Final: VIU Psychology 112

Modern intelligence tests

1. *Stanford-Binet*-First successful one worldwide. Based on the Binet test but improved by some psychologists at Stanford. -Very much a verbal test, tuned to specific age groups (3 yo expected to be able to ___, 4 yo expected to ____) 2. *Weschler*-The successful knock-off. Has both the WAIS for adults and the WISC for children. -Not as heavy on language. There is a *verbal scale* (similar to Stanford-Binet) and a *performance scale* that is largely independent.

Controversies around intelligence

1. Racial and cultural difference in measured iq -There is measured statistically significantly different iq b/w African-Canadians and Caucasian Canadians. -Difference is small relative to variability within group -Tests are of questionable validity, many questions somewhat biased towards testing whitey (both a cultural and a linguistic bias) -Also *stereotype threat*: Anxiety a person feels about his/her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his/her groups abilities. (can also decrease motivation) 2. Role of genetics versus environment -Implication for eugenetics, which is terrifying. -There is evidence for a genetic contribution to intelligence -*Family studies* show significant correlation b/w relatedness and IQ -*Twin studies*: Identical twins have r=0.9, fraternal is r=0.6. Identical twins reared apart have r=0.75. -Also lots of evidence for environmental contribution (family and home economics-socioeconomic status). Environmental enrichment can give a "head start" for intelligence. As well as quality of school, and what someone chooses to do for a job.

Social roles

A collection of norms that prescribe behaviour in a particular social group/context e.g. Gender roles, work roles, family roles. Different norms apply to different people within a group These are hugely powerful, e.g. *Zimbardo's Stanford prison study* -It implicated that social roles can supersede individual variables influencing behaviour

Stress

A major factor affecting health, often studied by psychologists It is "*A state produced by situations perceived to impact an individuals sense of well being, characterized by particular psychological, physiological, and behavioural features.*" Fundamentally, there is a stressor (intensity, duration, predictability, etc.) which is appraised internally (appraise against self-efficacy etc.) Has pretty serious impacts on health, *Riley et al 1975* had a stressed and a comfortable group of mice, stressed group got way more cancer (92% of stressed mice, 7% unstressed mice) -Stress levels in modern society are subjectively high -Risk factor for lots of health problems -One of the primary mechanisms is in how it relates to the immune system (*psychoneuroimmunology*)

Algorithms

A set of procedures and logical rules used to solve a particular problem, requires particular inputs -Always yields a "correct" answer E.g. Recipes, finding area of a square, etc. We can't always apply them b/c often we don't have the required inputs.

Heuristics

AKA *informal reasoning* -General strategies or procedures that produce better outcomes than guessing or trial and error, but don't guarantee a "correct" answer. -'Rules of thumb' In general, they're easier to use than algorithms (don't need all the particular inputs) Examples: 1. Forming subgoals (say, when writing a term paper) 2. Identifying analogies (this problem is like ____ problem) 3. Reframing the problem (distance problem vs. time problem) 4. Taking a break/*incubation*: The incubation effect is when solutions come to mind after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem. Influenced by lots of factors (time spent thinking about problem, degree of distraction)

Emotion

An internal state of arousal accompanied by positive or negative feelings. -To feel emotion you've gotta care-->state of arousal -Emotions likely have an adaptive value (social communication, info about internal state, influence others' behaviour towards us)

Group

An organized, stable collection of individuals in which the members are aware of and influence one another and share a common identity *Social facilitation* Performance in group>individual performance Partially due to greater arousal, better for simpler tasks by *Yerkes-Dodson law* However, *social loafing* also occurs -Reduced effort in group contexts -Degree to which it occurs is effected by Group size, group cohesion, and monitoring/accountability *Groupthink* -Faulty thinking due to stressing conformity (consensus/agreement) -leads to common ideas, values, attitudes. Suppress consideration of alternatives -Can lead to over-confidence (illusion of unanimity), censorship There is also helping behaviour=*altruism* -Stuff like donating blood, giving to charity, etc. -From an evolutionary perspective, does altruism really even exist. usually its more of a *reciprocal altruism* (indirect benefits like social status and happiness) -Variables affecting it include the number of people available to help (decrease w/ more people) -Thought to be due to *diffusion of responsibility* (social loafing, *bystander effect*) -Can fight diffusion with education and being specific (assign roles, target individuals)

Long-term regulation of eating

Appetite, to psychologists, is an overall, broad pattern of eating. *Set point theory*-Genetically influenced 'normal' weight range for an individual (+/-10%) -Supported by family studies, etc. Basal metabolic rate is what it takes to be alive, extra goes to fat or exercise.

Thurstone's 7 primary mental abilities

Believed intelligence could be subdivided into 7 different mental abilities: 1. Verbal comprehension 2. Word fluency 3. Numerical skill 4. Spatial ability 5. Associative memory 6. Perceptual speed 7. Reasoning

James-Lange theory of emotion

Believed that some stimulus would induce a state of physiological arousal, which would then get interpreted and manifest as an emotion. Didn't address a few things: -Visceral deafferentiation -Same visceral responses for different emotions? -Speed of visceral responses relative to emotional ones?

Other motivated behaviours

Besides eating, lots of other behaviours that are pretty motivated: 1. Sexual 2. Affiliation 3. Achievement

Language and brain

Broca's area: Language production. Wernicke's area: Language comprehension. Patients with either of these areas damaged have *aphasia* Girls tend to learn language faster than boys, jury is out if this is innate or acquired though.

Stressors

Can be acute or chronic Qualitative experience can be *frustrating*, a reactive response Conversely, can be proactive. This is thought of as *pressure* -Effect on performance follows *Yerkes-Dodson law* Can also be *choice (internal) conflict* (Approach-approach) -Or avoidance-avoidance (stuck b/w a rock and a hard place) -Often procrastinate these sorts of things -Can also be *approach-avoidance* (some aspects good, some aspects bad about option x) Change is also a stressor Last big one is *endangerment*, kinda the least important one in North American everyday life. Severity of the stressor is important, *minor stressors/microstressors* are important b/c there are lots of them. High variability b/w people in the response to them (e.g. stuck in traffic) -Macrostressors are less variable in response, but more variable in exposure. -What does stress-free even mean?

Attitude formation

Can occur "formally" -Research a topic heavily, attitude is rational and evidence based More often, attitudes are formed informally -Some influence from genetics (scared of spiders) -Influence from cognitive and emotional characteristics -Influence from experience (events, social influences) *Mere thought effect*: The more you think about a given attitude, the stronger it gets. Also behavioural effects, performing actions related to the attitude can change the attitude (paid nothing, $1, or $20 to do a stupid task)

Familiarity effect

Changing attitudes based on repeated exposure (pretty much the same as the *mere thought effect*) -Often associated with positive emotions Also the *validity effect*, due to positive cognitions

Defense mechanisms

Cognitive and behavioural strategies that help the ego deal with anxiety provoking situations that cannot be handled in a realistically achievable way. They are numerous, and we use them to some degree. E.g. Projection, reaction formation, repression, regression, denial, rationalization

Cognitive approach to measuring intelligence

Focus is on intelligence as a means of solving problems. -->Ability to interact effectively with the world C/w with psychometric approaches (psychometric <--->cognitive) Written tests<--->Performance tests Single intelligence<--->Multiple intelligences Learning/thinking<--->Solving problems Psychometric<--->Cognitive

Obedience

Following directions from leader/authority -Milgram's obedience study with all the fake shocking n' shit -This has been replicated on numerous occasions -They've shown that victim behaviour has very little impact (implications of bullying n' stuff) -Altered by social context (doctor in charge, or grad student, some guy?) -Salience/proximity of victim -Authority, conformity

Triarchic theory

From *Robert Sternberg* He made it just 3 intelligences: Internal, external, and experiential. Internal is more your classical intelligence, metacognition etc. External is your creativity Experiential is your practical aspects, street smarts, *tacit knowledge*

Psychological factors on eating

Have a huge regulatory effect on eating -How important are they? *conditioning* occurs, reinforced by taste and alleviation of hunger (people who can't taste don't really like eating) -Other stimuli can stimulate hunger (pizza hut logo) *Memory* also plays a significant role, you can make amnesiacs eat two lunches if you distract them. Attitudes, beliefs, and goals also have a strong influence on when and what we eat. *Food availability*-we tend to eat less when there is little variety (*leftovers effect*) and more when there is lots (*buffet effect*)

Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence

He has two factors explaining people ability at stuff: G-factor: General capacity for effective thought that produces better performance across a wide range of cognitive challenges S-factor: Specific factor tied to a specific area of functioning (this'd be a B=G+S+E+O model) Spearman derived this from *factor analysis* using school test scores. Some analogies to athleticism (some degree of general athleticism, but also specific sport to sport)

Leptin

Hormone produced by fat cells -Decreases appetite, increases metabolism -Happens via 'indirect' mechanism We can tell because of mice who've got a mutated *ob* gene -Some people have this mutation, but on the whole not a huge cause for the rise in obesity

Modern multifactorial theories of intelligence

Howard Gardner has come up with his own batch of subdivisions for intelligence, looks fairly similar to Thurstone's 7. 1. Linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Musical 4. Spatial 5. Bodily-kinesthetic 6. Interpersonal 7. Intrapersonal 8. Naturalistic

Where does thinking occur?

In consciousness of course (lol, stupid answer). -Varies from controlled to automatic, related to effort (reading something versus explaining it to someone else) Ability to control is *cognitive control*, engages and directs consciousness. (Resistance to distraction, enables complex behaviour) Preconsciousness: Things you're not thinking about but soon could be Subconsciousness: can't think about, blood pressure etc. Unconscious thought-*implicit learning* (e.g. how we all learned solitaire) *Mindlessness*

Sex and intelligence

In general, little difference. We have been able to find subtle differences though: *Girls better at*: -Perceptual speed -Verbal fluency -Mathematical calculation -Fine motor coordination *Males better on*: -Spatial tasks -Throwing/catching things -Mathematical reasoning

Theories on motivation

Initially, there were *drive theories* (push theories) There was some sort of human need, like a need for water, that gave rise to motivation. -Motivation as a means of maintaining homeostasis Others believed in *incentive theories* (pull theories) -Motivation arises from external goals, which may relate to either biological or "learned" needs *Primary incentives*: Relate to innate needs/wants *Secondary incentives*: Relate cues that become incentives as a result of learned associations *Humanistic view* We are motivated to strive for personal growth, fulfill potential -Has a *needs hierarchy*-fulfill deficiency needs first, then human growth needs, then self-actualization *Evolutionary view*: We are motivated to engage in behaviour that enhances our "evolutionary success" (survival, reproduction) -Pdt of genes and learning Motivations prioritize behaviours according to their adaptive significance

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

The hypothesis that language heavily influences and determines the way we think. -Determines what we are "capable" of thinking -Some evidence, e.g. people with more words for colours can recognize and discern b/w more colours. *In general, this is found to be too extreme*. However, language does influence our thinking. (gender biased language exp't, English vs. Chinese mathematicians)

Social forces

Factors related to other individuals, groups, and cultures that influence our cognition, emotion, and behaviour *Norms*-A social rule, low, or informal agreement that prescribes and regulates behaviour -Can be situation or group specific -Violations are subject to sanctions -Rules are also either explicit (pool rules) or implicit (keep your shirt on) -Descriptive or injunctive *Also social roles*

Life events scale

Social readjustment rating scale-SRRS -identified variety of "change-related" life stressors -Assigned a value of 0 to 100 If you total more than 300, you've got health problems -Ideally you want less than 150 Often useful in research, but got some criticisms (are all these experiences really the same for everyone?)

Overcoming thinking errors

Few ways to try to overcome these: 1. Develop cognitive control (read for 30 mins a day) 2. Develop some expertise in areas you want to be able to think more effectively in 3. Recognize the consequences of your thinking, many types of bias are less likely when people are motivated (related to cognitive control) 4. Understand the types of mistakes/biases that can occur i.e. get educated, particularly in science and psychology

Obesity

Defined as a BMI of greater than 30 In Canada, about 30-40% of adults are classified as overweight, 15-20% are obese. 20% of kids overweight, 10% are obese. About 40-70% of variation in BMI between people is explained by genetics. However, environmental factors play a role too: -Increased abundance of and higher caloric food -Energy saving devices (cars) -Increase in non-physical education -sociocultural factors (waste not, social habits)

Emotional intelligence

Defined as your ability to: 1. Identify your own emotions 2. Identify other's emotions 3. Control your own emotions 4. Control the emotions of others

What is a language?

Defining it as simply: "a tool for communication" is a little too broad for any practical use (b/c then we can speak of dog language etc.). So instead it is formally defined as: "A set of symbols, and rules for combining those symbols, that enables *generative* communication" Symbols: Symbolic, I can say car and you know what I mean w/o having to point at a car. Generative: Effectively infinite possibilities for things that can be said. *Languages are*: 1. Rule-governed -Rules for letters/symbols can be combined to make words. -Rules for how words are combined to make phrases and how meaning is derived from those phrases. -And rules for how words/comm. used in different circumstances (eye-contact, etc.) 2. Semantic -Conveys meaning, communicates (not the only thing that does this) -Language is the only thing that does this with the other three characteristics (symbols, rule-governed, and generative)

Dieting

Difficult as a means of decreasing BMI because... -Typically people with higher BMI make more insulin, facilitates conversion of glucose to fat -High BMI makes it difficult to be active -Homeostatic mechanisms and setpoint It is possible though, through exercise and "keeping it off"

Personality

Distinctive and relatively enduring thoughts, behaviours, and feelings that characterize a particular individual -Distinctive, characteristics -Enduring -Psychological Lots of perspectives on it... Psychodynamic Behavioural Humanistic Trait/biological perspective All of them try to answer: What the components of personality are and how they fit together How does personality develop?

Action tendencies

E.g. disgust, respond the same way semi-universally Allows inference of emotional state. -probably why our faces are hairless -Facial expressions also influence our emotional state (Grin and bear it) *Pencil study* illustrated facial-feedback theory Also the *Duchenne smile*

Multilinguality

Easier to acquire in children (6-7, sensitive period) However, overall language development is often slowed. *But, many cognitive benefits*: 1. Analytical reasoning/problem solving 2. Executive function/cognitive control 3. Creativity/cognitive flexibility 4. Resistance to cognitive decline/brain health

Problem solving approaches

Effectively, it is navigating the *problem space* (all the aspects, whats the end goal, etc.) Few methods: 1. *Trial and error*: Just do everything. 2. *Reasoning*: Both algorithms (always correct, but not always available) and *heuristics* -Manipulation of mental representations with logic and other rules -Safer and more efficient than trial and error

Cognitive dissonance

Emotional discomfort as a result of holding contradictory attitudes or holding an attitude that contradicts behaviour -Change attitude/behaviour to justify or match the behaviour/attitude. Or just solve it by denial of the challenging information/confirmation bias of only seeing the supporting info.

Health psychology

Explores the role of psychological factors in human health What are the factors? How do they influence health? Why do people vary? Overall goal is prevention, treatment, and to promote physical and psychological well being (*positive psychology*)

Language structure

Language is organized hierarchically, wherein: 1. *Phonemes* are the base, ~200 of these. Base sound you can make. Any given language uses 10-140. (English has 50). -Where accents come from, you don't know the right phonemes (babies know them all then forget) 2. *Morphemes* are composed of one or more phonemes, smallest unit of meaning. -Denotation (dictionary definition) versus connotation (emotional/additional meaning a word carries) 3. *Words* 4. *Phrases* 5. *Sentence* 6. *Discourse*

Sigmund Freud

Medical doctor that trained treating *hysteria* with Charcot -Published "The Interpretation of Dreams" He proposed that we all had "psychic energy", with sexual (life) and aggressive (death) drives. -Mental events occurred in the conscious, preconscious, or subconscious (subconscious only revealed in dreams, art, jokes, or "slips") *Id* -Resides in the unconscious -Present at birth -The source of *psychic energy* -Operates according to the *pleasure principle* *Ego* -Resides in the unconscious and the conscious -Starts to develop shortly after birth -Operates according to the *reality principle* *Superego* -Resides in the conscious and unconscious -Develops after birth (more slowly than ego) -It is your conscience-->Society, parents -Operates on the *morality principle* (pride and guilt) Believed that the ego was constantly mediating between the superego and the id, which was a source of anxiety. -Offloads that anxiety using *defense mechanisms*

Thinking

Mental manipulation of internal representations -Information processing used to solve problems, make decisions, plan etc. Elements of thought are the things we manipulate Processes ("tools") of thought (the way we manipulate them) *Concepts*: Mental categories (used to group objects, activities, or abstractions) -Sometimes based on prototypes (most typical representation) -Combined to form propositions (linked concepts, like sky--blue) *Mental images* Perceptual representations (smell of vanilla, humming a melody, etc.)

Language acquisition

Occurs naturally (indicating biological preparedness) -First language not a result of conscious decision or formal training All cultures have highly developed language -Substantial similarities in structure across languages. Children produce the full range of human phonemes. Development process is fairly similar across languages -Language specific phonemes start dominating at ~6 months -Rules of grammar begin to be acquired shortly thereafter *Sequence*: 1. Prevocal learning: 2-4 months old (cooing) 2. Babbling: 6 months old 3. First words: 1 year old (overextensions and underextensions occur) 4. Telegraphic speech by 2 yrs of age. (talk like a telegram) 5. Grammar: 3-4 years of age. (overregularizations) 6. Linguistic eloquence cultivated across a lifespan

Binet

The first guy to come up with a way of measuring intelligence. He was paid by the French government to come up with a way of finding the kids that weren't going to do so well in school, so that those kids could get extra support/programs: -Designed a test that figured out your mental age (asked gr k-12 questions; figure out which you could answer). -Iq was thus defined as mental age/actual age*100. So if you're 6 and performing at the level of an 8 y/o you've got an iq of 133. This later got standardized, so instead of making a "mental age", you take a comparable group of people and grade on a distribution. If you got average score you're at 100, every SD is 15. So 3 SD above the mean is an iq of 145.

Thinking not always successful

Often we get stuff wrong, dependent on: 1. Difficulty of problem 2. Incomplete or faulty information 3. Common pitfalls in human thinking (cognitive biases) Cognitive biases: 1. Mental sets-a strategy (algorithm or heuristic) that can be applied to a range of analogous problems. -Can be misapplied/overused 2. Functional fixedness -Tendency to limit our thinking about the use of things to their "normal" functions. (often comes up with people!) 3. Confirmation bias -Tendency to look at evidence that supports our belief and ignore contrary evidence -Contributes to *belief perseverance* 4. Distraction (focus failure) -Get distracted by irrelevant info, like in the sock question -Self-imposed/unnecessary constraints 5. Representativeness heuristic. Just b/c someone looks like a librarian does not make them a librarian. 6. Conjunction fallacy: Cannot be more probable to be a prof that plays basketball than just a prof. 7. Influence by or reliance on emotions (picture of trump-irrational, *framing effects or loss aversion*) -*fairness bias*: People will say no to unfair deals, even if its in their best interest.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Optimal level of arousal (emotion) for any given task. Below that not really into, above it is too much. For more complex tasks peak efficiency is earlier than less complex tasks. (need more arousal to do something boring than something complex)

Group identity

Overall identity to groups *Ethnocentrism*-us versus them Natural and adaptive in historic contexts and some modern contexts, but problematic in others -E.g. *Robbers cave study* (competition versus cooperation between groups) -Promote interdependence in reaching mutual goals

How well do attitudes predict behaviours?

Overall its quite variable Things the increase predictability: 1. Attitude specificity 2. Attitude strength Gets problematic for some stuff, b/c people don't always report their attitudes correctly. (*Social desirability bias*) We can assess *implicit attitudes* (attitudes you don't actually know you have) by giving probing questions without asking directly. (implicit attitude test=IAT)

Decision making

Problems of choice This is guided by many of the same thought processes as other problem solving. Also, people like some choice but do suffer choice overload. Here are some of the methods: 1. Dialectical thinking (weighing pros and cons) 2. Availability heuristic (decision rely on estimate of probability-how easy it is to think of something-e.g. a plane crash) 3. Representativeness heuristic (how likely something fits a certain category-e.g. who is from California) 4.

Language

Quintessentially human, no other animal possesses the capacity for language that we do. -Children learn it effortlessly -Enables complex social interaction -May influence *how we think*

Humanistic approach to personality

Reaction to the "dehumanizing" approach of behaviourists and psychodynamics to rationalizing human behaviour/personality. -Believe that people are conscious, rational, free, and motivated for personal growth (phenomenological approach) *Carl Rogers* proposed a "person-centred theory" -Everyone has a self-concept, if what they experience fits that concept they have congruence, otherwise *incongruence* Believed that childhood experience was important in how much congruence/incongruence a person would experience. -Incongruence-->Anxiety There was also *Maslow's hierarchy of needs* -Everyone has a drive to self-actualization -A "healthy personality" *Pros of this*: 1. Reintroduced subjective experience 2. Idea of a self-concept 3. Paved the way for *positive psychology* *Cons*: 1. Poor testability, little evidence 2. An unrealistic view of human nature.

Attitudes

Relatively stable, subjective evaluation of people, groups, ideas, or other things -Can be explicit or implicit, and the conviction varies They tend to influence, and are influenced by, *attributions* Attitudes come from social factors, and go on to influence our social interactions *ABC model of attitudes*-Attitudes affect our emotions, behaviour, and cognition.

Psychometric approaches

Relies on standardized tests to measure differences b/w people in their ability to perform intelligence probing questions. -Historically these've emphasized the ability to learn and reason Lots of figures of merit for these: *Is your test reliable (should it be)?* -Test-retest reliability: retest same group, should get same result. -Split-half reliability: make a long test with 'replicate' subsections. Do replicate subsections agree? *Valid*: -Content validity (internal): Are you actually testing intelligence -Predictive validity (external): Does your test have some practical/predictive ability? Lots of types of psychometric tests besides intelligence, e.g.: -Personality (Meyers-Briggs) -Aptitude (MCAT, LSAT) -Interests

Syntax

Rules for combining symbols (words, punctuation) to create greater possibility/sophistication in meaning -Order of words -Phrases and sentences E.g. Man bit dog, dog bit man.

Pragmatics

Rules for using language in real life situations -Speed or pacing -Rules of discourse -Non-verbal component

Person perception

Shaped by many variables, often somewhat inaccurate -Physical attractiveness (halo effect, personality, trustworthiness) Dion's 1972 study, showed "hits without a good reason" Also shaped by behaviour (Actions, sometimes subtle like movements, talking, gestures) -Accuracy is often questionable Also *social schemas* (how we think something should work or people should interact) *Stereotypes*-widely held beliefs that individuals have particular characteristics b/c of their membership in a particular group. This one can lead to prejudice

Stress response

Significant physiological and psychological components -sympathetic nervous system (SNS) -HPA axis *Cognitive appraisal*: First appraisal: Demands of situation Second appraisal: Resources available to cope If demands outweigh coping capacity-->Stress -Behavioural responses to stress=coping Individual variability often from differences in explanatory style: Optimism vs. pessimism (pessimists lower self-efficacy=stress) -Also from *social supports*, more social support=less stress Coping can mean lots of things: -"lashing out", can reduce stress, but goes against social support, doesn't solve stressor, other coping better -Self defense (e.g. run away), denial, repression, reaction formation -Self-indulgence: transient positive effects, potential long-term hazards *Constructive coping:* Problem-focused: Try to fix the problem Emotion-focused: Cognitive re-appraisal, de-stressing

The general current model of emotion

Some eliciting stimuli causes brain activation and cognitive appraisal. -Physiological and behavioural responses result -Can be interaction between every element Some innate components and others that are influenced by learning. The brain activation part increases arousal, wherein a range of brain regions contribute: -Some are general -Some contribute to specific emotions *Amygdala*-Responsible for rapid appraisal-->Negative emotions. -Regulates physiological activation of body via communication with the hypothalamus *Prefrontal cortex*: Does emotional regulation (appraises, controls, and determines persistence) Emotion is somewhat *lateralized* to the right side of the brain. Comes from composite face studies, ambiguous pics, and people with brain damage. *Physiological components* -The sympathetic NS activation seen all over the place for all emotions -Degree of activation depends on intensity of emotion (heart rate, bp, breathing, sweating, pupillary dilation, hormones) -Exact pattern may vary -Reflexive, basis for lie detectors Probably about 6-10 basic human emotions (*primary emotions*), others are culturally based (*secondary emotions*).

Lazarus cognitive-mediational model

Stepped in to replace the *Schacter-Singer* theory of emotion. This is the generally accepted view today. It puts greater emphasis on the *cognitive appraisal* step, saying that it determines both identity and intensity of the emotion experienced. E.g. when viewing a skin piercing ritual. Therefore, different cognitive appraisals can lead to completely different emotional appraisals (labels, physiological responses, behaviours) -Makes dealing with people's emotions unpredictable (e.g. silver medalists)

Social psychology

Subfield of psychology concerned with... -The influence of others on human behaviour -The behaviour of groups Can be looking at single individuals or massive groups Also interested in *social cognition* -Social situations influence thinking and perception -Thinking and perception influences social behaviour -*Attributions is an important part of this*

Persuasion

Success depends on... Who is delivering the message What the message is By what means (in person, tv, etc.) Who is receiving the message

Semantics

Surface structure versus deep structure Surface structure: Subject to morphological and syntactical rules. It is the way symbols are combined. Deep structure: Underlying meaning of the combined symbols. E.g. "The man closed the casket." Language *comprehension* involves extracting deep structure from surface structure. Conversely, language *production* involves producing surface structure for deep structure. -Speech-language pdn through sound -Writing-Language pdn through visual patterns -Sign language-language pdn through hand gestures. Talented communicators are good at picking the "right" surface structure for their intended deep structure. -Miscommunication arises from flaws in surface structure for the intended deep structure.

Psychodynamic perspective on the origin of personality

The *id* is present at birth Development proceeds through stages where the focus of "sexual pleasure" is on different parts of the body Conflict/anxiety at each stage, pleasure needs, resolution impacts personality development (resolution-->Optimal progression; halted=fixation) 1. *Oral stage* -0 to 2 years of age. If halted here you are *orally fixated* (smoke, etc.) 2. *Anal stage* -Focus is on potty training. Occurs 2-3 years of age. If you're halted here you are *anally fixated* 3. *Phallic stage* -Occurs in years 4-6 -Boys realize they have a penis and are just loving it. Decide they love their mothers (oedipal complex-castration anxiety) which causes some strife for the ego. Girls have penis envy supposedly 4. *Latency stage* Not a lot going on. This is from 7-puberty 5. *Genital stage* -Occurs puberty onwards They believe that your personality is defined by... 1. The characteristics and strengths of your id and superego 2. How interactions b/w these components is managed by your ego These developments are shaped by your genetics and your psychosexual development.

Attributions

The explanation we make for our own and other people's behaviour -Significant role in the attitudes and beliefs we have about the world and others/self We either make... *Dispositional (internal) attributions*-They did it because of who they are *Situational (external) attributions*-They did it because of the situation they are in *Fundamental attribution error*-Bias on the part of the observer to make a dispositional attribution about the actor. -More common during mindlessness, in positive emotional states, and in *individualistic cultures* *Self-serving/Group-serving bias*: Tend to only see stuff that makes you look good. -Connected topic of *depressive realism*-you don't have the self-serving bias basically *Defensive attribution/Just-world hypothesis* -Tend to blame the victim, b/c if it was situational and not dispositional then it could happen to you!

Conformity

The process by which a person adopts behaviours and attitudes expected by or exhibited by the group -E.g. *Asch's line study* (7 people choose the wrong one, last one also chooses wrong one) *Subsequent research around Asch's work* -Unanimity is important (if another non-conformer easier to rebel) -Group size (if 3 people wrong more likely to disagree than if 7-8 people) -Context -Cultural attributes (collectivistic versus individualistic cultures)

Motivation

The psych definition to definitely memorize: "An internal state/process (needs, wants, desires) that influences goal-directed behaviour" They'll have *direction* (what is it?), *persistence* (How long?), and *vigour* (intensity to do it at?)

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

The replacement for James-Langue theory, which was abandoned before the 50s. This proposed that... Stimulus went to the thalamus, which was relayed to the body and the brain, making physiological arousal and emotion respectively.

Shacter-Singer theory of emotion

The third in the series of theories on emotion. This was called the *two-factor theory*. Proposed that the physiological response determined intensity of emotion, whilst some *cognitive appraisal* determined the identity of the emotion. The interpretation/meaning could be attached to either some sensory stimuli (external) or physiological events inside the body (internal). This was supported by a 1962 study where they injected epinephrine into people and told them it'd make them feel weird, then tried to direct emotion. -Also the Capilano bridge study with a pretty girl

Critical period

The time in which language can be learned easily -Birth to early adolescence Language depriven children found after puberty never acquire normal language development.

Contributions of the psychodynamic perspective

There are a handful of good things: 1. *Unconscious*-no one had thought of this before 2. *Interest*-Got lots of people interested in psychology. 3. *Influence*-Influenced a number of important psychologists (Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, etc.) 4. *Approach*-Inspired an approach to psychotherapy still used today. Theres a fair amount you can criticize as well though... 1. *Testability*-How tf do you test unconscious factors and defense mechanisms? 2. *Sample*-Ideas based on rare, exceptional cases and questionable childhood memories. 3. *Unsupported*-Some of the ideas that could be tested (e.g. boys lusting for their mothers) could be tested, proven false. 4. *The man*-Freud was a sloppy scientist, an egomaniac, heavy drug user, bit of a bully.

Extremes of intelligence

There is (obviously) two extremes of intelligence, the cognitively disabled, which are classified as retarded. They're about 2% of the population, it can be: *Mild*: iq of 50-70 (85%), somewhat independent *Moderate*: iq of 35-50 (10%), can perform simple tasks, but require someone to keep them on task. *Severe*: iq of 20-35 (4%), needs continuing supervision. *Profound*: Below 20 (1%), needs constant nursing care. On the other end of the spectrum, also with ~2% of the population is the *cognitively gifted*. They usually speak and read early, and are often stereotyped. -Often sleep less -Larger, better looking, more friends, more successful in school, etc. -Think about origin of "nerd" stereotype

Genetics and intelligence

There is evidence for both genetic and environmental components to intelligence Lead people to a *reaction range* concept, wherein you are born with a potential iq of 80-120 etc., and your environment determines where you fall on that range.

The biological/trait perspective view of personality

This is the *modern view* on personality Its heavily influenced by psychometric tests, and emphasizes traits/dimensions of personality The traits are influenced by... 1. Genetics 2. Environmental influences -Culture Lots of informal tests for this, and others of questionable validity (Meyers Briggs), no real predictive validity. Some objective standardized tests *(Called personality inventories)* -Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)-useful for diagnosing personality disorders -Also the multidimensional personality questionnaire (MPQ) -*Projective tests* (associated with psychoanalytic perspective-use inkblots or thematic apperception tests) Hans Eysench and Gordon Allport came up with the idea of *core/central traits* -Limited in number -Relatively stable and significant -They proposed 3, neuroticism, extroversion, psychoticism -Everything else was a secondary trait driven by one of those three -All of this was *driven by genetics* Now we've got 5 core traits we study (*OCEAN*) *Pros*: 1. Reproducible, consistent (reliability) 2. Has predictive validity *Weaknesses*: 1. Some say it oversimplifies personality 2. Labels tend to be self-fulfilling Also downplays environment

Liking and loving people

Thought to depend on a few things Physical attractiveness (matching hypothesis that you date "in your league") -*Similarity effect*-date people more similar to you -*Reciprocity effect*-like people more when they like you -*Proximity effect*-date the people near you (exposure effects) *Evolutionary perspective on this* -Mate choice subject to powerful selective forces -Female preference for resource-related attributes -Male preference for reproduction-related attributes

Intelligence

Three main definitions: 1. Ability to acquire skills and knowledge 2. To think effectively, and to understand and control our thinking (information processing; metacognition) 3. To interact effectively with our environment. Begs the question, is intelligence a general ability, or a composite of several abilities. Few possible models for behaviour: B=G+E+O B=G+S+E+O B=S+E+O

Where does personality come from? (modern view)

Two key components 1. *Genetic factors*-info from family studies/twin studies -R of about 0.5 among twins, even if separated at birth. About all traits are about half inherited. -Some differences apparent right at birth (*temperament*). These are stable behavioural dispositions that develop into mature personality traits. (e.g. reactive temperament tracks with neuroticism) OCEAN scores across the lifespan tend to vary a bit, and heritability scores seem to increase with age. 2. *Environment* Many environmental variables, some are more significant than others -Major life experiences -Parents seem to be less of an influence than you'd think (studies of adopted children) -*Peers* seem to have a big influence on personality (conformity, self-concept, this influence is *reciprocal*) -Seems to be some culture effects as well. Individualistic cultures like the US score high on stability (low neuroticism), openness, and extraversion. Whereas collectivistic cultures like China score higher on neuroticism and higher on agreeableness.

Eating disorders

Two main ones we talked about: *Anorexia nervosa* Intense fear of being fat-->Severe restrictions to food intake. -About 0.5% of population, 90% are female Causes: Genetics seems to play a role, these people tend to be high achievers with a distorted body image. *Bulemia nervosa* People are overly concerned about being fat, they binge eat then purge the food (puking or laxatives). ~2% of people, 90% of which are female. Causes: Genetics. Also linked with depression and anxiety, these people lack a stable sense of identity. Onset may be triggered by life stress.

Problem solving

Using thoughts and actions to achieve a goal -Varies extensively in complexity and processes required *3 general types of problems proposed by Greeno, 1978:* -Inducing structure (analogy problem, series completion) -Arrangement (figuring out how to put things together, anagrams, string problem) -Transformation (figuring out the steps to change things, crossing the river, tower of hanoi

Eating behaviour

What motivates the various aspects (start, stop, what, how much?) of eating? *Hunger* triggers eating, which roughly correlates with stomach contractions. (stomach contracts on empty stomach). -Blood glucose doesn't seem to trigger eating. Follows a *drop-rise pattern* (little hungry during rise; transient) You stop eating from... *stomach and intestinal distention* (e.g. gastric bypass patients) -Chemical signals released by the gut (cholecystokinin) *Brain mechanisms* also play a significant role: 1. Lateral hypothalamus (LH)-->Eat 2. Activation of ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)-->Stop eating/don't eat

Behavioural approach to personality

While not meant for explaining personality, behaviourism has some ability to... (yay Skinner!) *response tendencies* -Evoked by stimulus situation -Influenced by history of operant learning -Not linked to stages, it is dynamic across the lifespan These views are deterministic, largely ignore cognition. *Albert Bandura* put out the *social cognitive theory* -Incorporates internal cognitive variables, recognizes *reciprocal determinism* (behaviour changes environment, environment changes behaviour, both interact with personality in both directions) *Observational learning* was important in Bandura's model -Speaking of, *models* (the observed person) was also important -Some important personal factors as well like *self-efficacy* (how much do you believe you could do it?)