric pressure temperatures: high of 59°F, low of -129°F Water exists mostly as water vapor in the thin atmosphere and as ice in the polar ice caps and possibly underground as a perma-frost layer. northern hemisphere: consists of lowlands with few craters or volcanoes and extensive lava flows southern hemisphere: is higher and covered with craters and volcanoes. ​A Martian sol of 24 hours and 39 minutes (similar to a solar day), rotation axis is tilted at 25.2º orbits every 687 days, very far from circular perihelion distance is 128.6 million miles, aphelion distance is 160 million miles (intensity of sunlight changes by a drastic 40%) does not appear to have an overall magnetic field of its own, the magnetic field in these regions is about 1/40 the Earth's surface magnetic field intensity. has two moons, may be captured asteroids

Here is the Drake Equation. In this equation, n_{e} stands for the N = R* x fp x ne x fe x fi x fc x L

average number of habitable planets in a planetary system.

The tail of a comet always points

away from the sun

Which of the following statements is falsifiable? a. There is intelligent life on other stars. b. The Moon is made entirely of cheese. c. Isaac Newton was the greatest scientist. d. There is beauty in a sunset. e. There is cheese on the Moon.

b. The Moon is made entirely of cheese.

An early measurement of noon Sun angles at the summer solstice at Alexandria and Syene needed one additional piece of information in order to determine the size of the Earth. a. The longitudes of Alexandria and Syene. b. The distance between Alexandria and Syene. c. The solar time difference between Alexandria and Syene. d. The difference in height above sea-level between Alexandria and Syene.

b. The distance between Alexandria and Syene.

The motion of the Moon around the Earth causes a. Daily motions in the Heavens. b. The phases of the Moon. c. The seasons. d. Meteor Showers. e. Dandruff.

b. The phases of the Moon.

Einstein's Theory of Gravity has passed every well-understood observational test for over 100 years. However there are some anomalous observations which are not well-understood. For example, the Pioneer space probe is showing tiny deviations from its predicted course as it leaves the neighborhood of our solar system. A new theory, called "Modified Newtonian Dynamics," actually does not do as well as Einstein's Theory at predicting most things, but it does predict those tiny deviations and also accounts for several other, apparently unrelated, anomalous observations as well. From what we have said about the way scientists think, which of the following receptions would you expect this new theory to get? a. There is great hostility because the new theory challenges the established theory. b. There is great disinterest because there is no need to replace a theory that has passed every well-understood observational test. c. There is great disinterest because the new theory does not account for as many observational tests as Einstein's Theory does. d. There is great interest because the new theory suggests that Einstein's Theory might be wrong.

b. There is great disinterest because there is no need to replace a theory that has passed every well-understood observational test.

An area of the sky that is marked by a recognizable pattern of stars is called a. a celestial sector. b. a constellation. c. an asterism. d. a stellar neighborhood. e. an astral house.

b. a constellation.

A sidereal day is a. a few minutes longer than a solar day. b. a few minutes shorter than a solar day. c. just the same as a solar day. d. several hours longer than a solar day. e. several hours shorter than a solar day.

b. a few minutes shorter than a solar day.

The time it takes for the Celestial sphere to rotate once relative to the Earth is called a. a solar day. b. a sidereal day. c. an astronomical day. d. a Celestial day. e. a polar day.

b. a sidereal day.

A time of 24 hours is a. almost exactly equal to a sidereal day (within a second). b. almost exactly equal to a solar day (within a second). c. different by several minutes from both a solar day and a sidereal day.

b. almost exactly equal to a solar day (within a second).

From the way that lunar eclipses happen, the Ancient Greeks were able to a. conclude that the Sun is farther from the Earth than the Moon. b. calculate the distance from the Earth to the Moon. c. calculate the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

b. calculate the distance from the Earth to the Moon.

At midsummer in Murmansk (which is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle), the Sun stays above the horizon for several days. This observation would conflict with the predictions of a model of the Sun's motion that has the Sun a. moving around the Earth. b. moving over and under a flat Earth. c. remaining still while the Earth goes around the Sun.

b. moving over and under a flat Earth.

Einstein's Theory of Relativity has passed every observational test for over 100 years. Among other things, it predicts that no material object can go faster than the speed of light. Fred Zveistein (twice as smart as Einstein) has a new theory that predicts that some material objects can go faster than light. Fred presents his new theory at a scientific meeting (in 2009). These meetings have several talks going on at the same time, so people normally move from one room to another to hear the talks they are interested in. When Fred gets up to talk, everyone leaves the room to go to other talks. The reason for this behavior is that a. the other scientists are angry with Fred for challenging the established theory. b. there is no interest in replacing a theory that has passed every observational test. c. there is no interest in seeing the established theory proven wrong.

b. there is no interest in replacing a theory that has passed every observational test.

Panspermia Model

based on the discovery that material from impacts on other planets has been deposited on Earth. Because bacterial spores and extremophile bacteria are known to be extremely hardy, they could have survived long space trips and brought life to Earth from elsewhere. suggests that we will find exactly the same DNA and the same biochemical processes everywhere that is within range of whatever process carried the original seeds of life.

visiting Neptune

been visited by only one space probe, Voyager 2, gravitational slingshot maneuvers past Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus The closest approach to Neptune was just 3000 miles from the North pole of the planet on August 25, 1989

A star that forms an iron core most likely has a mass of

between 15 and 20 solar masses.

moon visits

between 1958 and 1998 there were about 72 attempted lunar missions with about 48 successes ​The first successful soft landing on the Moon was Surveyor 1, in 1966

High protostellar winds of ejected gas occur

between the initial contraction and the ignition of nuclear burning.

The source that is called Sgr A* emits

both X-rays and radio waves.

Which of the following computer programs is the most likely to be considered a scientific model: a. An animated screen-saver that shows waves crashing on the beach. b. A simulation game in which people can spend a day at the beach. c. A simulation,using currently accepted physical laws, of waves crashing on the beach.

c. A simulation,using currently accepted physical laws, of waves crashing on the beach.

You read in an Astronomy book that our Milky Way Galaxy consists of about 200 billion stars. How do you suppose this number was determined? a. By using a computer and a large telescope to count them all. b. By counting the stars in our immediate neighborhood and assuming that to be typical of every neighborhood. c. By using a model of the galaxy that correctly accounts for everything that has been measured so far. d. By picking a number more or less at random since nobody could ever check it.

c. By using a model of the galaxy that correctly accounts for everything that has been measured so far.

Which of the following statements is the most likely to be a reproducible observation? a. I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm. b. I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm in Richmond, VA. c. I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm on December 22 in Richmond VA. d. I saw the Sun set twelve hours after it rose.

c. I saw the Sun set at 4:55pm on December 22 in Richmond VA.

Joseph Weber designed a series of devices to detect ripples in spacetime, called gravitational waves. After several years of effort, Joe announced that he had detected gravitational waves. He built several versions of his devices and they all detected the waves. When other people tried to build similar devices, none of them detected anything at all. Joe's evidence was ignored by the scientific community because: a. Joe was an Electrical Engineer and did not belong to the physicist club. b. Scientists would not believe there was a possible source for gravitational waves strong enough to register on Joe's detectors. c. Joe's observations were not reproduced. d. Joe's observations were sloppily done and not convincing.

c. Joe's observations were not reproduced.

The statement that the orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus is due to a. Copernicus. b. Galileo. c. Kepler. d. Newton.

c. Kepler.

Mars is farther from the Sun than Earth. Which of the following statements is true? a. Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than the Earth because it has farther to go, but actually moves faster than the Earth. b. Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than the Earth because it has farther to go, but actually moves at the same speed as the Earth. c. Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than Earth and moves more slowly than the Earth does. d. Mars takes less time to go around the Sun than the Earth and moves much faster. e. Mars takes less time to go around the Sun than the Earth does but moves slower because the Earth keeps making rest stops.

c. Mars takes longer to go around the Sun than Earth and moves more slowly than the Earth does.

The closest star to the North Celestial Pole that is visible to the naked eye is a. Sirius. b. Altair. c. Polaris. d. Alcor. e. Mizar.

c. Polaris.

The first telescope was (possibly) built by a. Galileo. b. Newton. c. Someone in the Netherlands. d. Tycho Brahe.

c. Someone in the Netherlands.

Which of Kepler's Laws governs how a particular planet speeds up and slows down? a. The Period-Radius Relation. b. Orbits are Ellipses. c. The Equal Area Law. d. The Law of Inertia. e. The Law of Averages.

c. The Equal Area Law.

It has been said that the "facts" of science are actually "revisable facts." When do these "revisable facts" get revised? a. A scientific professional society votes them out. b. More elegant "revisable facts" are discovered. c. They conflict with reproducible observations. d. They are on the losing side of a debate. e. They are successfully challenged in court.

c. They conflict with reproducible observations.

In comparison to the Copernican Theory, the Ptolemaic Theory made predictions that were of a. much higher accuracy. b. much less accuracy. c. about the same accuracy.

c. about the same accuracy.

One reason that the Copernican System failed to fit Tycho's observations was that a. it placed the Earth at the center of the universe. b. it used elliptical orbits instead of circles. c. it used circular orbits instead of ellipses. d. it placed the Sun at the center of the system.

c. it used circular orbits instead of ellipses.

In one day, the position of the Sun on the Celestial Sphere a. does not change at all. b. moves westward along the ecliptic by 1° c. moves eastward along the ecliptic by 1°. d. moves westward along the ecliptic by 15°. e. Moves eastward along the ecliptic by 15°.

c. moves eastward along the ecliptic by 1°.

By making extensive observations of planetary motion, Tycho Brahe a. discovered new planets. b. explained how planets move. c. provided accurate data for the first time. d. disproved Ptolemy's theory of planetary motion. e. proved that Copernicus was right.

c. provided accurate data for the first time.

The time when the noon sun is highest in the sky is called a. the Spring Equinox. b. the Winter Solstice. c. the Summer Solstice. d. the Autumnal Equinox

c. the Summer Solstice.

By measuring the angle between the Sun and the Moon when the Moon was in its first or third quarter, the ancient Greeks were able to calculate a. the size of the Moon. b. the distance from the Earth to the Moon. c. the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

c. the distance from the Earth to the Sun.

The ancient Greeks argued that the Earth cannot be moving because such a motion would cause apparent shifts in the positions of stars. This argument was wrong because a. no such shifts are actually possible. b. all of the stars are at the same distance from the Earth. c. the stars are so far away that the shifts due to the Earth's motion are extremely small. d. each star is moving in a circle exactly in step with the Earth's motion around the Sun.

c. the stars are so far away that the shifts due to the Earth's motion are extremely small.

A "rogue planet" or planetary mass objects that is not in orbit around any particular star

could be detected if its gravity magnifies the light from a star. that it happens to pass in front of.

Current computer models of planet formation suggest that the Alpha Centauri system

could have planets within the habitable zones of both Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B.

According to our current (very tentative) estimates, a spaceship traveling from our Sun to one of the nearest stars such as Alpha Centauri A probably

could make the trip in many short hops between rogue planets along the way.

LCROSS Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite

crashed into lunar crater Cabeus, raising a 220 ton plume of dust. after the crash, grains of pure water ice could be seen rising into the sunlight above the crater The plume also contained large amounts of methane, ammonia, hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and light metals: sodium mercury and possibly silver

The orbit of Pluto

crosses the orbit of Neptune.

distance relation

d = (10^dm/5) x 10 parsecs Subtract the absolute magnitude from the apparent magnitude. Divide the result by 5. Raise 10 to that power. Multiply the result by 10 parsecs ex: 22 - 2 = 20 20/5 = 4 10^4 d = 10^4 x 10 parsecs = 10^5 = 100,000 parsecs

At 8pm, you see that the pointer stars of the Big dipper and the star Polaris are arranged in a vertical line. How long, give or take a few minutes, would you need to wait to see them arranged in a horizontal line? a. It will never happen. b. 24 hours. c. 12 hours. d. 6 hours. e. 3 hours.

d. 6 hours.

Which of the following statements is observation of the natural world? a. The Moon cannot be full and not full at the same time. b. A full Moon is prettier than a crescent Moon. c. The newspaper says that the Moon was full last night. d. I saw a full Moon last night.

d. I saw a full Moon last night.

Tycho Brahe's careful observations of the planets agreed, to within observational error, with a. the Copernican System. b. the Ptolemaic System. c. the Tychonic System. d. None of these systems.

d. None of these systems.

Sarah reports that she saw a green star close to the star Betelguese. She really saw it and was quite surprised. The most likely outcome of her report is that: a. Nobody bothers to check her observation and she becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star. b. Nobody bothers to check her observation and nobody believes her either. c. Other people look near Betelgeuse. They do not see the green star, and attack her report as a mistake or a fraud. d. Other people look near Betelgeuse. They see the star and confirm her report. She becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star.

d. Other people look near Betelgeuse. They see the star and confirm her report. She becomes famous as the discoverer of the first green star.

Which of these was the Solar System model that assumed the Earth is fixed and the Sun, Moon, and planets all move on epicycles that, in turn move on circular orbits around the Earth? a. Copernican model. b. Tychonic model. c. Keplerian model. d. Ptolemaic model.

d. Ptolemaic model.

The path of the Sun on the Celestial Sphere is called a. The Celestial Equator. b. The Equinox. c. The Solar Trajectory. d. The Ecliptic. e. The Great Circle.

d. The Ecliptic.

Which of the following astronomers is regarded as an early example of government-supported Big Science. a. Eratosthenes of Syene. b. Aristarchus of Samos. c. Copernicus. d. Tycho Brahe.

d. Tycho Brahe.

Aristarchus of Samos is known for a number of things. One of them was a. the idea that an explanation or model should 'save the appearances. b. his measurement of the size of the Earth. c. a model of the Solar System in which the Earth is fixed and everything rotates around the Earth. d. a model in which the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun. e. the discovery that planets move on elliptical orbits around the Sun.

d. a model in which the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun.

Aristarchus measured the angle between the Sun and the Moon when exactly half of the Moon was illuminated. If the Sun were actually just two or three times as far away as the Moon, he would have found that angle to be a. greater than 90 degrees. b. exactly 90 degrees. c. less than 90 degrees by an amount too small for him to measure. d. less than 90 degrees by an amount that was easy for him to measure.

d. less than 90 degrees by an amount that was easy for him to measure.

The daily rising and setting of the Sun happens a. every day, everywhere on Earth. b. only north of the arctic circle and south of the antarctic circle. c. only during the winter near the Earth's poles. d. only south of the arctic circle and north of the antarctic circle.

d. only south of the arctic circle and north of the antarctic circle.

For the ancient Greeks, the most basic of several clues that the Sun is farther from the Earth than the Moon came from a. the observed sizes of the Sun and Moon in the sky. b. the quarter phases of the Moon. c. lunar eclipses. d. solar eclipses.

d. solar eclipses.

One reason that temperatures are lower in the winter than in the summer is that a. the sun is closer to our hemisphere in the winter. b. the sun is farther from our hemisphere in the winter. c. the sun is higher in the sky in the winter. d. the sun is lower in the sky in the winter.

d. the sun is lower in the sky in the winter.

Retrograde Motion refers to the a. eastward motion of the Sun relative to the stars. b. westward motion of the Moon relative to the horizon. c. eastward motion of the planets relative to the stars. d. westward motion of the planets relative to the stars. e. westward motion of the planets relative to the horizon.

d. westward motion of the planets relative to the stars.

When a red giant star begins to burn helium, its diameter

decreases but not to its main sequence size.

For stars on the main-sequence, stars with decreasing mass have

decreasing surface temperature and absolute brightness.

A red subgiant star is one that has a

decreasing surface temperature and nearly constant brightness.

the parallax angle

defined to be half of the total annual shift in a star's position

absolute brightness

defined to be the apparent brightness that would be seen at a standard distance of 10 parsecs from the star

Parsec

defined to be the distance from our Sun to a star that shows a parallax angle of one second of arc when Earth's orbit is used as a baseline. 1 parsec = 3.3 lightyears

apparent brightness

defined to be the energy per unit time per unit area that enters our telescope

solar day

defined to be the time from one solar noon to the next and is the time needed for the earth to rotate by about 361°. amount of time is defined to be 24 hours

Early (before 1970) theoretical estimates of the number of near-Earth asteroids were very low because the astronomers of that time

did not realize that Jupiter's gravity was deflecting asteroids from the Belt.

​You see a waxing gibbous Moon at about 9 pm. Which direction are you looking?

directly away from the North Pole, so you are looking directly South.

Ham radio operators sometimes operate receivers for the 2 meter wavelength band. The 2 meters refers to the

distance from one maximum of the radio waves to the next.

Layers of the atmosphere

distinguished by how the temperature changes with height

Jupiter

doesn't have a solid surface, large ball of mostly hydrogen and helium gas (density and pressure increase going towards the center with a liquid hydrogen metallic state) surface consists of clouds of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water 11 times the size of the Earth is five times as far from the Sun as the Earth intensity of sunlight at Jupiter is 1/25 its intensity at Earth surface temperature is -234°F elliptical orbit: perihelion = 4.952, aphelion = 5.455auIt, takes 11.86 years to go once around the Sun rotates on its axis once in slightly less than 10 hours rotation axis is tilted: 3.13 degrees from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit has a magnetic field with about ten times the intensity of the Earth's rotating fast enough but it is not dense enough to have an iron core

Ellipse

drawn by sticking two pins into a piece of paper and stretching a circular loop of string around both pins and the tip of a pencil. Moving the pencil so as to keep the loop stretched tight will cause it to draw an ellipse. ​The two pins are the foci of the ellipse.

You see a waning quarter Moon high in the night sky. What time is it? a. 8:00pm. b. 10:00am. c. Midnight. d. 6:00pm e. 5:00am

e. 5:00am

As seen from North America, the constellation Casseopeia a. sets in the east. b. sets in the west. c. sets in the north. d. sets in the south. e. never sets.

e. never sets.

The first major failure of the Ptolemaic Theory to predict the results of observations was a. the precise observations of Tycho Brahe. b. the retrograde motion of the planets. c. the Moons of Jupiter. d. the mountains of the Moon. e. the phases of Venus.

e. the phases of Venus.

The Sun usually rises in the

east

The core of a red supergiant star stops shrinking because its

electrons touch each other.

types of galaxies

elliptical: E0, E3, E7 lenticular: S0 spiral: Sa, Sb, Sc barred spiral: SBa, SBb, SBc irregular: Irr E0: like a gigantic globular cluster. E7: very flattened but no disk. S0: a disk with no features in it.

The temperature of a gas measures the

energy of motion of its atoms or molecules

CHANG'E 5T1 (Test), Launched October 23, 2014.

engineering test for Chang'e 5 (December 2019 launch planned), which will land on the Moon and return samples to Earth L2 Lagrange point The return capsule practiced an atmosphere skipping re-entry and parachuted into the northern region of Mongolia.

1996 Mars Global Surveyor

entered Mars orbit using aerobraking on Sept 11, 1997 took 240,000 pictures of the planet surface, used its spectrometer to discover concentrations of hematite

​1989 Magellan

entered a polar orbit around Venus on August 10, 1990 produced detailed, three-dimensional maps of the surface with a resolution of about 100 meters

The point at which even an outwardly directed light ray is pulled into a black hole is called the

event horizon.

Earth's orbit is currently elliptical enough to make the intensity of sunlight vary by 6 percent. The shortest Earth-Sun distance (and highest intensity sunlight) currently occurs

every January.

observe

experiencing something for yourself.

Suppose a planet was discovered orbiting a star in a highly elliptical orbit. While the planet is close to the star it moves _____ but while it is far away it moves ____

faster;slower

1972 Pioneer 10 - Fly-by

first probe to the outer Solar System analyzed the composition of Jupiter's atmosphere and discovered Jupiter's enormous magnetic field and radiation belt

1989 Galileo - Orbiter and Atmospheric Probe

first went to Venus for a gravitational slingshot maneuver entered Jupiter orbit on December 7, 1995. dropped a probe into the atmosphere of Jupiter. returned data for an hour as it descended on a parachute. gave us our first close look at the Moon Europa and observed volcanos in action on the Moon Io.

2006 New Horizons - Fly by

flew past Jupiter on its way to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt on February 28, 2007 flew past Pluto on on July 14, 2015, returning spectacular pictures and then flew past a small object in the Kuiper Belt (2014 MU69 aka "Ultima Thule") on January 1, 2019

The semiliquid rock that is found inside the Earth

flows like a liquid under gradual pressure but is stiff like a solid under sudden pressure

1964 Mariner 4

fly-by mission first mission to successfully send back pictures

Stars that are much more massive than our Sun

form faster and burn out faster.

​2003 Spirit and Opportunity

full-scale versions of the pathfinder mission Spirit: became stuck in some soft sand in January, 2010. It traveled a total of 4.8 miles and was last heard from in March 2010 Attempts to contact Spirit again ceased in May, 2011. Opportunity: traveled about 28 miles. operated on Mars for more than 5000 sols and made it through eight Martian winters

In an evolved high-mass star, when the electrons combine with protons to form a pure neutron core, the reaction

generates a neutrino burst.

unstable air masses

great vertical movement, lots of condensation, aids in making of storms cold air on top of warm air, the air on the bottom wants to rise while the air on the top wants to sink

The absorption and re-radiation of infrared light by gases such as carbon dioxide is the key process in the

greenhouse Effect.

open cluster of stars

group of up to a few thousand stars that were formed from the same giant molecular cloud and have roughly the same age

Pythagoras (born in 570 BCE)

guessed that the Earth must be shaped like a sphere because he felt that it was the most elegant and harmonious shape that he could think of. He also assumed that if the Moon was round, then why wouldn't the Earth be round?

Copernican model

had Mercury and Venus moving around the Sun predicting that they should show all of the phases.

1975 Venera 9

had a cooling system that permitted it to operate on the surface for about 53 minutes found the surface pressure to be about 90 times the pressure at the surface of the Earth light-level was about like Earth on a cloudy summer day.

Apollo 6

had one engine fail because its fuel lines were ruptured by the "pogoing" oscillation of the engine. That oscillation problem was never fixed.

Ptolemaic model

had two of the planets, Mercury and Venus, moving along epicycles centered on a line that joins the Sun and the Earth

1997 Cassini-Huygens (NASA-ESA) - Fly-by

had two probes present at the same time provided a chance to measure the extent of the planets magnetic field, which turned out to be twice the size it had been during the Voyager 1 encounter ​ Cassini also was able to provide large scale time-lapse images that Galileo could not

Uranus's moons

has 27 satellites that are known so far, 6 major ones: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon, Puck Titania is the largest

Venus

has a dense atmosphere, about 90 times the atmospheric pressure that we have on Earth consists mostly of Carbon Dioxide, temperatures reach 450ºC (the hottest planet in the Solar System) clouds made of sulfuric acid, 400 mile per hour winds are common among the cloud tops (very little wind at the surface) almost no water, active volcanos, dense atmosphere bends light toward the surface The surface of Venus is possibly the most hostile to life of any in the Solar System most nearly circular orbit orbits the sun every 224-earth days rotates backwards (clockwise if viewed from far above the Earth's North Pole): every 243 days sun rises in the west and sets in the east doesn't have a magnetic field, no natural moons been visited by about 28 spacecraft (out of 46 attempts), starting with Mariner 2 in 1962.

Uranus's rings

has a ring system that consists of dark rocks

The moon Miranda is peculiar because it

has a surface feature that looks like a giant check mark.

Mercury

has almost no atmosphere and rotates very slowly extreme temperatures: noon 400ºC, 3-month night -150ºC craters from impacting objects, no volcanos, has pressure ridges or "scarps" axial tilt of only 1/100 of a degree, no seasons, has the most elongated (eccentric) orbit of all the planets distance from the Sun varies: 46 million kilometers - 70 million kilometers, the sun experiences retrograde loops 88 days to orbit, 59 days rotation relative to the fixed stars (​During one orbit, Mercury completes 1.5 rotations) - 1 mercurian sidereal day = 2/3rd mercurian year - 1 mercurian solar day = 2 mercurian years no natural moons

Saturn's rings

has an extensive system of bright rings that consist mainly of ice-covered rocks

If we detect that a star is sometimes moving toward us and sometimes moving away and also find that this pattern repeats at regular intervals, we know for sure that the star

has at least one object of unknown type orbiting around it.

The Big Bang Theory predicts that most of the dark matter in our galaxy and elsewhere must consist of something other than the known chemical elements. This prediction

has been tested by looking for rogue planets.

Saturn's moons

has just one large, planet-sized moon, Titan, and a collection of smaller ones

Cepheid variable stars with the same period

have similar luminosities.

Cepheid variable stars with the same luminosity usually

have similar periods.

weak force

range: short effect: Particles change identity, generating neutrinos.

Kuiper Belt objects are usually made of

ice and possibly frozen gas

Comets are usually made of

ice and possibly frozen gas.

second law of motion

if a total force F on an object produces an amount of acceleration a, then these quantities are related by the equation F=ma

third law of motion

if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite force on A. Law of Action-Reaction

The stars of the Milky Way are mostly found

in a band of stars stretching across the sky.

In the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, a main sequence star might be found

in the lower right or upper left.

One indication that there is a lot of invisible matter in the outer halo of our galaxy is that stars in that region orbit with velocities that

increase with increasing distance from the center.

For stars on the main-sequence, stars with increasing mass have

increasing surface temperature and absolute brightness.

Protostars are very bright because of their large surface areas. Most of this energy comes out as

infra-red light with wavelengths too long to see with an ordinary telescope.

CHANG'E 1, Launched October 24, 2007.

intended to focus on mapping the north and south pole regions of the Moon

Neutrinos

interact only through the weak force.

Protons and neutrons

interact through all three forces, strong, weak, and electromagnetic. (Neutrons have zero electric charge but do have magnetic fields).

Electrons and positrons

interact through the weak and electromagnetic forces.

Seismic waves are used to determine the Earth's

interior structure

small asteroids kinetic energy

is converted into heat and light. A 50 meter diameter object would release as much energy as a large thermonuclear weapon

Powers of a telescope - Magnification Power

is determined by the eyepiece lens of the telescope and, for a given telescope, you can get any magnification that you want, just by changing the eyepiece

Earth's mantle

is made of denser rock that is semi-liquid in constant slow motion the mantle behaves like a stiff solid when pressure is applied suddenly, but flows like a liquid under gradual pressure

Earth's crust

is made of low density rock such as granite and is only about ten miles thick

If the frequency of electromagnetic radiation goes from 3×10¹⁴Hz to 9×10¹⁴Hz, the energy of each individual photon in the radiation

is multiplied by 3.

The Moon's orbit

is somewhat tilted relative to the plane of the Earth's equator

spherical Earth model

is that it has no edge and only one number is needed to specify the model completely, the radius R of the sphere.

Powers of a telescope - ​Resolving Power

is the angular size of the smallest feature that can be seen and is limited by the size of the mirror and the wavelength of light

Kuiper Belt

is the region from the orbit of Neptune out to about 55 astronomical units from the Sun. contains thousands of comet-like objects - dirty snowballs. includes several dwarf planets, such as Pluto.

The constellation Sagittarius is where the Milky Way

is thickest.

The photosphere of a protostar

is where light is last scattered.

Copernicus's model of the solar system was superior to Ptolemy's because

it had mathematical basis that could be used to predict the positions of planets

​CHANDRAYAAN-1, ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) launched on October 22, 2008

it sent an impact probe into the Moon's South Pole, throwing up material that provided evidence of water

​1997 Cassini-Huygens (NASA-ESA) - Orbiter and Titan Lander

joint effort of NASA and the European Space Agency used the Jupiter gravitational slingshot to enter Saturn orbit on July 1, 2004. The Cassini orbiter studied the Saturn system in detail for more than 12 years.

Galileo said that a moving object with nothing pushing or pulling on it will always

keep moving at the same speed.

1975 Viking 1 and 2

landed on July 20 and September 3, 1976 Viking 1 landed on Chryse Planitia while Viking 2 landed at Utopia Planitia powered by radioisotope thermal generators which lasted for years

1996 Pathfinder

landed on Mars on July 4, 1997 using an airbag system instead of a fully controlled hover type of descent intended as a sort of toy test-bed for the airbag landing technique last transmission from Mars was on September 27, 1997.

The main reason to suspect that Titan has a subsurface ocean of water is

landmarks that are not rotating with the rest of the moon.

comets

large clumps of ice, dust and frozen gases that travel around the Sun in long elliptical orbits, farther than mars

Curiosity Rover

launched on November 26, 2011 and arrived at Gale Crater on Mars on August 6, 2012 nuclear-battery-powered vehicle ​It soft-landed by being lowered slowly by cable from a hovering transfer craft Curiosity has now been on Mars for over 2000 sols

stadia

length of a footpath in a stadium

As compared to higher frequency electromagnetic radiation, lower frequency electromagnetic radiation will usually cause

less damage.

Photons

light particles equation: ephoton = hf where Ephoton is the energy of a single photon, f is the frequency of the wave and h is a constant, called Planck's constant High frequency light corresponds to high energy photons Low frequency light corresponds to low energy photons. Light can only be emitted or absorbed as photons.

On a HR diagram, a visible white dwarf star is in the

lower left corner.

Jupiter's rings

made of dark colored rocks

2004 MESSENGER

made several gravitational slingshot passes to adjust its orbit: passed Earth in August 2005 and passed Venus twice (October 2006 and June 2007) made its first mercury pass on January 14th, 2008 It was the first Mercury orbiter initially in a very elongated 12 hour orbit (periapsis 200 kilometers from the surface, apapsis of 15,000 kilometers) crashed into Mercury on April 30, 2015,

The Surveyor series of spacecraft

made unmanned landings on the Moon in the 1960s

apparent magnitude

magnitude that describes the apparent brightness

The motions of the stars near Sgr A* make it possible to determine its

mass.

radial streaks

material thrown out across the surrounding surface

electron degenerate matter

matter in which electrons are packed as closely as possible

The mass that is distributed in different parts of our Milky Way Galaxy is estimated by

measuring how stars orbit the center of the galaxy.

When the fireball of its entry into the atmosphere was spotted from a KLM airliner, asteroid 2008 TC₃ had officially become a

meteor.

Near the center of the Milky Way there is an intense radio source whose mass is approximately three

million solar masses within several light days of the center.

In comparison to RR Lyra variables, Cepheid variable stars are

more luminous and less common.

Comets that originate in the Inner Oort Cloud would be expected to have orbits that are

mostly close to the plane of the solar system.

In a spiral galaxy, long-lived stars such as our Sun

move in and out of spiral arms.

15 solar mass star

moves almost horizontally, keeping constant brightness as its surface temperature drops.

Suppose that a star has a spectrum that includes red, blue, and violet lines spaced in the pattern of the lines from hydrogen but the red line is has a wavelength of 660 nm instead of the usual 656 nm. From this evidence, you can conclude that the star is

moving away from us.

Suppose that a star has a spectrum that includes red, blue, and violet lines spaced in the pattern of the lines from hydrogen but the violet lines are at 444nm and 420nm instead of the usual 434nm and 410nm. From this evidence, you can conclude that the star is

moving away from us.

In the Earth's atmosphere, the amount of carbon dioxide is

much less than the typical amount of water.

The observation that stars farther from the center of our galaxy orbit faster is thought to mean that

much of the mass is outside the central bulge.

The mass of Betelgeuse is about 20 times the mass of our own Sun. Our Sun is expected to have a total life span of about 10 billion years. The life span of Betelgeuse is expected to be

much shorter.

According to the definition of "habitable zone" that we are using, Earth is

near the inner edge of the habitable zone of our Solar System.

Within the Local Supercluster, our Local Group of galaxies is

near the outer edge of the cluster.

The Earth's motion around the Sun causes

nearby stars to shift back and forth once a year

One of the experiments carried out by the Viking Landers was to use a mass spectrometer to analyze the gas given off from a heated soil sample. The results of that experiment (as interpreted at the time) established that Martian soil contains

no carbon compounds at all.

The earliest known measurement of the circumference of the Earth used

noon Sun angles at two locations to determine the angle between the Earth radii to those locations.

Spectroscopic Binary Star Systems

not viewed face-on, one star approaches us while the other one moves away The spectrum of such a system will show two different spectra, one for each star, with the spectrum of the approaching star blue-shifted and the spectrum of the receding star red-shifted ​Often, the stars of a binary pair are too close together to be resolved as separate images in a telescope we can determine a minimum possible mass for each object in the system

The Viking Landers carried out several experiments on Martian surface soil. One of those experiments, the Pyrolytic Release Experiment gave a positive result for the presence of life forms. That result was interpreted to mean

nothing because a sterilized control sample gave the same result.

When a white dwarf star collects matter from a neighboring star, fusion reactions on the surface of the white dwarf cause

novas.

meteor showers

occur when earth passes through dusty debris from comets

type I (Ia) supernova

occurs when a medium mass star evolves to a white dwarf that orbits close to a normal star. Matter from the normal star falls onto the white dwarf. It increases the mass of the white dwarf star. The increased mass increases the gravitational field of the star and that increases the pressure on the degenerate electrons that are preventing the star from collapsing. When mass exceeds 1.4 solar masses = the electrons that are holding the dwarf up combine with the protons to form neutrons. The neutrons are much smaller in size than electrons, so there is no longer anything preventing the star from collapsing. The signature of a Type I supernova is that it is usually very short and shows no hydrogen lines at all. the core is always the same size when it starts its collapse and the collapse always happens in the same way, so these are standard candles.

A star with an absolute magnitude of 5.7 and an apparent magnitude of -1.2 would appear in our sky as a star

of dazzling brightness.

The wavelength of the sound waves that correspond to middle-C is about 4 feet. If you are standing 4 feet away from a piano that is playing that note, then between you and the piano there will usually be

one region of maximum pressure.

single-line spectroscopic binary

one set of lines is seen to move second star is implied we see a single spectrum that shifts back and forth in a regular fashion

For a spectroscopic binary star system, we can determine

only a minimum mass for each star.

the daily rising and setting of the sun happens

only south of the arctic circle and north of the antarctic circle

Population I stars in our galaxy include

only younger stars such as our sun.

The Population II stars of our Milky Way

orbit the central bulge in all directions.

The Doppler shift of familiar spectral lines from gas clouds and stars in our galaxy measures their

orbital velocities within the galaxy.

Moon

orbits the Earth once every 27 days (relative to the distant stars) rotates on its axis with exactly the same period so that it always has the same side facing the Earth orbit is significantly elliptical: perigee distance is 360,000 kilometers, apogee distance is 400,000 kilometers no magnetic field of its own: rotates slowly and its low density suggests that it does not have an iron core water in ice form, rocks contain large amounts of water that is chemically bound in the form of extremely stable hydrates.

Galileo observed that venus had phases that correlated with its size in his telescope. From this information, you may conclude

orbits the sun

A ring galaxy such asHoag's Object that is the result of a collision would be classified as a

peculiar galaxy.

Deimos

periapsis about 7 times the radius of mars. orbit is30 hours and 18 minutes, rise in the East and set in the West like a normal moon

strong force

range: short effect: Nucleons (protons or neutrons) stick together.

It has been theorized that planets do not easily form in binary star systems. If they do form, there are three possible arrangements:(1) Planets with orbits similar in radius to the distance between the two stars.(2) Planets with orbits much smaller in radius than the distance between the two stars.(3) Planets with orbits much larger in radius than the distance between the two stars.Observations so far (2018) indicate that

possibilities (2) and (3) actually happen.

The presence of frozen water on Mercury is

possible because it has no axial tilt so that its poles never face the Sun

The magnetic field of Mars is

present only locally, near magnetized ore deposits.

LUNAR RECONNAISSANCE ORBITER, NASA, lunar orbiter. Launched on June 18, 2009

primary mission was to skim the Moon's surface at low altitude (30 to 150 miles), mapping the surface to an accuracy of a few inches in order to complete planning for a lunar base. It also carried the LCROSS vehicle, which was to look for water at the lunar pole.

Aristarchus (310 BCE to 210 BCE)

proposed that the daily motions in the heavens, the rising and setting the of the Sun and Moon and the seeming rotation of the Celestial Sphere, were due to the Earth rotating on its axis. proposed that the Earth was circling the Sun explained that the stars are so far away that the shift is too small to see.

A hydrogen atom with its electron removed (a H⁺ ion in other words) is actually a

proton.

Which of the following particles would be repelled by a positron?

proton.

nuclear basics

proton: mass = 1amu, charge = +e electron: mass = 1/1836 amu, charge = -e neutron: mass = 1 amu, charge = 0 positron: mass = 1/1836 amu, charge = +e neutrino: mass = 0, charge = 0 hydrogen atom = proton and electron deuteron = proton and neutron

core collapse

protons and electrons react with one another through the weak interaction and produce neutrons and neutrinos. The neutrinos carry energy out of the core and accelerate its collapse. What is left is a collapsing core made of nothing but neutrons moving inward at a major fraction of the speed of light.

electromagnetic force

range: long effect: Like charges repel. Opposite charges attract.

Abiogenesis Model

says that the original self-replicating molecule that led to Earth life formed spontaneously from non-living material here on Earth. suggests that any life that we find on Mars or on the Moons of the Jovian planets would not have Earth-type DNA and might even be using an entirely different scheme for reproducing itself.

Winter Solstice

shortest day of the year the noon Sun is lowest in the sky, the sunlight strikes the ground at a shallow angle, delivering less heat to each unit of area.

One property of a model such as the shape of the Earth is the number of adjustable parameters it has --- the number of numbers that are needed to determine the model. For a model to be regarded as `elegant', this number

should be small.

Newtonian telescope

single mirrors, easy to build, long, open tube vulnerable to dust and wind-pressure

GRAIL, NASA, two lunar orbiters (Ebb and Flow) launched Sept. 10, 2011

skimmed the moon's surface monitoring the distance between Ebb and Flow, a detailed map of mass concentrations below the surface of the Moon was built up

A full cycle of day and night on Mars is called a `sol.' In terms of 24 hour Earth days, a Martian sol is

slightly longer than one Earth day.

​1973 Pioneer 11 - Fly-by

slingshot maneuver at Jupiter to reach Saturn and passed within 21,000 kilometers of its surface on September 1, 1979 It was sent on a dive through the ring plane to see if it was safe for the later Voyager mission to do that

The "Little Green Men Standard Time" hypothesis for the repeating radio signals seen in 1968 was rejected partly because the repetition rate was

slowing down.

The Kepler Spacecraft was designed to measure

small changes in starlight from nearby stars.

white dwarf star

small, hot star that is the leftover center of an older star; has no hydrogen left and cannot generate anymore energy; can shine for billions of years before completely cooling off.

Extragalactic nebulae such as the Great Nebula in Andromeda were not immediately recognized as galaxies similar to our own Milky Way because they were thought to be

smaller, nearby objects.

Uranus

smallest gas-giant planet, is only about four times the size of the Earth 19.2 au from the Sun, surface temperature of 357 degrees below zero Fahrenheit mostly hydrogen and helium with some methane (blue color) elliptical orbit: perihelion = 18.29au, aphelion = 20.096au, takes 84.02 years to go once around the Sun rotates on its axis once every 17.24 hours axial tilt is 97.86 degrees. That means that the rotational North pole of Uranus is pointing somewhat below the plane of the Solar System magnetic field is about as intense as the Earth's field on average: which has the magnetic north and south poles tilted at 60 degrees to the rotation axis and displaced from the center of the planet by about a third of its radius proposed that the interior is basically made of ammonia and water ices been visited by only one space probe, Voyager 2 (discovered 10 additional Moons of Uranus)

Galileo Observed that jupiter has moons. From this information you may conclude that

some things do not orbit the earth

object permanence

something can be hidden or out of sight and still exist.

When Galileo dropped a wooden ball and a heavier iron ball at the same time, he found that

sometimes the wooden ball hit first, sometimes the iron one hit first.

aurora australis

southern lights; caused by solar wind

A spectroscopic binary star system is one in which we see

spectral lines shifting back and forth.

Gravitational Slingshot Maneuvers

speed up: the probe passes behind the planet, the planet's gravity increases the probes velocity slow down: the probe passes in front of the planet and the planet's gravity pulls on the probe slowing it down.

falsifiable

stated in such clear, precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it able to be disproven by experimental results just needs one reproducible observation to disprove it

Think of the `front' of a telescope as the end that light enters. A telescope with Newtonian Focus has the eyepiece

sticking out the side near the front.

The layer of the atmosphere that tends to retain dust and smoke for long periods of time is the

stratosphere.

When the hydrogen fuel runs out at the center of a main sequence star, the star

swells up and becomes a red giant.

scientific models

tangible items or pictures used to represent invisible processes the crucial feature is that it make predictions that correspond to reproducible observations

Which of these is a distinctive feature of the Earth's atmosphere?

temperature and pressure permit all three forms of water.

The average energy of motion of an atom or molecule in a gas is called its

temperature.

stable air masses

tend to be near the surface and have stable temperature warm air on top of cold air, the air on the bottom wants to be on the bottom while the air on the top wants to be on the top

Mercury's moons

terrestrial planets can capture moons or form moons as the result of collisions. doesn't have any because it is too close to the sun

Apollo 4

tested the entire system at once

Many primitive cultures have a model of the Sun's motion in which the Sun passes underneath a flat earth. This model predicts

that everyone on Earth sees the Sun rise and set each day.

A star with an apparent magnitude of 5.7 and an absolute magnitude of -1.2 would appear in our sky as a star

that is barely visible to the naked eye.

An artificial satellite such as the International Space Station stays up because

the Earth curves out from under it as fast as it falls.

The size of a typical white dwarf star is comparable to the size of

the Earth.

retrograde motion

the apparent westward motion of the planets with respect to the stars planets appear to move westward for a period of time before resuming their normal eastward travel

The molecules of both liquid water and ice are held together by

the attraction between the hydrogen atoms on one water molecule and the oppositely charged oxygen atom on another.

astronimical unit

the average distance between the earth and the sun

During the Tau Tauri phase of a protostar's evolution,

the brightness decreases.

The Local Group is what astronomers call

the cluster of galaxies that our galaxy belongs to.

blue shift

the displacement of the spectrum to shorter wavelengths in the light coming from distant celestial objects moving toward the observer.

The wavelength of a wave is defined to be

the distance from one crest to the next.

A hydrogen bond is the result of

the electrical attraction between a hydrogen atom on one molecule and an oppositely charged part of another molecule.

helium flash

the event that marks the sudden onset of helium fusion in the previously inert helium core of a low-mass star

sea-floor spreading

the formation of new areas of oceanic crust, which occurs through the upwelling of magma at mid-ocean ridges and its subsequent outward movement on either side.

If you are told that a 20 kilogram object is raised by 10 meters, you know that

the mass of the object is 20 kilograms.

For an eclipsing spectroscopic binary star system, we can determine

the masses and diameters of both stars in the system.

We can see the star Sirius and its companion, the Pup, moving around each other. Careful measurement of this motion can provide

the masses of both stars in the system.

Stellar Parallax is caused by

the motion of the Earth around the Sun.

The mass of Sgr A* has been determined by observing

the motions of stars near it.

Aristotle said that the spherical shape of the Earth was

the natural result of gravity pulling everything toward a center.

Earth

the one planet whose atmospheric pressure and temperature ranges make it possible to have water in all three forms, solid, liquid and gas, at the same time One fifth of the atmosphere consists of one of the most reactive and corrosive elements known, Oxygen the surface is the least stable of any of the planets rotates on its axis once every 24 hours (minus about 4 minutes), rotation axis tilt of 23.5 degrees perihelion every January 3 (distance is 147,300,000 kilometers) aphelion every July 4 (distance is 152,100,000 kilometers) the closest approach to the Sun occurs in the winter has an extensive magnetic field (plays an essential role in protecting the planet from radiation)

synodic period

the period of rotation or revolution of a celestial body with respect to the sun

Perihelion

the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which it is closest to the sun.

Aphelion

the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which it is furthest from the sun.

One way to change the course of an asteroid is to place a `mass driver' on it. The mass driver is really just a catapult that throws things (like rocks for example) away from the asteroid. The force that acts on the combined object (mass driver plus asteroid) is actually exerted by

the rocks that the catapult throws.

Suppose that an object with a mass of one kilogram and an object with a mass of two kilograms are both in free fall near the Earth's surface. As compared to the one kilogram object, the two kilogram object accelerates

the same because gravity pulls on it twice as strongly and it has twice the inertia.

law of universal gravitation

the scientific law that states that every object in the universe attracts every other object

In order to use spectroscopic parallax to find the distance to a star, you need to know

the spectral type and luminosity class (B2V for example) and the apparent magnitude.

If we detect that the intensity of the light from a star is mostly constant but drops slightly to a new constant value for a while and then returns to its normal level and repeats this behavior at regular intervals, we can reasonably suspect that

the star has a planet in orbit around it.

Revisable Facts

the statements that have stood up to repeated testing and are currently accepted Until the Ptolemaic Model came into definite contradiction with observations, it was the only game anyone would consider playing

One reason that temperatures are higher in the summer than in the winter is that

the sun is higher in the sky in the summer.

hydrogen fusion

the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen to produce helium H = 1.008 amu 4H before = 4.032 amu He after = 4.003 amu

sideral day

the time between two consecutive transits of the First Point of Aries. It represents the time taken by the earth to rotate on its axis relative to the stars, and is almost four minutes shorter than the solar day because of the earth's orbital motion.

The main evidence for the presence of invisible matter in our galaxy is

the velocities with which stars orbit.

orbital velocity

the velocity a rocket must achieve to establish an orbit around a body in space about 5 miles per second

umbra

the very darkest part of the moon's shadow during a solar eclipse

The main reason that the SETI@home system needs to use the computing power of 5.2 million participating home computers is that

they are collecting and analyzing signals from millions of different radio channels.

Because mirrors only use one surface, they have a big advantage over lenses: They can be

thinner and larger in diameter.

​2018 BepiColombo

third mission to Mercury by the European Space Agency in a joint mission with NASA and Japan launched using a Arianne-5 rocket on October 20, 2018. (had four ion drive thrusters, the most powerful ion drive system ever launched) It is expected to arrive in Mercury orbit in December, 2025 two different probes: one to be placed in an elliptical orbit around Mercury and the other to be placed in a circular orbit

The magnetic field of Jupiter is

tilted relative to the planet's rotation axis but not offset from its center.

In a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, the surface temperature of stars increases going

to the left.

Pathfinder was the first

to use airbags to land on Mars

asteroid

too small to be spherical. mostly orbiting in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter with a few exceptions. made of carbon, or rock, or metals.

The Alpha Centauri star system consists of

two stars in close orbit around each other and a third star orbiting farther out

Non-falsifiable

unable to be false. This means science can not test it, and therefore, science can not argue for or against it. statements about the natural world need observational evidence to prove them wrong: An alien spaceship crashed in Roswell New Mexico. A giant white gorilla lives in the Himalayan mountains. Loch Ness Contains a giant reptile "An absence of evidence is not evidence of absence."

Newton

understood that it was the acceleration of an object that indicates the force on it. found that, for a planet following an elliptical orbit according to Kepler's Laws, the acceleration always pointed directly toward the Sun and had a magnitude that fell off with distance in proportion to 1/(distance)²

In a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, the absolute brightness of stars increases going

upward.

1990 Ulysses (NASA-ESA) - Fly by to Solar Orbit

used Jupiter's gravity to throw it into a polar orbit around the Sun so that it could survey the Sun's magnetic field and emissions of various types away from the well-studied plane of the Solar System lasted for 18 years, made three complete orbits of the Sun

1973 Pioneer 11 - Fly-by

used the gravity of Jupiter to propel it onward to Saturn now heading out of the Solar System in the direction of the constellation Aquila and was last heard from in 1995

1974 Mariner 10

used the gravity of Venus to slingshot it on to Mercury. did not carry enough fuel to get into the same orbit as Mercury. ended up in its own eccentric orbit around the Sun, approaching Mercury on every other orbit of Mercury. made three close approaches before it ran out of maneuvering fuel.

prime focus

uses the natural focal plane and places the eyepiece in a cage inside the telescope tube

Lunar Prospector (NASA) launched Jan. 1998

using a variety of magnetic, gravity, and neutron sensing instruments to see what was there. It confirmed the presence of water near the lunar poles

​Eratosthenes of Cyrene (born 276 BCE)

using the spherical model of the Earth and a little geometry, Eratosthenes' measurement of the circumference gives us the radius: R = c/2π = 39375km/2π = 6.2667x10^6m

cost-plus contracts

usually deals with something that has never been done before, so nobody knows what it will cost. the requirement is just to get something done, no matter what it will cost.

Speed of a wave

velocity = distance/time = number of waves x wavelength/time = (number of waves/time) x wavelength velocity = frequency x wavelength

black smokers

vents on the sea floor that form as hot mineral -rich water rushes from the hot rock at mid-ocean ridges and mixes with surrounding cold ocean water

A mirror that is shaped like a shallow bowl sitting on a glass table with its open end facing up will focus light that comes

vertically down from above.

seismic waves

vibrations that travel through Earth carrying the energy released during an earthquake

Ocean Breeze

warmer air rises over the ocean and the cooler air over the land sinks and rushes seaward

​Eratosthenes of Cyrene (born 276 BCE)

was able to figure out that the distance from Alexandria to Syene was about 5000 stadia. The circumference of the Earth had to be 50×5000 stadia or 250,000 stadia. Egyptian stadion, which was 157.5 meters. circumference = 250,000 × 157.5 meters = 39,375 kilometers (40,008 kilometers currently accepted value) made the system of longitude and latitude

Tycho Brahe

was the first person to point out that whenever a comet appeared, observers all over Europe saw it in the same constellation. court astronomer to King Frederick II of Denmark attempted to measure all the planets, all the time, and more accurately than ever before could measure angles to 1/60 of a degree of arc

1970 Venera 7

was the first spacecraft to actually land on another planet. was the 16th Russian attempt to get a probe to Venus

A world with both liquid water on its surface and carbon dioxide in its atmosphere is unstable because

water dissolves carbon dioxide and takes it out of the atmosphere.

Eclipsing Binary Star Systems

we see one star pass in front of the other, causing a sudden dip in the total amount of light. In an eclipsing binary we know that the angle between our line of sight and the orbital plane must be zero and we can determine the masses of both objects. By measuring the durations of the eclipses we can determine the diameters of both stars. By watching for changes in the spectrum during each eclipse, we can learn something about the atmospheres of both objects

Apollo 8

went even farther by literally "shooting for the Moon" with a trans lunar orbit and then raised the stakes even more by going into orbit around the moon.

The spacecraft Galileo

went into orbit around the planet Jupiter and dropped a probe into its atmosphere

moon oddities

​The Moon is 1/4 the size of the Earth whereas the largest satellite of Saturn is about 1/25 the size of Saturn. The Moon's orbit is tilted relative to the Earth's equator by an amount that wobbles a bit, but is never less than 18.5° The low density of the Moon implies an almost complete lack of iron. The surface material from the Moon has a chemical composition identical to that of Earth's surface with one exception: It is extremely dry.

Measuring Light

​The customary unit for measuring light wavelength is the nanometer 1nm = 10^-9 meters

meteor radiant

​The point in the sky where the shower seems to come from

speculation

​ex: a statement that Loch Ness contains a giant reptile could certainly be proven by snagging a giant reptile and hauling it up onto the boat dock. provable if it happens to be right, but not falsifiable if it is wrong, does not really have a name

descending convection cells

​plates are pulled together and either rise up to build mountain ranges or else one plate dives under the other to form a deep ocean trench