final zooarch exam

Kardong (2009)

Comparative anatomy- Comparison emphasizes functional and evolutionary themes Homocercal vs heterocercal Functional morphology- the discipline that relates a structure to its function Morphology- form and function of a structure Anatomy- just form Comparison is a tool of insight that guides our analysis and helps us set up hypotheses about the basis of animal design must consult both structure and evolution to understand overall design Morphology takes both of these into consideration To understand the processes behind our design is to understand the product - humans themselves- both what we are and what we can become Darwin conditions: high reproductive potential, competition, survival of the few - natural selection Linnaeus- naming system for organisms Lamarck - progressive evolution, simple to complex, inheritance of acquired characteristics, organisms came about spontaneously and then evolved from there Huxley- Darwin's Bulldog Cuvier- brought attention to the function that parts performed-organisms must be understood as a functional whole, parts must work harmoniously, parts adapt to perform a specific function Owen- each limb performs a separate function of a bat, mole and dugong but he could trace all three to an underlying common plan he call archetypes: biological blueprint Morphological concepts Homology- 2 or more features that share a common ancestry Analogy- features with similar function Homoplasy- features that simply look alike Symmetry- the way in which an animal's body meets the surrounding environment Radial symmetry- a body that is laid out equally from a central axis so that any of several planes passing through the center divides the animal into equal or mirrored halves - sea urchins Bilateral symmetry - only the midsagittal plane divides the body into two mirrored images, left and right Segmentation- a body or structure built of repeating or duplicated sections segment=metamere; ex: tapeworm Function- the action or property of a part as it works in an organism Biological role- how the part is used in the environment during the course of the organism's life history Preadaptation- a structure or behavior possesses the necessary form and function before the biological role arises that it eventually serves; insulating features were a preadaptation for flight in birds Phylogeny- the course of evolution; graphic schemes like dendrograms Bushes are better than bean stalks Quantum evolution - long intervals of unchanged evolution occasionally interrupted by short bouts of rapid change as quantum evolution Now termed punctuated equilibrium Grade- an expression of the degree of change or level of adaptation reached by an evolving group ; or the degree of anatomical divergence between groups Clade- a lineage - all organisms in a lineage plus the ancestor they have in common Cladistics- phylogenetic systematics that places together organisms belonging to the same clade

Hangay and Dingley (1985- Chapter 6 mammals)

Collecting of mammals regulated by law in every country Collecting Small Mammals: All mammals under the size of a fox Shooting: A person who can shoot a rifle or shotgun has an advantage in collecting Trapping also successful for small animals To avoid spoiled specimens, many collectors use traps which don't kill the animals mechanical pit bat -the succession of trapping is dependent not only on the style of the traps but also on the composition of the bait used Baits: Cheese, dog biscuits, bread, seeds, meat Killing: Least pain and anxiety, gun, fumes, injections Field Preparation of Small Animals Data recording Measurements Total length Tail length Hind foot Ear forearm Determination of sex Photographs Preservation Contact drawing - record the shape and dimensions of the animal Injection with ethanol or formaldehyde Skinning Cleaned in detergent; if floats in water = clean enough Put in alcohol Mounting Rub in borax to the skin Then arsenical soap Stitch up Dry fur on medium heat using hair dryer Then pin animal on board

Overall development/bone texture (methods of aging)

Can group fragments in terms of likely adult vs. younger Fetal/neonate bone will have a more porous texture that can be recognized even among fragments. Fetal/neonate bone least likely to survive, so most fragments from a site turn out to be adult.

Schlepp Effect

Changes in part representation caused by the decisions made regarding what was desirable to bring home and what was not. Also differs among species based upon size, as entire small mammals might be brought home, while only pieces of larger ones

Types of analyses

Ecological: how the species were resources extracted from the environment. Other animal products: labor, raw materials Environmental: the animal species as indicators of the changing climate environment. Ritual uses: includes animal offerings, burials, and iconography

Problems with butchery

If the blade is damaging the bone, the bone is also damaging the blade. Both stone and metal tools take time and skill to make and repair. Butchery systems can be designed to minimize blade damage: defleshing with cutting concentrated at muscle attachment points and chopping through joints instead of bones.

Identification level

In zooarchaeology, specimens are identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible. Often, can only identify a species to a genus or family. Sometimes, down to two species: very common to identify remains to ovis aries/ Capra hircus (sheep/goat), which are in the same subfamily and travel in the same social circles.

1960s and 1970s

Increase in taphonomic analysis integrated into faunal analysis. How the bones got into the site and what happened to them along the way. Integration of faunal analysis with other forms of paleoecological data (pollen, other plants, geology, etc.)

Horn cores

Made of bone outer covering rubbery and like fingernails Not shed (exception: pronghorn antelope) Found in multiple taxa (bovids, giraffes, etc.) Archaeologically: very weak, porous bone so not usually preserved

WZM 1 summary

Wonderfully designed to trap fauna A current total MNI of >1000 faunal remains from the surface, including microfauna and megafauna MNI >1700 microfauna from test pit 1 Totals at least 40 species, surface and excavated The test pits have yielded significant osseous remains of the same common species in large amounts At least 3 species of raptor currently utilize the site and desposit prey remains into it There is a high current amount of deliberate introduction of remains by the local population Unknown how far into the past this behavior extends Dramatically inflates modern desposition rate

Microfauna

Vertebrate species with an average adult body mass of <5kg Largest contributions come from: passerines and other small birds, rodents, shrews, bats, and other small mammals, most amphibians and reptiles, some fish species but fish are usually treated as a separate field of study.

Unguligrade (Mammalian locomotion postures)

Walking on the hooves (the distal phalanges only)

advantages of domesticates

can control breeding do not have to rely upon vagaries of hunting do not have to follow migratory herds stored food energy killed when needed; no need for long term storage of something which spoils easily in most climates source of fertilizer for agriculture source of labor a source of portable wealth that can be exchanged

ecological zones exploited

can plot which ecological zones were exploited and in what proportions, and if this changed over time encapsulates hunting bias; the question is what areas were chosen for resource harvesting

Incisiform canine

canine evolved to look and function as an incisor

degrees of domestication - raised in captivity

captive breeding population allows individuals to grow and develop while in captivity, but still essentially wild behavior

degrees of domestication - raised commercially

captive with still-wild tendencies, farmed by humans; example: alligator farms

faunal traps significance

capture a profile of the species living in the environment at a given time unbiased by hominin hunting often have excellent preservation -entire specimen introduced at once -*scavenger exclusion -if a cave environment, protects the bones from other taphonomic forces (weathering) operate for a long time

Diet and Dental Morphology (Comparative Morphology and Function)

carnivores have mesodont and secodont teeth herbivores have hypsodont and lophodont or selenodont teeth Omnivores have brachydont and bunodont Note: any species regardless of diet can have highly developed canines (Gorillas). used for fighting and intimidation.

types of hyena dens

cave dens: caverns or fissures in rock or large erosional features in sediments burrow dens: burrows excavated into soil by hyenas or other species artificial dens: human created structures utilized by hyenas

El Castillo

cave in Cantabria, Spain with meters of deposits in its main vestibule. its an important painted cave site excavated in 1910-1915, with small portions of stratigraphy left intact. One layer was labeled the Rodent Layer by the excavators. No microfauna was retained.

climate and vegetation

climate does not equal vegetation climate has a profound effect upon vegetation, but other effects are also important

littoral

close to the shore intertidal: sometimes submerged zone between high and low tide marks splash zone: area along shore never submerged but kept moist

why domesticate something? Diamond 1999

constant attempts for thousands of years all over the world to domesticate species the ones that were domesticable, got domesticated; the large ones (Ancient Fourteen) all by 4500 BC some of these had multiple, independent centers of domestication many recent failures (moose, eland, elk, zebra, musk ox, and bison) to domesticate

Arnold Shotwell

contributed to early paleontological methods wrote: An Approach to the Paleoecology of Mammals

osteological patterning - fur trapping

cross culturally and historically, fur-bearing animals trapped for their pelts alone tend to have less desirable meat mustelid family has scent glands that are very strong; meat has this flavor, other carnivores tend to have less desirable meat skinning therefore often occurs in the field, with the meat discarded and pelt retained first evidenced during the Upper paleolithic exceptions: common to leave the foot bones in the pelt, and skulls sometimes kept for decoration archaeologically - since foot bones are smaller and not among the most robust, an overabundance of them might indicate fur trapping other patterns: overall abundance of carnivores, and cut marks indicative of fur trapping

natural trap cave, WY

dates through the pleistocene (>110,000 BP) 26m deep; surface opening only 5m in diameter and flat has yielded >30,000 fossil specimens spans times of many megafaunal species going extinct in the Americas

WZM 1 osseous introduction vectors

deliberate introduction by humans accidental falling of live animals carnivore attraction raptor pellet egestion raptor meal remnants natural mortality of sinkhole inhabitants skeletal remains washing/falling in fetal remains stomach contents of introduced carnivores attritional mortality profile

wet screening

source of *upwelling* water will allow flotation of carbonized botanical remains -use a fine mesh strainer to skim floating items off the top -can use just a still water source and change the water frequently can also use a *spray mode* simply to rinse away sediments can use chemical agents to break up clays -*flocculating agent* = keeps clay particles from sticking to each other -*sodium hexametaphosphate* is the most effective, normally used in soil science to process samples

physical changes from climate

species average body size may increase as the climate turns colder

Gizzard

sphincter in muscular portion of stomach

Evolution of hunting: stone age

stone age consists of the lower middle and upper (most recent) paleolithic evolution of hunting technology and techniques changing paleoecological relationship of hominins with their environment

Butchery can be confused with

striations from animal teeth, bird talons, or beaks. sediment abrasion natural bone markings

flensing

stripping off flesh from bones, most of which are left behind

paleoecology

study of ancient ecological relationships

paleobotany

study of ancient plants

paleoethnobotany

study of ancient plants

human diet (microfauna)

important domesticated species: chicken, guinea pig, edible dormouse, rabbit many important species of wild game are also easy to capture and fulfill this role (turtles, frogs, small fish)

Type specimen

in modern times, any new named species represented by a type specimen held in a museum. Other organisms matching the salient characteristics described for that individual are by definition the same species or subspecies. This did not occur in the early days

Edouard Lartet (1801-1871)

inspired by early paleontogists, began to explore French caves. wrote The Antiquity of Man in Western Europe (1860). Excavated many of the famous Paleolithic sites including Aurignac, La Madeleine, etc. Noted coexistence of humans with extinct mammals. Divided the Stone Age into phases based upon what he thought were the primary species of mammal hunted: cave bear, wooly mammoth/rhinoceros, reindeer, aurochs/bison.

paleoenvironment and paleoclimatology

interaction with the environment exploited indicator species representing ecological zones species proportions representing ecological zone proportions physical changes within species as an indicator of climate change phytoliths embedded in dental plaque indicate surrounding plant types grazed upon pollen/plant deposition in site or nearby lake site occupation tied temporally to known fluctuations in ocean level/oxygen isotope stage geological methods (degree of spalling of cave interiors, etc)

niche comparison (large vs small fauna)

large: herded or hunted by adults or older juveniles, less reliable food source, one generation per year, large nutrient payoff, worth stealing, needs large space, high prestige small: raised or hunted by almost anyone, reliable food source, multiple generations per year, small nutrient payoff, rarely worth stealing, needs small space, low prestige

territorial

living in a defended, bounded area

lacustrine

living in freshwater lake ecosystems

gregarious

living in herds

benthic

living in lowest level of the water

la brea tar pit (mire)

located in LA oil tar (natural asphalt) pools at the surface often gets covered with a layer of water, making the tar invisible large animals get mired and cannot escape gradually sink into the tar, some portions of which later harden

cylinder

long bone where bone epiphyses have been removed and the marrow cavity exposed

species diversity

measurement of niche exploitation

Machine butchery

mechanical saw was used; very straight edges left behind

phytoliths

microscopic bodies of amorphous silica produced by some plants when soluble silica is deposited within and around certain plant cells

Types of evidence for early domestication: hunted or bred?

morphological change, size change, mortality profile, secondary products (hard to see archaelogically), archaeological evidence of animal fencing areas, iconography and art, spread of species into new ranges and in association with humans, timing of the genetic divergence between modern domesticates and their wild relatives

Cathartiformes

new world vultures

Scrape mark

sharp implement of any kind dragged over surface, leaving a scraped line Often called a deflecting mark, since the apparent goal was to cut meat away from the bone and not cut into the bone itself. May cause multiple small stutter marks as the blade skips along perpendicularly could be mistaken for secondary burial treatment on human skeletons

cut mark

sharp, non-serrated implement used slicing parallel to the bone surface

decapitation

some prey are decapitatrd and the rest is swallowed

Taxonomics before theory of evolution

taxonomics established before theory of evolution (the mechanism for why some species were related in differing degrees). Theory of evolution was established before mechanism of genetic inheritance was known. Gregor Mendel pea experiments 1856-1863. Genetic inheritance known long before DNA mechanics were understood (Watson and Crick 1953)

den characteristics - Kenya

tend to get re-used and by multiple species used for adult shelter, raising young, hibernation earthen dens can persist for decades cave dens can persist for millennia or longer dens protect bone for much longer than remains exposed or buried in topsoil can be mistaken for the sites of early hominins or the sites themselves alternate in usage

zooarchaeology

the analysis of animal remains from archaeological sites. includes vertebrates and molluscs, sometimes anthropods

Paleoecology - in depth

the analysis of past ecosystems and the niches occupied by species in that ecosystem the interactions and relationships among the organisms paleoenvironment and paleoclimate data are related, in that they indicate the environment available to exploit; often share sources of data includes but not limited to: methods of food acquisition, species exploited and their diversity, ecological zones exploited, seasonality and mobility, territoriality and settlement systems, technology applied (by hominins or other taxa)

Pandionidae

the osprey

Sagittariidae

the secretary bird

why domesticate something? camp follower hypothesis (synathropic and commensal)

some species were domesticated gradually because they were accustomed to following humans anyway example: wolves feeding on human leftovers eventually were domesticated into dogs Synanthropic: a species peripherally associated with human habitations, as in scavengers from trash dumps commensal: a species which lives within or close association with human habitations

Grayson (1984 chapter 5)

-focal subsistence economy- one based on the exploitation of a small number of plant and animal species -diffuse economy- exploits a wide variety of organisms —generalists- feed on a wide variety in roughly equal numbers — specialists- feeds on a smaller number of taxa but utilize larger numbers of individuals of those taxa Taxonomic richness - the variety of species present -faunal analysts must deal with the taxonomic richness and taxonomic diversity of the faunas with which they work -discusses some of the difficulties involved in measuring richness and diversity in the arch record Faunal assemblage richness highly correlated with the size of the retrieved sample - the NISP As NISP or sample size increase, the number of taxa will increase (richness increases) -there is important similarity between sampling the same faunal assemblage twice at different sampling fractions and sampling different faunal assemblages in such a way that varying numbers of identified specimens are retrieved. Both procedures will provide strong correlations between sample size and assemblage richness. Fremont occupation - Utah, nevada, Idaho, colorado - AD 500 to 1300 -interrupts what is otherwise an 11,000 year sequence of hunting and gathering adaptations in the arid west, archaeologists have spent much time discussing the rise and all of this culture -easy to demonstrate that the richness of Fremont faunal assemblage is highly correlated with the sizes of those assemblages For these 17 assemblages, the relationship between species richness and the number of identified specimens is semilogarithmic in form Rarefaction and the comparisons of species-abundance distributions: -because simple counts of the number of species per faunal sample are affected by sample size, a technique developed by Sanders has become popular -in order to avoid sample size effects, developed a method that allowed him to estimate the number of species a given assemblage would have at smaller sample sizes -how many species would a given sample have were that sample smaller or rarer in individuals? Rarefaction -by calculating estimated species numbers for a series of sample sizes smaller than the total recovered sample, sanders was able to generate curves that represented the estimated increase in number of species per sample as the number of individuals in that sample increased -later shown to be flawed -archaeologists are often more interested in taxonomic diversity than they are in taxonomic richness -species-abundance distributions can be directly compared using the 2 sided Smirnov test in order to determine whether or not they are of the same form -the 2-sided smirnov test compares the cumulative distribution function of two samples, and provides a test of the null hypothesis that those functions do not differ significantly -to conduct a 2 sided smirnov test using numbers of identified specimens per species in an archaeological assemblage, the analyst simply tabulates in ascending order the number of species having a given NISP value for each assemblage and then converts that information into cumulative distribution functions -while the chi-square analysis demonstrates highly significant differences in the relative abundances of specific species at these sites, the smirnov test suggests that there is nonetheless an underlying similarity in the structure of the species-abundance distributions of these 2 faunal assemblages one that is independent of the species involved Diversity indices and sample size: -some arch applications of diversity measures are prone to sample size affects even when the diversity measure itself is not necessarily a function of the number of items counted reciprocal of Simpsons index - represents the number of equally common species in a given sample of species; the higher the value, the more evenly distributed the individuals across species Strong tendency for assemblages with larger NISP to be less diverse than assemblages wth fewer specimens It should be clear that the application of diversity indices in archaeology is highly prone to sample size effects

Pokines and Kerbis-Peterhans (2007 Spotted hyena den use and taphonomy in Masai Mara)

2 types of dens: cave dens and burrow dens Importance of studies like this to hominid evolution: These carnivore taxa have highest potential to produce large osseous assemblages And to modify existing hominid-accumulated assemblages where their ranges overlap in Africa and Eurasia Hominid/hyaenid interaction maybe a crucial element of early hominid evolution in the dry savanna Spotted hyenas hunt the majority of their prey but also rapidly consume the choicer parts of a carcass, then dismember, and transport the less desirable portions. Often nothing left behind. - more aggressive scavenging by hominids or outright theft of a carcass from other predators/scavengers may have been on the evolutionary path to hunting Interpreting the taphonomic markers of hyena interaction with bone in crucial in determine the origins of paleontological/ archaeological bone assemblages Brown hyenas (parahyaena brunnea) - avid bone collector striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) avid bone collectors Spotted hyenas - Crocuta crocuta Most social - live in clans sporadic bone collectors since they rarely transport meat/bones to provision their offspring Thus bone accumulations represent what adults have brought for themselves to decrease theft risk Spotted Hyena Dens of 3 taphonomic types: cave dens - greatest potential to accumulate bone since can persist for a long time burrow dens- persist for years, less than caves, low bone accumulation artificial dens- abandoned or utilized human created feature - not relevant to paleontological record Masai Mara National Reserve Cave in Kenya Prey remains collected from the den twice in 1988 and 1999 1988 excavation: test pits yielded small amounts of friable bone, lots of charcoal, obsidian flakes, sherds, and a single red plastic bead Indicated sporadic occupation by humans 1999: Interrupted by juvenile hyena in the innermost chamber, not all data gathered Domestic garbage fragments present Bones recovered Signs of cave occupation was sparser - expected because less time interval No hair mat Possible bias: Increased human activity may affect the local prey species mix - more skittish animals steer clear Local human presence may increase the relative proportion of this large ungulate species (Cape buffalo) Assemblage characteristics: Criteria to discriminate between hominid and hyaenid bone assemblages 1. Carnivore to ungulate ratio 2. Surface damage to bone 3. Breakage patterns to bone 4. Cranial to post cranial ratio among ungulate size classes 5. Representation of compact bones cut as carpals 6. Mortality profiles of the represented species Dominant species found: Impala, wildebeest, Cape buffalo, burchell's zebra Tooth marks: On the surface of bone most frequently on epiphyses or long bone shafts Typically perpendicular to the main axis of bone Edge polish: Gnawing consumption on the exposed edges of bones causing removal of bone and leaving behind a polished/worn surface Usually found with tooth marks present Most frequent type of damage - gives gradual access to marrow Results in bone cylinder Tooth puncture: Distinct impression of a hyena tooth in the thin cortical layer for example on vertebral bodies or epiphyses of long bones Rare damage pattern Rodent gnawing: Incisors of porcupines and occurs along margins of bone or along more central portions small enough for the porcupine to grasp in its jaws Only on 1.5% of identified remains - porcupines played small role Gastric corrosion: Results from the consumption of whole small elements or fragments and the later regurgitation or passing of these remains in feces -thinning of the edges of bone fragments to translucent state Weathering: Most had no appreciable weathering Carnivore to ungulate ratio: Higher frequency of carnivores in the Hyaena and Parahyaena dens - likely due to conflicts between these solitary hyaenids with small canids over scavenging opportunities Lower frequency in crocuta Cranial to post cranial ratios: In a hyena assemblage: ratio decreases as ungulate size class increases : smaller ungulate species tend to have a higher MNI based upon cranial remains than post cranial remains, while among larger species this disparity is reduced Difference attributed to schlep effect (carnivores will transport the adult skulls of smaller ungulates but leave the larger ones) Element representation and breakage patterns: To access marrow: hyenas gnaw through softer epiphyses (resulting in cylinders) humans break through diaphysis with tools (resulting in fragmentary shaft with complete epiphyses) At MM Cave - consistent with hyena pattern Rate of accumulation: Resampling of the MM cave den allowed for determination of the rate of accumulation of skeletal remains over an 11 year span Spotted hyena burrow dens: Den 1: Entire sample from exterior contexts - regurgitation, old hyena feces outside den Den 2 and 2a: sample collected was exterior to the dens Bone fragments in 2 and 2a yielding only gastric ally eroded bone from regurg Den 3: Sample came from regurg outside den Den 4: All bone exterior to den, no gastric corrosion Den 5 and 5a: Bone and regurg bone frags near den entrance Crocuta crocuta cranium partial found Den 6: Had faunal remains inside - teeth No regurgitate Overal assemblage characteristics: Most notable - near lack to lack of osseous and non-osseous remains detected inside dens Coincides with other investigators belief that spotted hyenas not avid bone collectors - could be due to den settings of burrows Spotted hyena bone accumulation in burrow dens is much more limited than in cave den settings Site formation and preservation factors overwhelmingly favor the discovery of cave dens

Lower Paleolithic - Oldowan hunting tools

3.3 to 1.7 mya -named for Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania -found only in Afria; oldest now from Lake Turkana -useful for butchering, perhaps of scavenged carcasses -homo habilis, H. ergaster, H. erectus

Middle Paleolithic - Mousterian

300,000 - 30,000 BP -named for site of Le Moustier in France -Flaked tools - prepared cores -Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, homo sapiens sapiens

White, Theodore E. (1953)

"A method of calculating the dietary percentage of various food animals utilized by aboriginal peoples" quantification of species representation and their relative contribution to diet. noted difference between prehistoric groups on the Great Plains. Calculated a meat weight table of common taxa.

theory of evolution

"The Origin of Species" published by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) in 1859, over a century after "Systema Naturae" by Linnaeus. It was a culmination of decades of research, including the voyage of the HMS Begle. Naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) was developing the theory of natural selection at the same time; they co-authored a paper in 1858. Idea of transmutation of species already existed; mechanism was unknown.

Lamarck

(1744-1829) held the view that species could change while they were alive and pass on these changed characteristics Inheritance of acquired characteristics

types of faunal traps

*mires- bog animals down (wetlands, tar pits/seeps) *pits - natural cave features which cannot be climbed back out of, even if the initial fall is not fatal (limestone dissolution caverns, lava tubes and blisters, geological fault planes)

common domesticated vertebrates (oldest and most recent)

- oldest - dog by 12,000 BC -most recent - chinchilla (1930s)

Serjeanston (1998 Birds: A seasonal resource)

-As birds are mobile, and as many have strongly seasonal patterns of behaviour, bird re- mains, mainly bones, but potentially also eggshell and feathers, can be sensitive indicators of season- ality. Seasonal presence: -Many birds are present in a region in restricted seasons only: these include passage migrants and summer and winter visitors. Remains of these can indicate seasonal occupation. Passage migrants: Bird migration is concentrated in early spring and autumn, and some species spend days or weeks in a region only on passage between the breeding ground and the wintering territory. Capture of the birds during migration is made easy as birds are collected together in large flocks and follow pre- dictable routes across mountain passes, along coastlines and along rivers. Good time for human bird capture Summer visitors: Summer visitors come to breed, having spent the winter in a warmer climate. The presence of crane, in conjunction with juvenile bone and the absence in the assemblage of winter visitors, suggested that the inland Maglemosian sites were occupied in summer Winter vistors: Seasonal strategies: Some birds are present all year round but are easier to capture in one season or another Late spring/summer = breeding season Vulnerable when brooding the eggs and rearing chicks Harder to take flight, etc - sitting on the nest -The breeding season is the most effective period for the capture of birds, which are present all year round, but normally live out to sea and come on to the land only to breed. Late summer: moult -Some birds cannot fly during the period of the moult: swans, ducks and geese are vulnerable at this time, in late summer at the close of the breeding season. Fall: Birds are in good condition, not breeding, and have new set of feathers Winter: -Winter is also a traditional time for wild-fowling. At the beginning of the winter birds retain some of the fat reserves built up over the summer and autumn. Birds, whether resident or migratory, are most easily captured at this time. In winter some species flock in larger numbers than at seasons when food is more plentiful. In temperate latitudes birds are more visible, as vegetation is sparse. There is a shorter day length in which birds can forage, so they are forced to expose themselves more than is necessary in summer. Snow cover may restrict where they can feed. Spring: -Though body weight is lower in early spring, as birds have either suffered from restricted feeding in winter, or have flown long distances on migration, this was a lean time for human societies - hunter- foragers or agriculturalists - when any food source might be welcomed. Morphological evidence -There are features of the bones themselves which can be used to establish seasonal capture: medullary bone and immature bone. Medullary bone: -Medullary bone is found in the marrow cavity of the main limb bones of female birds immediately before egg laying. -Medullary bone is easily recognised in broken bones, provided they are clean. It consists of short thick spicules of bone, which extend round the endosteal lining, and may fill the bone cavity -Any conclusions about the usefulness of medul- lary bone, whatever its potential as an indication of seasonal occupation or slaughter, must await further experimental work on the length of time it persists in species other than fowl. Immature bone: -mostly seen in domestic fowl -pelvis fuses first -first long bone to fuse is the carpometacarpus -Just as with mammals, there are obvious advant- ages in taking immature birds which have reached a good size. The chicks are easily captured before they are fully fledged and the flesh is sweeter and more tender than that of the adults. altricial- hatched or born in an undeveloped state and requiring care and feeding by the parents. Precocial- hatched or born in an advanced state and able to feed itself almost immediately. -As the domestic fowl is precocial, and ossifi- cation is delayed compared with most other groups, the immaturity often seen in the domestic fowl bones is not typical for most species. -The potential of bird bones for indicating seasonal exploitation and seasonal settlement are limited by a number of problems and pitfalls in . -If we are concerned with whether the human use of a site was seasonal or year-round, bird bone evi- dence can only be used if the bones can be securely identified as anthropogenic in origin. -Detailed consideration of problems of bird bone identification are beyond the scope of this paper, but they can have serious implications for the interpretation of seasonality. - A major problem with interpreting seasonality from bird bones is the changes which have taken place in bird distributions, especially breeding distributions. -Birds may have been eaten in a different season to that in which they were captured. Preservation of food -If bird carcasses can be stored they can be trans- ported and traded, in which case they may found at a distance from where they were caught. They may be outside their seasonal range or total range.

Shaffer and Sanchez (1994 Comparison of 1/8 in and 1/4 in mesh recovery of controlled samples of small. to medium sized mammals)

-Previous research on archaeological samples has determined that mesh size influences the com- position of the faunal sample recovered -The results of this experiment indicated that only taxa larger than 4,500 g (fox sized) will have the potential for nearly total recovery. Typically, as the size of the animal decreased from 4,500 g, so did its recovery. Methods; -These '/8"-mesh screening tests duplicated methods used by Shaffer (1992:130) for 1/4 mesh as closely as possible for accurate comparison. Tests were conducted on 22 of the 26 original individual skeletons (Table 1). The taxa used in the tests were skeletally complete, disarticulated mammals with little fragmentation. All taxa were adults except the muskrat and Mexican ground squirrel. -Each skeleton was placed in an /8s-mesh screen and shaken for 30 seconds. Recovered elements were identified and recorded. This procedure was performed 10 times for each animal, replacing all elements after each test. -An element was considered to be recovered consistently if it was retrieved at least 70 percent of the time Discussion: -The value of 1/8"screens compared to 1/4"screens is apparent (Table 2). Many more elements, and elements of smaller taxa, were recovered with the 1/8"screen. Although little or no difference was noted in the recovery of the smallest taxa (least shrew and pygmy mouse Taxa 1 and 2), additional recovery began with the evening bat (Taxon 3) and continued as taxon size increased -recovered more vertebral elements, scapulae of smaller specimens, forelimbs, and many hind limb elements -Even for the two largest taxa in these tests (jackrabbit and red fox, Taxa 21 and 22), 1/8" screening provided additional recovery of numerous elements on a consistent basis. -The recovery of smaller taxa is very important for environmental reconstructions and for dietary reconstructions in those areas where small mawmermeals mammals tend to have limited ranges and are often diagnostic of their microhabitats, as they may only travel short distances. -reveals paleoenvironmental information Conclusion: -These tests clearly indicate the value of 1/8" screens for less-biased recovery of smaller mammals (< 4,500 g). When present at a site, the majority of readily identifiable elements for taxa kangaroo- rat sized or larger (> 42 g, Taxon 9 and larger) should be recovered if they are unbroken, and the rami for taxa as small as an evening bat (Taxon 3) or house mouse (Taxon 4) can also be consistently recovered. Another advantage concerns comparisons of faunal samples recovered with different sizes of mesh. By documenting recovery potential for these taxa with both 1/8"and ?4 mesh, more accurate comparisons of assemblage composition and recovery bias can be assessed on archaeological samples and can be used for taxonomic representation, and environmental and dietary reconstructions.

Payne (1972 Partial recovery and sample bias)

-These show that even for pottery, flints, or animal bones normal excavation recovers a biased and sometimes misleading sample of what is actually present in the earth Sieving methods: dry-sieving: most common sieving method of the past; throw screen - not recommended; highly contaminated and not efficient -hand held kitchen sieves; difficult to work with -archaeological sieves; can be efficient only with dry soils Water-seiving: -earth is sieved in water so that all the smaller particles are washed away leaving the fragments returned by the sieve clean -very accurate even compared to dry arch sieves Experiments: Searching trench with hands vs. sieving. Which is better? -1/8in mesh Results: Description of 3 materials: pottery, chipped stone, bones of larger mammals Chipped stone: -Peyorony (French guy) excavated a site by hand and only found a little -Fitte used dry sieves and found a lot more -Bordes used wet sieve and found even more Debitage or debris from making stone tools - can tell us a lot and we should use sieve to recover (traded vs. hand made, resharpening, etc) Pottery: In all experiments, substantial amounts of pottery were missed in the trench The efficiency of recovery in the trench is different for different wares 1. Wares that break into smaller pieces =unrepresented while other wares break into larger pieces = overrepresented 2. Smaller pieces of some wares are more diagnostic than smaller pieces of other wares 3. Differences in color and surface texture affect recovery -poor recovery for course ware Animal bones: the larger mammals -sieving substantially alters the relative abundance of the bones of the different animals -smaller parts of the skeleton most affected Conclusions: Even among usual large find categories, far more is missed by conventional methods of excavation than is generally realized. The effects of this: partial sample recovered is biased; available size of sample will be reduced and limit the analytical techniques that can be applied; Among smaller find categories sampling is even poorer, but sieving helps dramatically The efficiency of recovery at a site is affected by wide range of factors: site and soil, nature of finds, as well as personnel and condition of excavation

timeline of domesticated animals and plants

-dogs are the earliest, domesticated in several locations Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the Levant practiced intensive wild harvest of plants; may be first agriculturalists

Pellet formation

-initially form in the proventriculus (granular part of the stomach) -mixed with digestive enzymes -food then passes through a sphincter to the muscular portion (gizzard) -this latter stomach component tends to be bag-like and extensible in owls and other avian carnivores. -it is not heavily muscled in owls, thus contributing to prey bone preservation -The pyloric outlet is very small (1mm or less) and located on the superior surface of the ventriculus at the same level as the esophageal opening -prevents most outflow of solid indigestible elements Great horned owl radiographic study: -ventriculus remains extended for about 1hr. -the pellet condenses over the next 2-8 hrs and is complete by 10hrs after eating. -pellets were typically expelled about 16 hrs after eating -ventricular contraction (throwing up) and accessory contractions of the abdominal wall and proventriculus force the pellet upwards in small steps, the entire final digestion phase lasting about 4 minutes.

Pokines and De La Paz (2016 Recovery rates of human fetal skeletal remains using varying mesh sizes)

-juvenile remains underrepresented archaeologically because susceptible to destruction -acidic soil, carnivore gnawing, thermal alteration, dispersal -small, incomplete ossification, porous, more difficult to identify -study examined the recovery rates of human fetal skeletal remains of multiple estimated gestational ages when passed through screens with differing mesh sizes that may be employed in forensic archaeological settings Tested: 1/4inch, 1/8 inch, 2mm, and 1mm Results: -only .2% passed through the 1mm mesh, none were highly diagnostic =allows full recovery of intact fetal skeletal remains of the tested gestational ages (18-40 wks) -only 7.5% passed through 2mm mesh -mostly non diagnostic -significant of diagnostic elements when 1/4 inch mesh used Conclusions: -While the use of 6.4 mm (1/4 inch) mesh does allow for recovery of some fetal elements including from the younger skeletons tested, significant loss of elements will occur even under ideal preservational conditions. The overall loss of ele- ments reached 63.2%. While the majority of the lost skeletal ele- ments were small and nondiagnostic, their nonrecovery in a field situation may lead to mistaken interpretations regarding their ini- tial deposition or subsequent survival if the inherent recovery properties of a 6.4 mm mesh are not taken into consideration. - no tooth crown recovered using this which are highly diagnostic -The 1.0 mm mesh provided near-complete recovery (0.2% total loss of ele- ments), with only a small percentage of pedal phalanges lost. The authors recommend that the potential loss of diagnostic information incurred when utilizing larger mesh sizes be taken into consideration when planning recovery systems where fetal remains may be encountered, as recovery potential was greatly improved when utilizing the 1.0 mm mesh size.

Pokines (2000 When the cats away: micro mammalian indicators of human seasonality in the Cantabrian lower Magdaleina)

-looked at season of human site habitation determined by the occupation of that site by animals in seasons opposite that of humans -archaeofaunal analysis indicates that humans occupied this coastal lowland site during the winter months, while barn owl presence is indicated in the summer months -this case: the warm season occupation of a cave site by barn owls, with cold season occupation by humans during the lower Magdalenian period of Cantabrian Spain Barn owls are partially commensal, they will occupy a habitation at the same time as us as long as they have sufficient distance and a relatively inaccessible roost away from disturbance Direct indicators of human seasonality: Human occupation at el Juyo from late autumn through late autumn through late spring Red deer: The most abundant prey across all levels of el Juyo Catastrophic age profiles Unshed antler = late autumn/early winter Fetal bones = until late spring Salmon: Harvest most likely happened during spawning season, late autumn Macro botanical remains: Carbonized seed fragments Harvested in early autumn months Barn owl seasonality: -primarily nocturnal predators, can get prey in low light levels or in total darkness -most hunting done within a few km of their roost or nest Seasonal prey abundance: - they kill a bunch of moles during the late spring mole mating season -males are juveniles in the summer, they found a bunch of those too -tooth eruption: -water vole: presence of very young= late spring, summer, or early fall Discussion: -the age profile of the prey indicates that many were very young juveniles, maybe only weeks past weening -these young would only be there during the late spring, summer and early autumn notes (april-september)

Gastric acidity

-low stomach acidity among owls relative to other carnivores contribute to bone preservation. -Basal stomach PH for Falconiformes is about 1.6, its 2.35 for owls. -% mass of bone per pellet therefore much lower among diurnal raptors: ~6.5% of dry pellet mass were obtained for some species of hawk, falcon, and eagle. -~45.8% among two Strigidae: great horned owl and snowy owl. Other factors in bone preservation: -low mixing of stomach contents contributes to low levels of bone breakage. -The high pepsin activity in the stomachs of strigiformes contributes to effective digestion of prey -Peptic activity of Bubo virginianus is ~3x that of a dogs gastric fluids at comparable stages of digestion -indiviidual prey items are often swallowed whole instead of broken while feeding

Hunting Behavior (raptors)

-most raptors are territorial, the size of which varies with population density and the available resources. -Species whose distributions extends into arid regions tend to have larger home ranges there than in the more productive biomes -hunt within their range, then return home to roost -many pellets get digested there

Pokines (2000 Microfaunal Research design in the Cantabrian Spanish Paleolithic)

-reconstructions of paleoenvironment using large faunal data are constrained by the cultural filter through which these prey species have passed -the present work focuses upon mammalian microfaunal analysis, associated reconstructions of paleoenvironment and the succession of inferential changes devolving from these strategies during the past century of investigation -late pleistocene Cantabrian Spain offered occupying hominid populations a unique species mix for exploitation and provides abundant faunal data covering the middle and upper Paleolithic periods -analysis of the habits of modern raptors in cantabrian Spain indicates the extreme unlikelihood that such a location would not have attracted these microfaunal-accumulating species throughout its occupation history and that the same is true for many cave sites in this region -most research prior to the past two decades combined microfauna with large fauna, the latter being given the greater priority for analysis and interpretation -fine mesh screening of sediments is a minimum requirement for microfaunal recovery -this shift in excavation strategy also affects the range of faunal species recovered, which in turn affects interpretation of their mode of introduction into a site -many larger microfaunal species will den or scavenge from hominids in a cave site, allowing their remains to accumulate over time. Their own activity patterns are therefore relevant to analysis of their proportional representation in a site. Microfaunal species are incorporated into cave sites primarily through their predation by other species, typically hawks, eagles, owls. Analysis of their proportional site fauna representation focuses upon the activity of other predatory taxa besides hominids El Juyo -the microfaunal and micro artifactual remains from El Juyo were retrieved through wet screening after chemical dispersal of clays and included flotation recovery of macrobotanical remains from all excavated sediments Resolution of paleoenvironmental and paleoecological reconstruction: Three discovery phases Mapped microfauna Coarse fraction fauna Fine fraction fauna The barn owl introduced microfauna are tabulated by the number of identified teeth (NIT) since ID of these small taxa is impractical using post cranial elements Tabulation using the NISP would heavily bias representation in favor of these two taxa. Overall MNI counts based upon teeth allow maximal tabulation of all taxa, due to the greater robusticity and identifiability of teeth Mapped microfauna represent the amount of microfauna potentially recoverable using the excavation standards of earlier in the century The fine mesh screen represents the maximal microfaunal recovery, since significant amounts of identifiable elements are not lost under this excavation regime Other excavation advances parallel changes in screening regime. This include flotation recovery of all macro botanical remains and sample collection from each sediment lot for palynological and geological analysis Mapped microfauna: with so few remains, little can be said about their taphonomic history other than their probable introduction into the cave vestibule as the prey of small carnivore or large avian predators. All of these macrofaunal species have passed through a human filter in their proportional representation at El Juyo. Their paleoenvironmental interpretation therefore is restricted by a lack of determinable correlation between their recovered amounts and their natural abundances The paleoenvironment indicated using the coarse mesh retrieval regime is open and humid with little mixture of other habitat types Owls remain the most likely accumulators but only with the knowledge that a substanial portion of the deposited microfaunal sample is missing. Since the average mass of individual microfaunal prey is high, accumulation by the larger eagle owl is more likely than by barn owl Occupation of el Juyo during the time of level 4/4s deposition may have been more intensive by barn owls than by humans with human usage of the vestibule switched to sporadic occupation during episodes of mound construction with long gaps in between Discussions and conclusions: Total mapped avian prey microfauna was only MNI=6 for El Juyo level 4/4s. Inclusion of coarse screening finds from site deposits led to the recovery of significant amounts of microfauna climbing nearly an order of magnitude to MNI =46. Adding in avian prey microfauna recovered by fine screening the Total rises to MNI = 613 for this level the maximal sample shifts away from overrepresentation by a single taxon to broad representation among multiple taxa of rodents and insectivores Taphonomic analysis of this maximal data set also determines the primary agency of accumulation (barn owl pellets) Sites excavated early in this century can give us only a limited portion of the paleoenvironmental picture during their formation El Juyo has yielded a relative overabundance of foot elements of carnivores in the size range of ermine, ferret, and marten -pattern consistent with skinning for pelts -finer screens increase the precision of paleoenvironmental reconstruction not only through an increase in sample size, though this element is important especially in statistical comparisons between sites and levels, but also through an increase in taphonomic clarity -while concurrent occupation by these 2 species (humans and barn owls) occurs commonly in other settings, the small area and spatial layout of el Juyo's vestibule makes impossible its simultaneous habitation by roosting barn owls and humans. Repeated occupation by barn owls during the summer months therefore reinforces other evidence that humans normally occupied el Juyo during the winter months. After fine fraction: paleoenvironment reconstruction based on microfauna found: humid meadow/ water - damp wet open swampland

Davis. (1987 ch. 4 in what season was a site occupied)

-some of the methods used to pinpoint the season of death of animals in antiquity Sedentism and birthrate Sedentary lifestyle = rise in birthrate Nomadic lifestyle - reduced birthrate b/c have to carry kids when on the move and lack of soft mushy foods so have to breast feed for 3 and 1/2 years - lactation reduces ovulation Potential seasonal indicators: -the kinds of animal remains which provide seasonal evidence group within the following four categories: Animals which are only present in a given location at a specific time of year such as migratory birds and insect pupae Parts of the skeleton which undergo some kind of identifiable change in a particular season such as antlers, developing limb-bones and erupting teeth Hard tissues which are deposited incrementally such as the growing edge of sea shells, fish vertebrae, and tooth-cementum Hard tissues which are worn down at a known rate such as mammalian deciduous teeth cementum bands: under a microscope, layers appear as a series of alternate light and dark bands - that correspond to seasonal variation in food abundance - usually 2 bands, one dark and one light, are accreted each year those that study fish will probably have more success trying to determine season of exploitation than his colleague will with land mammals 1. Fish grow with characteristic periodicity 2. Growth is rapid when food is abundant 3. Bone growth not accompanied with any remodeling or resorption The net result of these 2 characteristics is that scales and most bones of fish keep a permanent record of this inequality in the growth rate within their own structures as alternating zones of wide and narrow rings Otoliths or ear stones are calcareous nodules found in the inner ear of most vertebrate animals - they are concerned with balance Quite large in fish - especially the sagittae otoliths - greatest potential as an arch indicator of seasonality Mollusks - do not remodel or resorb their hard tissue - shells grow more rapidly in the summertime Growth line analysis - narrow increments of growth separated by very thin dark lines that are formed during high and low tides - tide count can be converted into a calendar date Oxygen isotope variation (mollusks) - used to measure the temperature of the water when the growing edge of the shell was being produced

Lower Paleolithic - Acheulean

1.7 to 0.3 mya -dominated by hand axes - smaller tools also appear - spreads from Africa > 1 mya to Europe and Asia - no stone spear points or similar tools -Homo erectus

Early approaches to Zooarchaeology

1st they just threw the bones out. That turned into: throw all the bones except the pretty ones out. There was no numerical analysis. Rare to even publish an accurate species list. Presence of species in a site assumed to be the result of hominin predation. fit with the overall archaeology of the time: to describe high points of culture history within a racist evolutionary framework.

Great American Faunal Interchange

>3 million years ago, North and South America joined up by the rise of the volcanic Isthmus of Panama. Massive interchange of species in both direction. Other similar event in the past (Africa and India into Eurasia). Sea level rise and fall, continental drift, and rating also affect zoogeography. Bering Sea land bridge allows intermittent exchange between Asia and North America

Evolutionary Continuum - scavening, hunting, and domestication

A general theory exists that scavenging preceded hunting in hominin evolution a species can evolve into a more and more aggressive scavenger group cooperation expands as more hunters are needed to take down larger species new studies of other primates of other primates show that they do a lot of hunting of smaller species

Southern Titicaca Basin Microfauna project

Analysis of Mollu Kontu section of Tiwnaku, Knonkho Wankane, and the Pukara Full taxonomic spectrum analysis: Mammalian microfauna (typically rodents), birds, herpetofauna, fish under separate specialist analyses, taxonomic, taphonomic, and paleoecological analyses. Research Questions: What are these species vectors of introduction into the site deposits (predation or other use by humans, predation by other species, natural mortality in burrows)? Is widespread human habitat alteration (urban and agricultural) reflected by the composition of the microfaunal communities? What was their contribution to human diet? What are the overall patterns of human ecological interactions? What was their ritual importance? Mammalian Microfaunal summary: Large taxonomic overlap among all sites. All taxa found in the Altiplano today. Burrowing among modern taxa, especially white-toothed tuco-tuco likely introducing some recent microfaunal remains. Multiple species which are viable indicators of changing paleoenvironment have been identified. Raised fields and large basins (quochas) creat artificial wetlands. No widespread evidence for cuy husbandry; a single element identified to this species at Mollu Kontu. Future analysis of midden deposits may change this pattern. Cuy easily distinguishable from its wild relative the common yellow-toothed cavy dentally and skeletally. Birds: Found a bunch of bird species (falcons, Chilean flamingo, night heron, etc.) also some falcon burials. Herpetofauna: iguana, toads, marsupial frogs, tree frogs, etc. Reptile remains likely introduced to site deposits via natural mortality or possibly owl pellets. Clustering of amphibian remains has bee detected at both sites. Majority of amphibian remains was likely through the re-use of rodent burrows, especially those of ctenomys leucodon. Underrepresentation of cranial elements of the smaller amphibian taxa due to late ossification of these elements.

Dental Formulae (Comparative Morphology and Function)

Ancestral placental mammals had the formula: 3 1 4 3/ 3 1 4 3 incisors, canine, premolars, molar marsupials (non-placental mammals) have a larger maximum formula (7 post-canine): 5 1 7/ 4 1 7 Exception: toothed whales (suborder Odontoceti) have gained teeth can have >100

Differences in Nonhuman Mammal Skeletons

Antler Horn corns Number and structure of teeth (presence of tusks) many lack clavicles (equids, bovids) Loss of digits (bovids, cervids, etc. have retained digits III and IV) Reduced number of carpals, tarsals in some species (ungulates) Reduction of fibula in many species Some bones split into multiple bones: bovids and many other species have a PREMAXILLA bone with a suture separating it from the maxilla. Frontal bone often lift and right. number of vertebrae: most mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae, number of thoracic vertebrae often greater than 12, 6 lumbar vertebrae typical among bovids, caudal vertebrae instead of coccyx. Baculum (walrus, bats, rodents, carnivores, great apes) Sternum: in multiple segments demimandible: each half of the mandible

Cain and Wallace (a guide to age determination of white tailed deer)

Based on tooth wear and development the wear and replacement of the premolars and molars of the lower jaw Deer are aged in year and a half increments Also can use in combo with: antler characteristics, dressed body weights or lactation dressed body weights, age and antler measurement data should be collected every year and from every deer harvested Lingual crest- tooth ridge adjacent to the tongue Infundibulum- crescent-shaped depression in the central crown of a tooth between the enamel ridge or crest Fawns - (1/2 year) - 5 or less teeth present and third premolar has 3 cusps 1 1/2 year- third premolar has 3 cusps, last tooth (tooth 6) has erupted and is slightly visible just above gum line 2 1/2 years- lingual crest sharp, tooth 3 now has 2 cusps, back cusp of tooth 6 is sharp and pointed, enamel is wider than the dentine in tooth 4, 5, and 6 3 1/2 years- lingual crest on tooth 4 is blunt; dentine is as wide or wider than enamel on tooth 4; back cusp on tooth 6 is forming a concavity

Tooth wear

Based upon gradual dentin exposure as enamel wears away. Animals effective maximum life span limited by teeth being worn flat; can no longer feed effectively. Presupposes constant, progressive wear on teeth. Ignores effects of variable diet, amount of grit in food. Crown height: Klein measured amounts of tooth wear for multiple large ungulate species. Assuming am approximate 10-year lifespan, with 10% of the crown height lost each year. crown height at 100%= just erupted, weaned. Crown height at 0%= you starve to death. Problems: Assumes even progression of dental wear. Tends to overestimate young and underestimate old. Assumes that the wear of modern individuals is the same of archaeological individuals. Requires intact, measurable teeth, but these are the most durable portion of the skeleton anyway. Not as applicable to non-herbivores.

Raptors

Bird of prey Extant diurnal raptor families (order Falconiformes) -Accipitridae: hawks, eagles, buzzards, harriers, kites, and old-world vultures -Pandionidae: the osprey -Sagittariidae: the secretary bird -Falcoidae: falcons and caracaras -Cathartiformes: New world Vultures (sometimes grouped under Falconiformes in the family Cathartidae) Extant nocturnal raptor families (the owls, order Strigiformes) -Tytonidae: barn and bay owls -Strigidae: typical owls

Bunn (1989 Diagnosing Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Activity)

Bone modification classes: Cutmarks Hammerstone-related bone fracture patterns Traditional assumption: the physical association of stone artifacts and bones at the excavated sites resulted from the accumulation by hominids of both the artifacts and bones, which could then be used as evidence of living floors, home bases, hunting, food-sharing, etc. Recent trend in research rejects this assumption and behavior linked to it Debate over the appropriate methodology for identifying cut marks and over their behavioral implications Particular locations and frequencies of cut marks on a range of elements indicate an efficient, systematic strategy by hominids for carcass skinning, joint disarticulation, and meat removal And meat eating by these hominids = significant relation to modern human diets Methods for analyzing cut marks should include macroscopic, microscopic, and locational examination of modified bone structure - don't just rely on one method Studying bone fracture patterns offers a likely but complex means for diagnosing the predominant agents of bone accumulation or modification of entire assemblages Qualitative Analysis of Bone Fracture Evidence: Hammerstone fracturing yields a high degree of limb shaft fragmentation and impact notches on limb shafts Problem: how a bone breaks is largely due to the structure rather than the agent applying the force Widespread among hunter-gatherers in Africa, is an anvil and hammer stone technique for breaking large ungulate limb bones for marrow Multiple percussive blows and multiple impact locations along bone shafts typify marrow processing by the anvil and hammer stone technique Although the precise number of blows and the locations of impact vary, the technique commonly results in extensive fragmentation of the entire limb shaft Fossil limb bone specimens of large ungulates from the major Olduvai and Koobi Fora sites exhibit comparably high levels of fragmentation and many exhibit multiple impact notches along limb shafts Stone artifacts and available stone raw material at Olduvai and Koobi Fora vary considerably with generally large cobbles and blocks at Olduvai and smaller cobbles at Koobi Fora Hammerstone fracturing differs from that of carnivore destroying Qualitative criteria can inform us about some specimens, but it is not feasible still to identify bone fracturing agents on a bone by bone basis for a large proportion of specimens in an assemblage Quantitative Analysis of Bone Fracture Evidence The total number of shaft fragments per original whole bone, including both diagnostic shaft specimens and minimally identifiable shaft specimens, is actually fairly low Epiphyses tend not to be broken by hammer stone blows to the shaft, except for the proximal epiphysis of the radius which is readily fractured obliquely by hammer stone bows to the proximal anterior portion of the shaft Relationships between the number of diagnostic shaft specimens and the number of whole bones expressed as the number of shafts per minimum number of elements shows considerable regularity for humeri, radii, and femora, and increases only for the tibiae Presence of a significant proportion of complete limb bones in modern hyena and leopard accumulations distinguished the limb component of assemblages from modern human produced limb components Summary: Human-fractured modern assemblages characteristics: extensive shaft fragmentation, hammer stone impact notches, numerous bone flakes, patterned consistency of limb fragmentation Characteristics of large carnivore fractured assemblages: less extensive fragmentation and more complete limb bones, tooth pressure notches, less common and generally smaller bone flakes

Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1983 Computation of ungulate age mortality profiles from dental crown heights)

Calculating mortality profiles from samples of fossil ungulate bones 2 methods- —Successively older age classes contain progressively fewer individuals (catastrophe) - hunting (communal drive that nets/cliff drive) — prime age adults underrepresented , very young and old overrepresented (attritional) scavenging and also hunting through stalking weakest prey Methods of age estimation: Most useful element for aging: teeth Cementum annuli - yearly growth increments, but not very useful in fossil studies because of prep for examination purposes and hard to see - may be more useful for establishing the season of death than age profile Most useful in fossil studies of ungulates: dental eruption and tooth wear DIS - inter observer error, requires complete maxilla and mandibles Need for an age estimation technique for isolated teeth then - via crown height (min distance from occlusal surface and the line separating the enamel of the crown from the dentine of the roots measured on the buccal surface of mandibular teeth and lingual surface on maxillary teeth Potential ecological longevity - max possible individual age

Meat weights (White 1953)

Calculation of the amount of meat that is associated with a recovered bone assemblage. Usually wildly inaccurate due to recovery and preservation biases. Mass of the animals varies by sex, age, and time of year. Caloric values also calculated. Antiquated technique, not very many people use it anymore.

Faunal succession

Changing species over time used to date sites. Especially important to human evolution, where the changing background of species is known far better than hominin evolution. Conversely, some species have not changed much at all osteologically in millions of years. Example: Genus tyto (barn owl) evolved at least 25 mya during the Miocene

MacGregor (1985 Working Methods and Tools)

Cutting and splitting: Saws Axes Incised decoration - knives Smoothing and polishing- Knives occasionally used for polishing Various minerals and organic substances used for polishing too (pumice) Turning- Regular outlines of certain circular-section objects demonstrate that they were lathe-turned - bone discs Drilling- Combs and caskets Early drill bits Bovid jaw bones will drilled holes (discoid playing pieces) Scribing- Ring and dot motifs using a centre bit type implement Rouletting- Bone strips with zig zag and linear patterns of impressed dots Gauging- Template for like tooth plates for combs Clamping- Securing pieces of material while work is being done on them Riveting- Composite items of skeletal materials assembled by riveting Molding and softening- 2 objectives: softening induced temporarily with a view to alter the shape of the artifact before restoring the hardness Or to facilitate the process of shaping or decorating by making the material easier to cut Bone and antler- Immersed in an acid solution (vinegar, sorrel) soaking in cold water fro 48 hrs and then Boiling works well (15 minutes) Ivory- Horn- Soak in tub, horn sheaths removed from bone and put into a boil (1-2 hours), taken out and held over a fire then ready for opening Coloring- Green Evidence from industrial waste

why domesticate something? co-evolution hypothesis

David Rindos (19870) The Origin of Agriculture agriculture and animal domestication are an evolutionary process between humans and other species, no different than any other type of co-evolution example: ant-herd aphids; lichen are symbiotic no cognizance nor was involved

Middle-Range Theory

Derived from observations of site formation processes of the archaeological record in order to interpret the past. How did human actions cause the formation of the archaeological record? Fits between the level of broad theories such as cultural or natural evolution and the lower levels of interpretation. How one can derive useful information from a site in order to answer larger questions of human behavior and evolution.

Specimen preparation (birds and mammals)

Dermestid Beetles: -family Dermestidae -includes genus dermestes -The adults and larvae feed on dried dead tissue. -In nature, come to a carcassafter the main maggots mass has subsided or to desiccated remains Skinning mammals: -skin is removed by unrolling it from the rear abdomen forward, leaving it as intact as possible. -hand and foot bones left in place -limbs and tail wired straight -stuffed with cotton -sewn up -dried -study slim kept in storage with frequent doses of naphthalene (moth balls)

Methods of Sexing

Differences in morphology (pelvis shape, size of crest) Presence of different body parts (antlers, baculum) Difference in bone size (most male mammals larger, most female raptors larger) Different body parts (not commonly used, since most mammals do not have antlers or a baculum. Antler has a very porous and spongy interior texture, which holds water and leads to its faster breakdown in many depositional settings. Possible in some cases that feathers and other soft tissues would survive.)

Jordan Research

Diurnal and Nocturnal raptors Hunting radius for T.alba: most estimate 5km radius. Many studies in rich environments indicated only .5 km radius Baseline Ecological Behavior: Collecting and examining modern prey. Determine how the ,modern microfaunal community relate to the modern climate and vegetation. Taphonomic examination to see if any given excavated microfauna is barn owl prey or some other raptor. Assuming no significant changes in barn owl behavior, changes in diet should indicate changes in the local microfaunal community. T. alba evolved over 25 mya during the Miocene Therefore, assumed that their behavior is a constant. Investigations in this regional project are going back only 250 kya.

Military Profile

Dominated by males of a very young adult age, 17-25 years. INDIVIDUAL PHYSICAL FITNESS MAY INCREASE CHANCES OF SURVIVAL, ESPECIALLY WITH EXPERIENCE. Overall, only individuals experiencing the source of mortality are young prime age males. Does not include civilian deaths, which likely would follow catastrophic profile

Taxonomy

Each species given a unique combination of genus and species name, always italicized. Species name can be reused, there are many named nivalis (snow) or brevicauda (short-tailed) but the genus is different each time. There is a species of owl called Otis asio and another called asio otus

Burial Pattern (animal sacrifice)

Entire animal likely interred, just like a human burial. often in conjunction with human burials. Remains will be articulated and much more complete that the food residue with the same site. Likely will be in a context that has other aspects of ritual behavior.

Domestication profile

Expected profile from killing off young males and retaining the rest for breeding (mostly females, prime-age males). Single-sex dominates age classes (young males, older females). INDIVIDUAL PHYSICAL FITNESS MAY INCREASE CHANCES OF SURVIVAL; SEX THE MAIN DETERMINANT. Often overlaps with catastrophic profile, if an entire herd dies of disease. Other variants: veal, suckling pig, keeping them for meat/skin or for dairy/traction.

Prime Age Adult Profile

Expected profile from trophy hunting. often single-sex dominate (male deer, female raptors). Very young adults avoided; prime age and older preferred. INDIVIDUAL PHYSICAL FITNESS DOES NOT INCREASE CHANCES OF SURVIVAL AND IN FACT DETRACTS FROM IT, AS THE MOST PRIZED INDIVIDUALS ARE THE MOST FIT!

Davis (1987 Ch. 6 From hunter to herder)

First to be domesticated in the Old World : dog - hunting purposes Where were animals first domesticated? Fertile Crescent - Near East May have commenced simultaneously in the Near East and in East Asia To determine where an animal was originally domesticated: Identify the wild progenitor and its original distribution Cytogenetics- the study of the number and form of a species chromosomes Electrophoresis- the speed with which different tissue enzymes migrate across an electric field Sheep: 6 recognized species of wild sheep strong evidence that modern domestic sheep are from the Near Eastern mouflon Pigs: Probably originated somewhere between Yugoslavia and the Far East Equids: horses: From a wild Russian tarpan maybe Donkeys: wild ass in the Near East or NE Africa Cattle: Aurochs Dogs: From the wolf Goats: Bezoar goat S American camelids: Guanaco the forebear of both llama and alpaca Archaeological criteria for recognizing domestication: Differentiate domestic bones from wild bones The presence of a foreign species: Morphology change - Body proportions, horn shapes, coloring, hair, fleece, body size Size differences - domesticates usually smaller except for guinea pigs Species of frequency change with a succession of faunas in an assemblage: a shift in the frequencies of different species; ex: a shift in abundance of deer bones to goat and sheep bones signals the ending of hunting in preference of husbandry Cultural factors - close relationship between man and animal; bone corrosion- dogs swallow small bones; teeth and pathology- if an animal was sick or had worn down teeth, they were being taken care of Sex and age related culling- relaxation of predator pressure = more young surviving = population explosion; humans dictating mortality pattern like ensuring a max return by slaughtering right before an animal reaches maturity Dogs = hunting Caprines and bovids = eating Horse, donkey, camel = power Why domesticate animals: Religious hypothesis- link between the shape of animals horns and the shape of that ancient deity — the moon Crop robbers hypothesis- capture and domestication of animals like cattle necessary step to control and prevent them from stealing man's crops Domestication as an adaptation to meet a crisis: increasing population = increasing need for secure food; environment no longer support as many animals for hunting

Antler

Found only in the family Cervidae Structure like woven bone Shed annually Males only Exception: female caribou

Pellets

Fur, feathers, skeletal remains, and other undigested parts in the birds stomach are digested. Can happen ,multiple times a day Individual elements mixed between meals Known instances of some individual bones not being digested until two weeks later. Not produced only by owls, but diurnal raptors and other species too

Proper notation for taxa

Genus always capitalized, genus and species always italicized. Other taxonomic levels are not italicized. Must give binomial each time you mention a new species in a publication Formal name is binomial, person who assigned that name, and the year. Example: Giraffa camelopardalis Linne, 1978. Normally just the binomial thereafter. Can abbreviate G. camelopardalis, provided that the context is 100%. If genus is known and the species is unknown put sp after the genus name if genus is known and there are or could be more than one species relevant put spp after genus Example: Panthera sp or Panthera spp. If exact designation is unknown use cf (confer= latin for compare to)

Tusk (Comparative Morphology and Function)

Highly modified teeth protruding from the mouth. Normally used as a tool, threat, and mating displays, or actual fighting. example: elephants, walruses, narwhals, wild boars, etc.

Dominguez-Rodriguez (2002 Hunting and scavenging by early humans)

Hunting hypothesis - the idea that early hominids were primarily hunters -This conference also served to revive the Darwinian idea that hunting was a male activity, and therefore, that men had shaped human evolution, despite the acknowledgment that gathering, mainly a female activity, was more important in terms of food contribution to hunter-gatherers' diets 2nd half of 20th century: questioning the hunting hypothesis; stone tools combined with bones in an assemblage does not necessarily support the hypothesis Main interpretive positions: Hominids hunted Hominids used confrontational scavenging to have access to fleshed carcasses Hominids scavenged carcasses that were undisturbed by carnivores Hominids passively scavenged defleshed carcasses at carnivores' kills Hominids used a combination of these 4 strategies 1-3 require primary or early access while 4 requires secondary Skeletal part profile phase of the debate: The debate focused mainly on the skeletal part representation, led some researchers to suggest, as we have seen, that hominids were marginal scavengers whereas others pictured them as successful hunters/scavengers Throughout this debate, the identification of bone damage was used as a secondary argument by most of the researchers involved. Skeletal part profiles are based on the assumption that there are diagnostic patterns in the ways that modern humans and other agents transport and accumulate bones. In application, long bones are usually seen as the result of transport processes, whereas axial bones are assumed to be better represented at kill sites so many variables to consider - no clear cut behavioral pattern associated The most important aspect of these studies is that they show that there is not a particular "human pat tern" of bone transport and accumulation. Axial bones (ribs, vertebrae, and pelves) and certain long bone epi physes are preferentially deleted from assemblages, followed by the small compact limb bones. This creates an artificial profile, domi nated by limb and cranial elements. Epiphyseal fragments of limb bones are more likely to be deleted from assemblages than midshaft specimens. Post-depositional effects also play a role Attrition is not modeled correctly either Scavenging: Blumenschine's studies showed that scavenging from carnivores is feasible only at felid kills (hyaenids and canids consume carcasses more thoroughly), and that secondary access to such carcasses barely yields any meat at all. Scavenging from leopard kills is the only exception Wouldn't enhance food distribution and cooperative behaviors How to test the passive scavenging hypothesis: the study of bone surface marks: Tooth marks- carnivores percussion marks - humans, demarrowing butchery marks (cuts) - humans Different processes generating the same end products so that it cannot be used to differentiate a unique and unambiguous process - equifinality Defleshed by a felid, demarrowed by hominid, and degreased by a hyeanaid Cut marks on fleshed carcasses: 1. A significant percentage of cut-marked bones with respect to NISP. 2. Differential occurrence of cut marks by element. The meatiest ele ments (upper limb bones) have the most cut marks. These are fol lowed by intermediate limb bones, and finally lower limb bones. 3. Differential distribution of cut marks according to bone section. In the preravaged human-made accumulations the mean figure of cut marked midshaft specimens (with respect to the total number of all cut-marked fragments) is about 43%. In postravaged assemblages, it becomes higher than 50%. This is due to the disappearance of some proximal/distal ends due to density-mediated factors. There fore, midshafts are the most abundant cut-marked specimens in bone assemblages that have completed the two-part process (hominid carnivore). Cut marks with secondary access: 1. A lower total percentage of cut-marked bones with respect to NISP. 2. Differential occurrence of cut marks by element: In contrast to ex periments reproducing early access by hominids, the meatiest limb elements (humerus and femur) have the fewest cut marks. Intermedi ate limb bones are also low-ranked, and metapodials are the highest ranked elements (>60%). 3. Differential distribution of cut marks according to bone section: In highly flesh-depleted carcasses, with the exception of metapodials, no upper or intermediate limb bone exhibits any cut mark on the midshafts, so that proximal/distal ends, not midshafts, exhibit the highest occurrence of cut marks (mean >80%, except metapodials Tooth marks and multiple part models: FxJi50 site: There fore, tooth marks are indicative of early access to carcasses by hominids, and the subsequent modification of bones by scavengers On the basis of these observations, it could be assumed that early hominids were also "frequent" meat eaters because both of their close resemblance with these apes in physiology, and because of being adapted to more open areas than are extant savanna chimpanzees Central place foraging (carry fleshed into social loci) vs. refuge model (carry mostly defleshed carcass out of open field away from competition to process) Therefore, according to the pattern commonly observed in living pri mates, the adaptation of hominids to the East African Plio-Pleistocene savannas should have further promoted social behaviors in which group foraging was a key adaptive feature Some researchers view archaeological sites as the result of accidental reoccupations of the same spots by hominids, like the spatial redundancy in nesting and sleeping site behavior observed in chimpanzees

Forensics vs zooarchaeology (methods of aging)

Important to come up with an estimate of age at death for that exact individual in forensic anthropology. Emphasis in zooarchaeology usually is upon the underlying age structure of a population of animals. Rare that the age of an individual animal is in question

Attritional Profile

Individual physical fitness does increase chances of survival. This type of profile occurs under normal conditions. Many sources of mortality factor in. Dominated by very young, close to half of which do not survive the first year (can be much lower survivability). Built-in lifespan limit when teeth have worn out and individual can no longer make a living.

Ruscillo (2003- alternative methods for identifying sex from archaeological animal bone)

Info that sexing reveals: culling patterns of domesticates, selective breeding, economic strategies and ritual practices Traditional methods of sexing- Primary characters- those related directly to sexual organs and reproduction - baculum Secondary- indirectly related to reproduction and correspond with sexual behavior of mate acquisition and courtship behavior - antlers, canines Body size and osteometrics Tertiary- traits developed under the direct influence of the use and development of primary and secondary sexual characters; developed during life as a response to sexual behavior or differing physiology between the sexes ex: morphology of the os pubis (elongated in females) They arise during pregnancy and parturition New and alternative methods- Morphology alone, not osteometrics Mean Shape Method Atlas of bovids and cervids are dimorphic Os pubis is dimorphic Astragalus is slightly dimorphic Canid humerus dimorphic - The Table Test Morphometrics aids the closer examination of tertiary characters

Andrews (1990)

Intro to Small Mammal Taphonomy Necessary to understand the processes of accumulation before the significance of the small mammal faunas can be understood. Fossil Site: cave in Somerset, England Modifications of Cause of Death: Primary -Natural: -->Uneaten- sexton beetles bury --> Trap deaths (live or pit traps) --> Small animals often fall victim more to pit traps than live traps --> trapped in burrows by flood --> water -Predation: --> mammalian predators-most damage to bones --> Diurnal birds of prey- some damage --> Nocturnal owls-least damage Modifications shortly after death: Secondary -Decay: --> depends on temp --> main agent of decay: insect --> Those in water take longer to decay -Scavenging: --> if exposed, quickly eaten by scavengers --> Hard to distinguish between predation and scavenging in small animals --> Tooth marks everywhere -Trampling: -->Dispersal and breakage --> small mammals bones so fragile-easily destroyed once tramples so no studies have been done ---> trampling on pellets can cause complete destruction of pellet --> Absence of skulls, first element to be broken Modifications before/during burial: tertiary -bone left in pellets and scat afforded some protection -Prey buried by predators afforded protection Weathering: -physical and chemical agents operating both on the surface and within the soil zone -Sun, wind, rain, temp change, and effects of burial in soil -splitting, chipping, suture separation, flaking, cracking Transport: -hard to keep track of small bone transport -assumed to cause a lot of breakage -causes problems when trying to reconstruct paleoecology; where did they come from? -Hydrodynamic sorting based on size of element Modifications after burial: -protected to some degree from weathering -corrosion by soil or sediment -root etching -acid erosion from urine -under wet conditions, bone becomes soft and susceptible to breakage Modifications by exposure: -fossil bone breaks like the solid mineral substance it has become, with straight transverse breaks across the shafts of limb bones Modifications by collecting: -recovery methods can cause damage

Pokines (2013- Avian Remains)

Khonkho Wankane - Southern Lake Titicaca Altiplano Altered landscape to produce greatest agricultural output and decrease loss from the environment (frost, etc) qochas = artificial reservoirs or ponds used to store rainwater = had an effect upon many species of wetland bird taxa inhabiting or migrating through the region Formed part of the diet (avian) Methods Used .25 inch screens for recovery screening Species ID, sometimes only to Genus level or higher...if couldn't designate then used size classes A-D A - Passerines (songbirds) B - doves/pigeons C - ducks, falcons D - geese, herons Taxonomic representation: Total number of remains = 631 Minimum taxa - 26 539 skeletal elements Avifauna present inhabit 2 ecological zones 1. Lake Titicaca - wet, far enough away from Khonkho Wankane that can assume human exploitation 2. Dry Altiplano grassland (puna) - maybe just natural mortality Lake/Wetland Taxa: Chilean flamingo Night heron - both likely due to predation and transport by large carnivore or human Ducks, geese represented abundantly - qochas most likely attracted these to the area Etc.. largest diversity of Charadriiformes (gulls, stilts, sandpipers, plovers) Puna taxa: Ornate tinamou and Darwin's nothura Ground doves Burrowing owl Andean flicker Passeriformes well presented (songbirds) Cosmopolitan taxa: Most abundant represented avian species (aplomado falcon) Barn owl Taphonomic analysis: Carnivore gnawing, rodent gnawing, gastric corrosion, and burning detected in low amounts 6 elements have cut marks ( human diet and tools) Small degree of direct human action upon the remains Slight predominance of wing elements across all size classes and contexts Eggs shells - size indicates human exploitation Human utilization: Dietary and raw material usage: Tibiotarsus - bone tool tube Butchery/dismemberment - cut marks on 5 others elements Ceremonial usage: Falcon burials (3) Associated with structures indicating their possible origin as ceremonial offerings (no perimortem trauma) Prevalence of diurnal raptors in the iconography - falcons as burial offerings is of probable high ritual significance What is clear is that despite the urbanised setting of Khonkho Wankane and its other contemporaneous Altiplano sites, wild fauna continued to play an important role, and Lake Titicaca resources were acquired even when other domesticated resources that would have filled the same role were not

Taxonomy structure

Kingdom Phylum ---> subphylum Class Order ---> superfamily Family ---> subfamily ----> tribe ----->subtribe Genus ---> subgenus Species ---> subspecies

Klein (1982- Age mortality profiles)

Klein 1982 - Age (mortality) profiles as a means of distinguishing hunted species from scavenged ones in Stone Age archaeological site Animals bones found in a site accumulated by humans when: 1- associated artifacts or cultural remains are abundant 2- depositional context does not suggest that objects in the site were transported by flowing water or other physical agents 3- the bones belong to animals that are unlikely to have lived in the site themselves 4- bones come from animals too large to have been taken by predatory birds 5- few of the bones exhibit traces of ancient animal chewing/gnawing Bones as tool or food debris How do people acquire the food animals to which the bones belonged? Proportionate representation of different age classes in a species sample from a site provides a means of determine whether the species was primarily scavenged or hunted by people Catastrophic age profile - successive age classes contain progressively fewer individuals; the living population could be wiped out by a catastrophe Attritional age profile- very young and the old are best represented, while intermediate prime age adults are relatively rare; cemetery population (reflects routine, on-going mortality due to accidents, predation, endemic disease and other factors that ordinarily have their greatest impact on the very young and very old) Catastrophic mortality profiles in archaeological sites: either scavenged or hunted; Through scavenging - people would have to encounter a population of animals shortly after a catastrophe - rare Sum - active hunting usually distinguished from scavenging by the context in which an archaeological faunal sample occurs Active hunting is more likely Attritional mortality profiles in arch sites- Prehistoric peoples unable to obtain prime age adults Young and weak buffalo more likely to be hunted Or that people did not hunt buffalo at all, but scavenged individuals killed by lions or dead of other natural causes Attritional profiles in non-arch sites: Relatively deficient in very young individuals Giant Buffalo Mortality Profiles from Elandsfontein and Classes Cave 1: Age estimation via crown height Implications and differences between the Elandsfontein and Classes Giant Buffalo Mortality Profiles: Paucity of indivdiuals in the first 10% of lifespan in Eland sample Probably because they were selectively removed from the record before burial, primarily by carnivore feeding So, this means that the much greater proportion of very young buffalo at Klaises could result from scavenging only if the Klasies people could locate the carcasses of the animals before they were located by potential competitors (highly unlikely) so this suggests the the very high proportional of very young buffalo at Klasies indicates active hunting Hunting is probably implied by any archaeological attritional profile in which very young and old individuals are well represented - usual in the upper Pleistocene and Holocene Scavenging would be implied by an archaeological attritional profile similar to Eland or Lange ones in the relative lack of young individuals Catastrophic mortality profiles can be determined if scavenged or hunted through geomorphic/sedimentological context - usually hunted in attritional mortality profiles: scavenging if absence of young individuals High proportion of young individuals = hunted

Disadvantages to Faunal Analysis

Large mammal remains dominate the zooarchaeological record, even where these likely were not the dominate food source. Much more visible archaeologically than small prey or plant remains. Introduces a male bias to prehistory, since these are the presumed hunters

Pike-Tay and Cosgrove (2002 From Reindeer to Wallaby)

Late Pleistocene sites of SW Tanzania - contain exceptionally rich faunal and stone artifact deposits spanning at least 25,000 years -dominant human prey species is Bennett's Wallaby "Indirect" methods facilitate inferences of season of site occupation which are to be viewed in combination with other environmental and cultural evidence and with ethnohistorical analogy. -sources as soil matrix granulometry and chemistry, coprolite analysis, population size estimates of the occupying group, settlement patterns, site topographic location, and functional analyses of tool kits. Direct" methods of estimating seasonality rely on the presence, condition, and composition (broadly defined) of seasonally indicative organic remains. Most of these methods/techniques fall within six broad categories, which are described below. Presence/Absence of Faunal, Floral, Insect remains -The assessment of the presence or absence of faunal, floral, and insect re- mains has been around the longest and remains the most widely used approach for inferring seasonality. It notes the presence or absence of seasonally available species. -A particularly useful category of fauna considered in terms of presence/ absence indicators of human seasonal activity are microfaunal remains. For exam- ple, Pokines (in press) demonstrates that age profiles of micromammals deposited in Upper Palaeolithic-aged sites in Cantabrian Spain by predators such as barn owls can indicate seasons opposite to those of human occupancy. Floral Indicators: -The presence of certain seasonally available macrofloral species and of pollen as well as the analysis of the incremental structure of wood render these floral remains potential sources of seasonal information. -Although it was once hoped that palynology would contribute information useful to seasonality studies, this has not yet been the case Population Structures of herds: -The population structure method relies upon the seasonal variation in the sex and age composition of herds/groups of archaeological prey species, particularly those with regular breeding seasons. In addition to seasonality inferences, hunting strategies have long been inferred from population structure data. -attritional vs. catastrophic mortality profiles -tooth eruption data from the younger animals usually provides the most reliable seasonal data. This is because eruption schedules are fairly standardized, while tooth wear does not occur at an even pace, and the age at which ossifi- cation occurs varies among the skeletal elements Cyclical, developmental, and stress-related physiological events -Seasonality indicators under this category include cyclical growth marks, antler growth, stress indicators, and the results of dental microwear analysis. Stigmata, which record developmental events as incremental structures, appear fre- quently on bony tissues and are often seasonally synchronized -Harris lines and dental enamel hypoplasias Stable isotopic analysis Flutuacting carbon levels based on seasonal availability of plants Incremental Structure analysis (skeletochronology) -Incremental structures are distinctive, self-contained additions to the previous growth of an organism. These structures result from varying rates of growth, the most recent growth increment resting on its immediate predecessor. Changes in the rate of growth are influ- enced primarily by seasonal growth cycles, thus knowledge of the factors that influence these growth cycles, such as spawning periods, migration, nutrition, and temperature, plus observations on the point in the cycle at which growth was terminated provides information on which seasonality inferences can be based -The most common incremental structures in bone are referred to as "adhesion lines," which form during winter in many northern and temperate mammals and are often most visible in the mandible As noted above, skeletochronology (also known as sclerochronology) is the study of recording structures or growth marks apparent in mineralized vertebrate tissues -In the teeth of most temperate, subarctic, and arctic mammals, a yearly cy- cle is marked by one wide (growth) zone, temporally corresponding to the warmer seasons, in addition to one narrow annulus (slow growth) and/or a "line of ar- rested growth" (LAG), temporally corresponding to "winter," and observable in the dental cementum and/or dentine -Lieberman's controlled experiments with goats sug- gest that two major causal factors are at work in the formation of dental cementum increments: (1) the nutritional quality of the diet, which accounts for the width of the growth band; and (2) food hardness, which affects occlusal strain, which in turn results in fibrillar angle changes in the extrinsic and intrinsic collagen fibers (responsible for the different optical qualities of the growth zone and annulus un- der the microscope -very few, if any, animals less than 1 year old would be hunted because of their very small size, developing in their mother's pouch from March to September, emerging as young-at-foot between October and December -Our goal therefore is to use the results of skeletochronological studies of modern Bennett's wallaby, and apply them to archaeological assemblages of the same species to determine age and season of death. We then discuss ways in which these results throw light on human landscape use and mobility strategies during Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in Tasmania. This is the first time that this has been attempted and although preliminary and limited at present provides a tantalizing insight into human behavior in late Palaeolithic Tasmania. Wallaby's -After about 16 months they become independent. The males abandon their mother while the females stay to inherit their mother's home range -For example if year round hunting of Bennett's wallaby had taken place we might expect a wide distribution of age groups like that seen for Tasmanian elephant seal (Bryden et al., 1999). If, on the other hand people moved between the patches on a seasonal basis we should see more restricted sex and age patterning; the latter being preserved in the dental cementum growth marks and molar eruption and progression of wallaby teeth at their time of death, issues to which we now turn. Determining age and season of death of wallaby: -For example, in the Bennett's wallaby the tooth row gradually moves forward in the jawline throughout the life of the animal, even after the eruption of the last molar—the M4, which is not fully erupted until the animal is middle aged (usually 6-7 years). The P3 and dP4 are replaced by a single P4 and it as well as the first one or two of the four permanent molars (if the animal lives long enough) is shed over a lifetime -The accuracy of age estimates based upon tooth eruption and attrition and of molar progression of macropods then is limited by a variety of inter and intrapopulation variables including 1) the age of the animal—these methods are most accurately applied to ju- veniles, 4 years and younger; 2) the sex of the animal—molar progresssion rates are sexually dimorphic among some species of macropods; and 3) a problem common to all age assessments based upon attrition—the abrasiveness of the animals' forage—which affects both attrition and molar progression rates, but in different ways Molar eruption and molar progression aging techniques: -the most practical means of ageing kangaroos and wallabies from the end of their pouch life to the time of complete eruption of the last molar, which occurs by at least 6 years of age -The results of the dental mark growth analysis of the right mandibular teeth of known-age Rangifer tarandus individuals from the Kaminuriak herd of northern Canada (Pike-Tay, 1995, Table 4) can be summarized as follows: (1) slightly slower growth is seen early in the warm season with a near constant growth rate (ca. 11% of total cementum zone width per month) attained by mid-summer; (2) cementum is deposited at a regular rate only in areas of acellular cementum, e.g., nearest the tooth cervix; (3) no overlap exists between the early and late segments of the warm season; (4) initiation of the winter annulus is not as well synchronized as its cessation; and (5) multiple teeth from a given individual provide the same seasonal indications (Pike-Tay, 1995). -In sum, the control sample shows us that 1) Thecementumofwallabypremolarsandmolarsdoformnarrow"winter" rest bands (annuli) and wider warm season growth "zones." -As noted earlier, the proposed palaeoecological model predicts that in Southwest Tasmania Bennett's wallaby were probably concentrated on patches of grassland boarded by infertile scrub and sedgeland vegetation during the LGM. These patches were a focus for human activity because of the fertile limestone soils, associated caves and clumped animal resources -As mentioned above it was speculated that because no very young wallabies were found in any of the assemblages, people might have been absent from these valleys during late summer and autumn (Cosgrove and Allen, 2001, p. 422). We felt that seasonal absence of people was the most parsimonious explanation for this pattern. It was also argued that people had used these valleys on a repeated basis targeting the patches of grassland and the animals within them. We could not determine whether seasonal targeting had taken place because we were unable to fully reconstruct the animal community ecology with any precision nor at that time identify specific skeletal indicators of seasonal change -The preliminary age profiles of Warreen and Bone cave wallabies based on molar eruption (Fig. 9) and, in the case of Warreen, supported by age determination by annuli counts show all age groups represented, but with higher numbers of young adults and older animals at the two sites. -They have very similar trends in their profiles with no very young animals, a higher percentage of 1-2-year-old animals and a significant group of 6 years and older. -The data suggest that people were interested in size, quality, and condition of the animals taken. Conclusions: -The pilot study presented here support initial interpretations that these upland valleys provided a significant resource base for hunters on a seasonal basis. The results alter our recent observation that people may have been absent during the late summer/autumn. This study suggests that people were in fact hunting in this region at least in the autumn -The explanation for autumn occupation of the uplands can perhaps be found in the notions of optimal foraging. -While we acknowledge that social as well as ecological factors were driving forces behind the settlement of the region, we believe that when people are faced with various economic choices, they will engage in logical and systematic planning to lower risk and uncertainty. -The age pattern of animals suggests that hunting pressure was low and supports the previous observation that visits were probably short with relatively long intervals between hunting episodes. Products such as sinew, skins, marrow, and meat were obtained from macropods in prime condition.

1980s

Like everything else, personal computers had a huge impact on data manipulation and statistical analysis. Screening in sediments typical, with recovery systems more advanced, including fine screening and flotation. Increasing specialization of analyses. Mortality profiles of prey species to study behavior of the hunters.

type specimen for humans

Linnaeus was designated for Homo sapiens in 1959

Dental Notation (Comparative Morphology and Function)

List permanent teeth with an uppercase letter and a numeric superscript or subscript to indicate number of the tooth and the quadrant. Deciduous teeth represented by lowercase or preceded by a "d"

Direction of cuts

Longitudinal: parallel to the long axis of the bone. (exception for vertebrae, parallel to the vertebral column as they are normally butchered as an articulated unit). Perpendicular or transverse: perpendicular to the long axis of the bone. Oblique: angled cuts Unable to categorize

Minimum number of individuals

MNI= the fewest possible individuals necessary to produce the skeletal assemblage. Always considers taxon. Normally consider siding. Can include unaided elements divided by two or added to the lowest L/R total. Normally considers portion of bone. May or may not consider close refitting. Normally considers broad age category (juvenile vs. adult). Will not include elements identifiable only to a higher taxonomic level if multiple other species are identified within that higher level. Considers provenience and is calculate by level or other designation. Can combine by taxon in order to come up with an overall assemblage MNI. ALWAYS= or less than the Nisp for that same species assemblage. See also Klein & Cruz-Uribe (1984)

Diamond (1999 Zebras, Unhappy Marriages, and the Anna Karenina Principle)

Major five: cow, sheep, goat, pig, and horse 14 species domesticated before 20th C - ancient 14 (major 5 and minor 9) Minor nine- Arabian camel, Bactrian camel, llama/alpaca, donkey, reindeer, water buffalo, yak, banteng and gaur Domesticated animal- an animal selectively bred in captivity and thereby modified from its wild ancestors, for use by humans who control the animal's breeding and food supply Candidate for domestication = any terrestrial herbivorous or omnivorous mammal species weighing on the average oner 100 lbs. Eurasia had the most candidates - b/c world's largest landmass and diverse ecology = main site of animal domestication some animals species much more suitable to domestication: -repeated independent domestication of the same species -dates of domestication -pets; initial stage of domestication Anna Karenina principle - to be domesticated, a candidate wild species must possess many different characteristics. Lack of any single required characteristic dooms efforts at domestication, just as it dooms efforts at building a happy marriage. All domesticated animals have to have all of these 6 things in order for domestication to work. -reasons for failed domestication: diet- no mammalian carnivore has ever been domesticated for food growth rate- domesticates must grow quickly problems of captive breeding- some animals don't want to be watched making. Also courting rituals like the cheetah chase nasty disposition- most big mammals are capable of killing a human tendency to panic- nervous species are difficult to keep in captivity social structure- domesticated large mammals share social characteristics; they live in herds; they main a well-developed dominance hierarchy among herd members; the herds occur overlapping home ranges rather than mutually exclusive territories

Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984- Quantifying Taxonomic Abundance)

Measures of taxonomic abundance have limited utility when only one sample is available but still critical for comparing 2 or more samples Indexes of Species Abundance NISP (Number of Identified Specimens)- most obvious and readily obtainable (the number of bones or fragments that may be assigned to it within a fossil sample) ADV: ease of calculation; additive DIS: ignores fact that skeletons of some species have more parts than skeletons of others; overemphasize the importance of a species that tended to reach a site intact vs. a species that was usually dismembered before transport; very sensitive to bone fragmentation MNI - minimum number of individuals - MNI is strong where the NISP is weak; DIS: estimate can be tedious; calculation error; may not be comparable among samples since no consensus on how they should be calculated; dependent on the degree of fragmentation; not additive Matching- involves the use of size, sex, or age criteria to determine whether 2 bones could come from the same individual (Bokonyi and Chaplin) bone size is most common matching criterion; Considering MNI and NISP together: May provide info that neither provides alone Mathematical relationship between NISP and MNI; both increase as sample size increase, while MNI is more slow NISP can be a good predictor of MNI If the MNI is minimum number of individual animals in a species sample, then NISP is the maximum number (actual lies in-between) Weakness: both ignore the specific skeletal parts that makeup a sample Risky to rely solely on summary NISPs or MNIs in interassemblage comparisons Far wiser to compare patterns of skeletal part representation between species before proceeding to more general inter assemblage comparisons of species abundance MNIs more useful than NISPs for comparing patterns of skeletal part representation between samples Bone weight method - total weight of bones assigned to a species and multiplied by a factor that is presumed to reflect the ratio between bone weight and meat weight in live animals Bone weight index a poor measure of species abundance Petersen index- 1. A sample of animals is captured, marked, and released 2. Later, a second sample is captured, and the proportion of marked individuals is recorded 3. The proportion of marked animals in the second sample is presumed to be roughly the same as the proportion of marked animals in the total population Total population may be estimated from the formula (n1x n2)/P where n1 is number of individuals in sample 1, n2 is the number in sample 2, and P is the proportion of marked individuals in sample 2 In conclusion: best to use NISP presented together with MNI to get an idea of species abundance

Upper Paleolithic

Multiple phases: 47,000 to 10,000 BP - blades and bladelets become important -antler and bone tools - composite tools -specialized hunting techniques - spear throwers -fur trapping - marine and small fauna - homo sapiens sapiens

Museums

Museums are a skeleton library (also, a DNA repository) Specimens may be: Whole, kept in alcohol Skulls only Skulls and skins Skeletons Skeletons and skins Field Museum (Chicago, IL): Division of mammals -within the department of zoology - this division has >209,000 cataloged mammal specimens ---> average close to 40 individuals per species ---> 504 type specimens

Grayson (1984)

NISP Criticisms: Affected by butchery (chopped in more pieces). Inherent identifiability varies by species. Assumes all specimens equally affected by perimortem or postmortem breakage. Differential preservation. Misleading when some taxa are represented by whole individuals (burials especially. A single element may be smashed in multiple identifiable pieces, inflating the NISP. Affected by recovery techniques. Do not on their own address biomass; interested in meat, not bones. Not as reliable as MNI. Potential interdependence of units being counted; no way to know which came from the same individuals (usually).

Number of Identified Specimens

NISP is the most basic level of tabulation: the number of elements identified to that taxon. Can be species level or higher (example: combined NISP for sheep and goat) Every publication will use this term.

Gratson (1984- ch. 3 levels of measurement)

Need a ratio scale level of taxonomic abundance -author says that MNI and NISP based assessments of taxonomic composition of single faunal assemblages may provide no more than an ordinal scale measure of that composition -can only say that a given taxon is more or less abundant than another -do not provide a ratio MNI: affects of aggregation discredit ratio minimum numbers are minimum numbers also discredit minimum numbers bear an unknown relationship to actual abundances -numbers of identified specimens per taxon not a ratio -only represent maximum numbers of individuals Minimum numbers and specimen counts attempt to estimate the parameter abundance by providing upper and lower limits to the possible distribution of abundance values, while we remain ignorant of the nature of the distribution between these limits MNI and NISP as Ordinal Scale Measures Sometimes not even useful as an ordinal scale measure Minimum numbers and specimen counts provide identical rank orders of abundance only in those situations in which the taxa involved are widely separated in abundance Qualitative assessments of taxonomic abundance (Guilday 1970) -taphonomic analysis of the assemblage involved in order to discover the reason for discordance

Antler development over lifespan

Only useful for cervids. Unlikely to get enough of an antler intact to tell its overall development. Antler: attachement point on the cranium called the pedicle. its a type of woven bone that grows the fastest. In upper latitudes growth begins in the spring, fully developed by the end of summer, used for mating displays during the fall, shed in winter. Some tropical deer species retain antler for years or never shed it. Problems: Most species do not have antlers. Antler does not survive well archaeologically. Antler often used for tool manufacture in the Paleolithic. Often has been cut into pieces. You cannot tell its original size/configuration. Shed antler often collected and used, which will have no bearing upon which animals were hunted.

Common Mammal families

Order Perissodactyla (horse, rhino, tapir) ---> Equidae (horses, donkeys) Order Artiodactyla ---> Bovidae (cattle, sheep, goats) ---> Suidae (pigs) ---> Cervidae (deer) ---> Giraffidae (giraffe, okapi) ---> Camelidae (camels, llamas)

Andrews (1990 Predators and Predation)

Predation major cause of small animal bone accumulation All small mammal concentrations are regarded as predator assemblages Effects of predation: The exact role predation plays in the rise and fall of small mammal populations numbers in variously interpreted as the result of intrinsic/extrinsic factors by different workers -genetic polymorphism - intrinsic changes within the population -food supply -extrinsic Predators have minimal effects on small mammal populations when numbers are high, there is no braking effect when numbers are increasing, they may have some effect when numbers are declining -their major effect is when numbers are low Predators as collectors of bone: Accumulations in eating spots, storing excess food in caches, deposition of pellets or scats with indigestible prey remains Predator territory size: Bias introduced related to the nature and extent of their territories and hunting areas Available prey diversity depends on the size and complexity of the habitat in the predators territory Predator antiquity: Many predators known to accumulate bones in their pellets or scats are of considerable antiquity - beginning in Eocene Mammalian carnivores also of some antiquity Predators as prey: Presence of a predator species in a fossil assemblage is no proof that it was the one that accumulated the assemblage Prey assemblages: Remains may be of pellets or scats May give indication of size of predator - very variable however The species composition of the prey animals may be characteristic of predator type The modifications of the bones of the prey animals might also be predator specific Prey availability affects the diets of predators - a direct function of the size of the hunting territory of the predator - species that depend on small numbers of prey species require large hunting ranges or are nomadic -species that a sedentary eat a larger variety of species Bone modifications: Bone loss - greater when predator and prey are immature Bone breakage - mammalian carnivores produce greater degrees of breakage than avian raptors Bone digestion - digestion greater in mammalian carnivores because digestion continues through the intestines while avian predators - digestion only occurs in the stomach; rounding of broken ends, falcons cause greater modification due to more acidic pH than in owl assemblages; criteria for digestion over abrasion: localized, greater erosion of the tips of teeth with some not damaged at all, discoloration spread into the re-entrant angles of the vole teeth

Korth (1979 Taphonomy of micro vertebrate fossil assemblages)

Principle modes of origin for micro vertebrate deposits: Scatological hypothesis Fluvial hypothesis Hypotheses testing by 1) examining remains found in modern carnivore feces and owl pellets and 2) experimentally determining the susceptibility of various skeletal elements of small mammals to stream sorting and 3) analyzing micro vertebrate fossil assemblages Found to be Fluvial hypothesis Intro: Taphomony - defined by Efremov: study of events between the death of an organism and its subsequent deposition and fossilization Hydraulic sorting may be a factor contributing to selective preservation of micro vertebrate fossils Or pass through the scat of carnivores when dropped near a stream or in a stream or where subsequently covered by sediment - COPROCOENOSIS Coprocoenosis Hypothesis: Owl pellets: No evidence of acid erosion Some discoloration of ends of very young individuals long bones No corrosion No broken bone fragments in the Barn Owl Great horned owl pellets had bone breakage in bones of larger prey only No characeristic crushing found on base of any skull Hawk pellets Subject to digestive acids unlike owls Erosion of epiphyses, sharp pointed ends with thinning Etching on bones and teeth Enamel powder Carnivore scat; Sharply broken fragments Recognition of fecal accumulations in the fossil record 1. High percentage representation of bones of the animals present (greater than 60%) 2. The majority of limb bones are whole 3. Skulls common and frequently whole (etched with acid in diurnal bird pellets, whole or disarticulated along sutures - in owl pellets or crushed with angular breaks in carnivore feces) 4. No evidence of mechanical abrasion Fluvial Hypothesis: Fossils present should be hydralically equivalent to the sediment of the deposit (sorting) using settling velocities of bones and quartz sediment -recognition of fluvial accumulations in the fossil record 1. The sediment enclosing the fossils should generally show primary sedimentary structures of alluvial origin 2. The modal size of sand grains in the deposit should be predictable from the size and hydraulic characteristics of the skeletal elements present 3. The bones should show varying degrees of stream abrasion 4. The percentage representation of bones of the entire fauna should be low

Shotwell (1955)

Quarries-localized concentration of fossil bones in sediment. Eltonian pyramid- the general relationship between the number of carnivorous individuals and herbivorous individuals present in a sample (herbivores make up the base of the pyramid while the carnivores make up the lesser parts) -Must see this balance in the fauna for the sample to be a "good" representation or useful quantitative data. Even after the quarry sample has been deemed a likely true quantitative representation, possible errors still exist ---> those with volant or arboreal habits are usually rare and missing from the fossil fauna ---> a quarry does not produce a complete faunal list of any of the communities represented. ---> a fauna frequently contains representatives of more than one community ---------> Thanatocoenosis: only in death are the organisms found together. ---> materials are preserved in the quarry in relation to habits of the species, density of the species in the area, and proximity of the species habitat to the decomposition site. The number of genera averages about 30-35 in a fauna Approach to proximity and density issues: - determine the smallest number of individuals that could produce the material that is present (minimum number) examine all material referable to each species, noting the element present most frequently -number of specimens: the number of recognizable bones and teeth which are present in the sample of the same species -Divide number of specimens by minimum number to determine the number of specimens per individual and indicates the relative completeness of preservation when applied to a number of species. -to avoid possible error due to variation; corrected number of specimens= (number of specimens x standard number of elements)/ (estimated number of elements). estimated number of elements: how many elements the worker could distinguish for each genus involved. Standard number of elements: median number in the range of the estimated numbers of elements. Faunal analysis diagrams: -To determine the nature of the habitat from mammalian material one must consider the functional morphology of all the inhabitants of the community The approach to the paleoecology of mammals based on the following assumptions: - Reasonably large collections from quarries are a random sample of what is present in the quarry providing all specimens are retained from the volume of sediment worked. -Indication of the density of mammals of the proximal community can be determined from the minimum number. -Those mammals who lived closer to the site of decomposition will be more completely represented than those living in farther communities. -If a community other than the proximal one is represented in the quarry sample, the habitat of that community must be present in the region contributing specimens to the quarry.

Payne (1972)

Re-examines our approach to the analysis and interpretation of bone samples To what extent is the sample submitted for analysis representative of what was in the excavated earth? To what extent is the area that was excavated representative of the whole site? Is there any significant change within the series of successive units that have been grouped together to make up the sample?

Crabtree and Campana (2008 Traces of Butchery and Bone Working)

Saw marks - characteristic kerfs or saw marks Hand sawn- irregular sawn surface with groups of parallel often coarse striations at angles with one another on the kerf walls Machine sawn- a flat, polished surface with fine, parallel striations on the kerf walls cleavers and heavy knives- earlier than 1700 AD Prehistoric butchery- Stone tools Bone as raw material: Toothbrushes Spools Long bones useful because of the way they fracture in long thin fragments due to anisotropic in strength ( much stronger when stressed along the length of the bone than it is around the circumference)

Grigson (1982 sex and age determination of some bones and teeth of domestic cattle)

Sexing cattle bones- Skulls- sexual differences in both size and shape; no difference in the tooth row length or the size of individual teeth; no difference in the length of the base of the skull, but some other length measurements and all breadth measurements are greater in bulls Nonmetric sex differences: greater upward projection of intercornual ridge in bulls; greater depth and length of supraorbital groove in bulls which tend to roof over earlier in bulls; ring of nodules at horn core base develops earlier in bulls as well as occipital flange None of this helps in castrated animals Horncores- horns are both longer and stouter in bulls Atlas and axis: larger in bulls pelvis: heavier pelvic bones in males and thicker medial wall of the acetabulum Limb bones- bulls have slightly longer and broader limb bones; rarely used and little work has been done of these because don't typically preserve archaeologically beside the metapodials metapodials- male vs female separated via distal breadth while bulls vs castrates separated via length measurements Aging of Cattle Bones- Skulls- degree of suture closure; especially the closure of the suture between the frontal and parietal in the region between the horn core base and the temporal groove at 7-10 years Teeth- tooth eruption and tooth wear Post-cranial - epiphyseal fusion dates All age estimation methods suffer from the fact that any criterion used implies an age range Differential preservation, excavation and retrieval of bones of different aged animals must be considered

Functions of the Museum collections

Skeletal library: -frequently used by zooarchaeologists to identify assemblages from sites. -can compare the fragmented portions to whole individuals -also, common to collect your own frequently used species for comparison. -Highly impractical when dealing with high diversity Human skeletons: -analysis tends to be of the archaeological population itself and not for comparison material. -As with animal skeletons, decades ago only crania were collected -ALWAYS find out how complete a collection is before planning research using it.

Brain (1974)

Some Suggested Procedures in the Analysis of Bone Accumulations from Southern African Quaternary Sites 3 sorting steps: 1. remove all bone pieces which can be identified specifically (compose most of the species list) 2. place as many bones as possible in a broader taxonomic categories -antelope example of S. African Quaternary period (34 species of extant antelope) -group them into size classes (I-IV) 3. residue - residue of fragments which cannot be placed with confidence into any taxonomic category - -bone flakes (smashed bone): come from shafts of long bones lack complete articular ends do not preserve more than half the circumference of the long bone shaft -shaft pieces: instances where more than half the circumference of the long bone shaft is preserved -after removal of bone flakes and shaft pieces, miscellaneous fragments remain Interpretation of entire bone accumulation: 3 aims: establish what agents responsible for collecting the bone reconstruct aspects of behavior of the animals or men which contributed to the assemblage provide reconstructions of the environment Size Distribution of Bone Pieces in the Sample: -collect data of size of bone pieces for later comparison to other bone accumulations Estimation of Minimum Number of Individuals Largest number of a particular element piece (if one finds 75 left distal humeri in an assemblage (Size class II antelope) then one can conclude there was at 75 individuals Look for special features on bone pieces - evidence of use of bones as tools, surface abrasion, cut marks, carnivore damage, pathology, and porcupine gnawing

Prey units

Southern (1954) set one prey unit as equal to an average body mass of 20g, or a typical size for many small mammals species (rodents, shrews, moles, etc.) Simply an approximation to round off species mass; no reason why you could not use an actual average mass for that species if known. Used to calculate relative biomass contribution to diet

Sebastian Payne (1972)

Summarizes many analyses becoming coming place at that time. Changes in species representation over time; cannot assume uniform behavior within one phase (Neolithic, Bronze Age, etc.) Must consider methods of introduction of bones into a site and their destruction afterwards. Relative economic importance among species. Interpretation of differences in the samples (sex, breeds, age classes, etc.) Seasonality (season of site occupation) derived from faunal data.

Linnaeus

Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist. Created modern system of binomial nomenclature Known as the father of modern taxonomy. Did not believe in transmutation of species (he did not think species could change, no evolution). First published "Systema Naturae" in 1735 Substantially revised and updated by 10th edition in 1758 Revisted system of Aristotle which had been used and modified for centuries.

Yalden (1977 Owl pellets)

Tease apart pellets by hand Dont ignore the matrix Microscopes are useful Can obtain several bits of info Distribution of small mammals Data on the food of the predator, MNI Seasonal changes in diet, age of prey, general state of the ecosystem

Klein and Cruz (1984)

The First Steps in Analysis: Sorting, Identification, Sexing, Aging, and Measurement Most long bones have 3 principle centers of ossification- the two ends and connecting shaft Reasons for recording the state of epiphyseal fusion of a fossil bone: determining how old at time of death, useful for calculating the minimum number of individuals, proportion of fused or unfused pieces within any given element category helps to explain the relative abundance of the category in an assemblage Vertebrae, ribs, and sesamoids are difficult to identify to species even when they are complete It is useful to identify a hard element to genus, family, and order when a species determination may not be able to be made Precision of identification: Depends on: what the analyst expects or assumes, the availability of a comparison collection ID based on comparison with skeletal parts of a known taxa to make an identification it is best to sort similar looking elements together without necessarily identifying a specific taxa.... Sort then identify Sex and age usually determined by measurement

Kardong (ch.3 2009)

The Vertebrate Story Vertebrates are proper chordates - possess at some time in their life all 5 defining chordate characteristics: notochord, pharyngeal slits, tubular and dorsal nerve tube, and postanal tail Innovations: Vertebral column Head- cranium, embryonic features only found in vertebrates: neural crest cells and epidermal placodes (diagnostic features) the source of most adult structures that distinguish vertebrates from other chordates Origin of Vertebrates Location: marine waters Evolution of early vertebrates characterized by increasingly active lifestyles hypothesized to proceed in 3 major steps: 1. pre vertebrae- arose within the protochordates; suspension feeding based on ciliary pumps - resemble amphioxus; evolution of muscular pump via 2 mechanical changes to the pharynx 2. Agnathan- appearance of the muscular pharyngeal pump; muscularized pharynx pushed food through the mouth 3. Gnathostome- a switch in feeding method; jaws Vertebrae Classification- divided into classes Tetrapods-amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (4 footed) Fishes- agnathans and gnathostomes Agathans- vertebrae story begins; jawless fish lacking a biting apparatus; hagfishes and lampreys bring the history to the present; together these 2 groups are called cyclostomes (proxies for most primitive vertebrates) Living agnathans- lack bone and have single nostril hagfishes- deep sea, mud burrowing, eel like scavengers lampreys- in their own group, Petromyzontida; oval mouth to graph a stone and hold its position in a current; parasitic; jawless and lack bone entirely Early vertebrate fossils Come from early Cambrian of China Conodonts- toothlike microfossils Ostracoderms- first vertebrates to possess an intricate lateral line system, an inner ear with 2 semicircular canals, and bone Gnathostomes- Development of jaws in primitive fishes Early groups of jawed fishes: acanthodians and placoderms 2 major lines of evolution: Chondrichthyes (sharks and allies) and Teleostomi (bony fishes and tetrapods) Placoderms-heavily armored fish Placoderms replaced by Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) and Osteichthyes (bony fishes) Chondrichthyes - modern groups: sharks and rays 2 primary characteristics of mammals: hair and mammary glands Tracking evolution in mammals - fossil forms: 3 unique skeletal features: 3 tiny middle ear bones, lower jaw is composed of only dentary- a single bone, and there is a joint between the dentary and squamosal bones of the jaws

Minimum Number of Elements (MNE)

The per-part MNI; how many minimum humeri, for example. would it take to produce all the pieces of humerus that you have. Mostly of interest when considering what body parts have been accumulated differentially.

Darwinism

Three central trends: ---Species produce more offspring than can possibly survive. ---This puts them in competition for resources. ---Only a few survive to reproduce, selectively passing on their traits. Natural selection is a mechanism for change, just as artificial selection is the mechanism for change for domesticated species

Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984 ch. 5)

Transportation from death assemblage to deposited assemblage: -MNI discrepancies among skeletal parts of a fossil species are expected because different parts differ in DURABILITY -schlepp effect - smaller animals are more represented (their whole skeleton; wider range of skeletal parts) in samples than larger due to transportation -GUI - general utility index of a bone; determining whether or not hunters will transport it back to site -MGUI- modified -Transportation accounts for paucity of small bones and abundance of large flat ones in flowing water sites -Transportation also affects skeletal part numbers in assemblages deposited by carnivores; Transportation from deposited assemblage to fossil assemblage: -We cannot assume that the pattern of skeletal part representation is a fossil sample reflects the behavior of the bone collector -Any arch assemblage that is particularly rich in small dense bones (carpals and tarsals; isolated teeth) has probably suffered from post depositional destruction -MNI and NISP comparisons between samples should be controlled for quality of preservation and degree of fragmentation -Knowledge of the context of a fossil sample is vital to understanding its structure Species Abundance: -post dep destruction will raise NISPS and lower MNI Species Abundance and Changes in Environment: -reindeer peaks reflect changes in environment/climate rather than humans (cold, dry climate) -species abundance discrepancies occur independently of cultural changes Species Abundance and Cultural Change- Advances in human ability to obtain animals; technological advances Species Abundance in Assemblages created by Carnivores: -Hyenas implicated by abundant coprolites and absence of stone artifacts or gnawed bones -Relative rarity of carnivore remains in the archaeological samples probably reflects a long term mutual avoidance between people and carnivores Age/Sex profiles and collector behavior Die Kelders were herders and not thieves Abundance of young in the Klasies and Nelson Bay profiles implies active hunting or a mixture of active hunting of young animals and scavenging of adult Mean individual size in fossil species as an index of Quaternary climate Domestication leads to reduction in size of mammals Size variation linked to climate Mean size and climate: Bergmanns rule - body size larger in cold climate Population density - increased body size selected against in a population dense community due to resource limitation Mean size is carnivores increase with decreasing temp Small herbivores increase in size with an increase in precipitation Tortoises and mollusks -

NISP vs MNI

Two most basic forms of tabulation. MNI is the minimum of that taxon for that assemblage; NISP is the maximum. Neither necessarily represents the actual relative numbers of that taxon brought to that site. Do not necessarily reflect the abundance ratios of species relative to each other.

Lewis Binford (1960s and 1970s)

Use of modern ethnographic studies to understand how past people might have hunted, processed carcasses etc. Worked with Nunamiut (Inuit) and Navajo tribes

Taxon/taxa

Use this term when you need to indicate an organism or relationship of indefinite taxonomic level or when mixing levels

Ungulate

Used to be a formal taxonomic grouping, but was found to be erroneous. Used as a general term for hooded animals that walk on their toes groups together horses, cattle, antelope, deer, pigs, etc.

Profile shape of the mark

V-shaped: slicing or chopping marks; bone is pushed away U shaped: sawing marks; bone is ground into dust and falls away

White (1953)

What percentage does each species contribute to the diet of the people? percentage computed from gross count of bones present in a site or cross section will not give a reliable answer. Because of large vs. small animal butchering techniques (whole animal brought back to settlement vs. large animal in field butchering before bringing back to site). Must compute the total meat furnished by each species found in the site and this result expressed as a percentage of the total meat represented by all of the species from the species. To determine amount of meat furnished by any given species, you need to know the number of individuals that are represented in the excavation sample (separate the most abundant element of a species into right and left halves and use the greater number). After the number of individuals of any species in the sample has been determined, the number should be multiplied by the number of pounds of meat which one individual of the species in question will yield upon butchering. -->this will give the total meat for that species in the site.

Dismemberment (patterns of butchery)

Will vary based upon species type and size. Small vertebrates may not be dismembered at all or only decapitated. Within-joint dismemberment: joints were cut through, avoiding as much bone as possible. Advantageous when labor is an issue or tools are inadequate. Mid-bone dismemberment: bones were cut through. May need to for marrow extraction, not a problem for machine butchery

Reitz and Wing (1999)

Zooarchaeological History and Theory Introduction: Zooarch study consists of three parts: identification, analysis, and interpretation. Identification stage can be equated with collecting primary data and the analytical stage with deriving secondary data. ----->Primary: facts that can be replicated by subsequent investigators (element representation and taxonomic identification). Seen as more objective, requires less interpretive latitude ----->Secondary: age classes, sex rations, relative frequencies of taxa, butchering patterns, dietary contributions, and procurement strategies The Hypothetical Collection: St. Augustine, FL Residential lot of Spanish family between AD 1700 and 1795 Domestic and wild species of vertebrae, molluscs, and crustaceans. used mesh screens Five behavioral contests: non-feature sheet refuse, a large trash pit, two small trash pits, and a well. Quantifying Relative Abundance of Different Taxa: expressing abundance in relative terms calculating diversity indices computing hypothetical economic models. Goal: to define characteristics that clearly differentiate among groups. Each species at a site has an equal opportunity to be recovered. Impossible to control specimen independence (if all this comes from one individual or many). The assumption that specimens are related is secondary date). All primary data are influenced by sample size. Quantitative comparison must be done when the samples are similar in context, recovery methods, and sample size (for small sample size uses descriptions explanations) Primary data: Recorded during the identification phase. Use of file cards for each taxon. Elements represented: the types of elements represented by the specimens in the sample. For vertebrate specimen, the element represented and the side should be recorded. Anatomical terms, schematic drawings, diagnostic zones Taxonomic Identification: Final taxonomic identification is based on morphological features, age sex, geographical, and individual. Specimens can be identified officially but be at different taxonomic levels Specimen count: Specimen count is the number of specimens in a sample. NISP= number of identified specimens NR= number of remains TNF= total number of fragments Modifications and pathologies: modification refers both to marks on specimens and to breakage patterns. Record pathologies with the location irregularities. Anatomical features of sex and age: Those reflecting sex include unique morphological features, secondary sexual characteristics, and size Epiphyseal Fusion Tooth eruption sequences Tooth wear Incremental structures Antlers and horns

resource depression

a decrease in body size can also be brought about by overharvesting adults before they have had time to reach their full size this an an *anthropogenic* effect (originating because of human activity) on species populations

generalist (diet)

a species consuming lots of multiple species has a high dietary diversity

specialist (diet)

a species consuming only one other species has a very low dietary diversity

nocturnal

activity peak at night

Diurnal

activity peaks at daytime

crepuscular

activity peaks at dusk and dawn

cursorial

adapted for running

seasonality

an aspect of paleoecology that considers what time of year was the site in use? seasonal differences in mobility, location, and resource use there are normally tied to the seasonal availability of resources and the need to adapt to these resources usually linked to movement to different ecological zones to exploit them at different times of year also may include *seasonal aggregation* (trading purposes, marriage times)

Bergmann's Rule

an evolutionary response to environmental change (morphological effects) described by German biologist Carl Bergmann in 1847 *larger species tend to be found in colder environments and smaller ones in warmer environments* *applies to variability within a species with a large geographic range over latitudes (ex: deer up north larger than deer that live in more southern locations)* *how to apply to marine mammals? very large because easily lose their body heat in the water; generate heat based upon your volume (cubed function), you shed heat based upon your surface area (squared function); the bigger you get, the more efficient you are; the larger you are the better you generate heat and retain it*

summary: denning importance

analysis of animal denning behavior in order to separate it from hominin actions during our evolutionary past obtain large taphonomic samples of bone altered by a known species bone dispersal, transport, and re-concentration behavior natural history and wildlife biology

Families

animal family names always end in -dae Animal subfamily names always end in -nae family names usually derive from a common genus name within that family. example: hominidae comes from homo May also derive more directly from the Latin or Greek name for that type of animal.

Life Assemblages

animals living in the actual natural environment

timing of carcass availability - scavenging

assumption: scavengers will get to utilize a carcass only after the most nutritionally useful parts have been consumed or transported away the less useful parts (or in some cases the less transportable) will still be available tooth marks and other damage from animals should appear before tool marks from hominins exception to rule: hominins, our ancestors solved this problem by smashing their way in through the long bone midshafts

Microfauna

average adult body mass <5kg

Megafauna

average adult body mass >5kg

pelagic

away from the shore or bottom; open ocean or lack

tytonidae

barn and bay owls

Avian size classes (Pokines)

bird skeletal remains A: Passerines (songbirds) B: Pigeons, etc. C: Ducks, smaller birds of prey, etc. D: Geese, swans, storks, larger birds , etc. E: ostrich, emu, cassowary

Blunt force

bone is smashed through using a blunt implement. May leave a conchoidal scar in the bone much like in stone tool knapping. Not usually done to segment a carcass into pieces. This type of damage may result from later marrow extraction, especially smashing into long bone midshafts

degrees of domestication - domesticated

bred under human control for generations, with morphology and behavior substantially altered

Island Effects or Foster's Rule

broadly: species' body sizes adapt to the resources available in their environment (ex: elk in N. America average almost double the body size of red deer in Europe) *Applied to islands: largest species tend to get smaller, and the smallest species tend to get larger many examples of dwarf mammoth populations cut off on islands as sea levels rose at the end of the Pleistocene massive reduction in body size after only a few thousand years smaller species faced with less competition, so the environment can support larger individuals

cementum annuli

can be used for aging (number of annuli) and season of death (development of the final ring)

WZM 1 Paleoenvironmental research program goals

determine which hominid taxa are represented in this area into the Middle Paleolithic and how did these change to determin how the faunal community of this area has changed over the course of the pleistocene and holocene and what was the changing relationship of the hominin inhabitants to those taxa to discriminate among anthropogenic changes, including deforestation, desertification, urbanization, and faunal extinctions to determine what paleoecological changes specifically occurred as a result of the introduction of domesticated herds and plants into this area and how the domesticated faunal species themselves changed to research the full spectrum of taphonomic processes which introduced osseous remains into WZM 1 and how these affected the zooarchaeological data used to answer the above question

medullary bone

develops only in female birds as a seasonal store of calcium for egg development forms a granular mineral substance on the interior medullary cavity can fill in most of the cavity starts to form post-mating, prior to egg shell formation therefore, indicates that a bird was killed during nesting season if present, if not present, could have been male

Eaton (1898)

did not quantify faunal remains from his sites, but did describe butchery practices, worked bone, human remains, and seasonality in Block Island, NY

types of seasonality indicators*

direct: evidence that a site was used at a certain time of year hominins indirect: evidence that a site was not used at a certain time of year by hominins because it was in use by other species that would not have occupied the site at the same time

degrees of domestication - semi-domesticated

domesticates retaining some wild behavior (Asian elephants, bison)

otoliths

ear bones found in fish species have incremental growth lines which can be used to tell season of death (and age) small granules in mammals

George Gaylord Simpson

early paleoecological methods paleontologist over 700 publications and 50 were books one of the first to use mathematical models

Swallowing whole

entire prey animal eaten in one gulp

degrees of domestication - captured from wild

essentially indistinguishable in appearance or behavior from their wild counterparts (zoos, pets) (not really domesticated; precursor to domestication -- only one generation)

Metrical sexual dimorphism

exactly the same methods as determining sexual dimorphism in humans. Many species more dimorphic than humans. Measurements themselves are different. Same drawbacks as humans (There will be some overlap between females and male in most cases. Must have intact bones to measures. Generally, cannot use juvenile bones). Must be certain that the size difference is due to sex and not other factors. Different species Wild vs. domesticated forms of same species different breeds of domesticates Castrated males may be present and constitute an intermediate size category (or sometime a larger category) Hybrids of two species like mules

features of burrow dens

excavated into soil can persist only for years or decades may have multiple entrances or consist of multiple small burrows in a cluster excavated and utilized by a succession of species potential for reoccupation is high bone accumulation potential is low relatively common paleontological visibility is low

Falcoidae

falcons and caracaras

seasonal faunal remains

fetal bone available only between end of mating season and pre-birthing season (spring) unshed antler only available during Fall to early Winter mixed male/female herds of some species only during the mating season (fall)

uses for domesticates

food source - meat, milk, eggs other body parts: skin, furs, wool, bones labor: traction, ridden, warfare

Bovid size classes (Brain 1974)

for grouping the animals into analytical categories and for assigning a general size class (I to IV) to otherwise unidentifiable bones. A class V has added since for the very large mammals (elephant/mammoth, rhinoceros, hippo). Often applied to other species to fit them into the same framework (donkeys, horse, carnivores).

degrees of domestication - feral

formerly domesticated taxon now reintroduced into the wild and free of human intervention (mustangs, feral house cats, etc)

degrees of domestication - wild

full life cycle without deliberate human intervention

Zoogeography

geographic distribution animal species. Biogeography is the broader term. Shaped by multiple forces: extinctions evolution modes of reproduction, dispersal, and locomotion Migration Geographic barriers (water, mountain ranges, and ecological zones)

Proventriculus

glandular part of raptor stomach

early 20th century museums

had been typical to keep only the skin and skull used for identification of remains from archaeological sites early identifications of archaeofaunas usually done by biologists without arch training

Analogous structures

having the same function

Homologous structure

having the same origin

Accipitridae

hawks, eagles, buzzards, harriers, kites, and old-world vultures

Natural history

history of nature

features of artificial dens

human created structures or features (building foundations, culverts) can persist for decades potential for reoccupation is high bone accumulation potential is high relatively uncommon not directly relevant to the paleontological record

Relationship to forensics (butchery)

machine butchery is normally an indication that the remains are non human. useful when morphology alone is not enough

indirect indicators of seasonality

many species inhabit caves that would be in direct competition with hominins (carnivores) hibernating bears, denning hyenas, leopards, etc many species inhabit caves that would be frightened away by hominins, birds any of these species might leave indicators that they were present or died at a certain time of year

Establishing an age profile

most common to use tooth wear: the overall pattern of cusp wear, measurements of crown height, cementum annuli also used. Dental eruption and skeletal fusion used at younger ages. Can use antler size and number of tines for the Cervidae

Modern butchery

most sectioning cuts go through bone. circumferential pre-slicing cuts like honey baked ham

why domesticate something? walking larder hypothesis

much hunting behavior in prehistory involves mass drives of whole herds into natural or artificial traps the animals were then slaughtered en masse constant problems of food transport and storage may have inspired these early people to keep some of these animals alive longer to kill them later instead of wasting meat because it spoiled

disadvantages of domesticates

must feed and shelter them some are dangerous can be stolen or run away sources of disease spread to humans entire resource base can be wiped out with one epidemic

WZM 1 characteristics

natural faunal trap limestone sinkhole about 30m max depth less than 11m deposits minimum no method for escape for most species difficult to see edge in many species roosting location for many species faunal remains recording changes in paleoenvironment

Body part utility

not all portions of a skeleton are equally desired, useful, nor eaten first when given a choice. Some bones are valuable for their meat on the outside of them. some are valuable for the marrow and bone grease. Some low-utility bones (riders) are attached to high-utility ones and are often transported with them.

hibernating bears

not introducing prey bones, but many bears die during hibernation producing an attritional mortality profile

domestication failures

not worthwhile to domesticate for meat (needs to be fed meat to produce meat); exception: dogs bred for meat, but this species is in practical terms omnivorous very long generational times many species do not breed well in captivity Hippos, cape buffalo, grizzly bears frequent killers of humans and onagers and zebras are very rude to people antelopes are too easily panicked and are very good at leaping over fences solitary/territorial species too hard to raise together

primitive

occurring earlier in evolutionary sequence

derived

occurring later in evolutionary sequence

analytical uses of microfauna (paleoenvironmental indicators)

often not harvested by humans and therefore lack bias from this source of site introduction

Zeder (2008 Domestication and early agriculture in the mediterranean basin)

origins, diffusion, and impacts of domesticates and agriculture in the Med Basin Initial animal domestication in the Fertile Crescent: Until 1990s - relied on morphological changes in species to identify where and when wild prey animals were domesticated (reduction in overall body size) Animal domestication occurred 10,000 to 9,500 BP beginning with goats and sheep -Levant Method under increased scrutiny Body size reduction associated with initial domestication can now be attributed to differences in the culling strategies of herders as opposed to hunters in hunting- hunters focus on large adult animals, especially males herding- assemblages dominated by bones of smaller females slaughtered after the prime reproductive age, males not needed for herd propagation are harvested at young age (young bones often destroyed in an arch assemblage)

Arnold J. Shotwell (1955)

paleontologist working with fossil remains, not archaeological. Had to extrapolate ecological behavior onto extinct species. Does the sample represent the environment from which it came?: does the percentage of herbivores greatly outweigh the percentage of carnivores? Arboreal fauna always underrepresented in sedimentary deposits. Cannot compute numbers if only complete specimens are retained. Minimum number of individuals to count species representation instead of just number of identified specimens Ratio of MNI/NISP= completeness per individual corrected number of specimens takes into account number of bones per individual and their identifiability. Average completeness indicates species in a sample living closer to the point of deposition or the local community.

microfauna body part utilization

pelts, bone tools, birds bones useful for making small tubes

Allen's Rule

posited by Joel Asaph Allen, a US ornithologist and zoologist in 1877 *Endotherms (warm-blooded species) from colder climates usually have shorter limbs than the equivalent animals from warmer climates* *also applies to within species with large ranges across latitudes* *this decreases the surface area to volume ratio for greater heat retention*

Molariform premolar

premolar evolved to look and function as a molar

methods of determining seasonality

presence/absence of flora and/or fauna population structure cyclical, developmental, and stress-related physiological events stable isotope analysis incremental structure analysis (*skeletochronology)

physical changes from exploitation

presumes that overharvesting will lead to younger individuals eventually being taken, since the older ones are not surviving past that age also includes loss of genes within that population for the largest individuals; these are selected against

Fragmentation

prey is torn into pieces and all of these are consumed

dry screening

pushing sediments through a screen without using water to break them up often used for large areas, with wet screening used on whichever portions the archaeologist deems of more interest (hearths, etc)

Loomis & Young

quantified vertebrate and invertebrate taxa. included discussion of dietary importance, butchery patterns, season of site occupation, and worked bone in shell middens in Maine

effects of mesh size upon microfaunal recovery

recommend minimum of 1/4 inch (that size mesh will let most of your small fauna pass through) 1/8 inch mesh will capture most small fauna in most regions -will bias against the smaller species (bats, shrews) 2mm is a good compromise between speed and recovery 1 mm will capture everything identifiable

Malapa, South Africa

remains of Australopithecus sediba intermixed with other fauna appears to have fallen in and remained largely intact

Swartkrans, South Africa

remains of multiple hominins intermixed with other fauna many isolated remains likely fell/washed in from leopard feeding in nearby trees some individuals likely fell in

Percentage representation

representation of elements relative to that maximum that could have been present. Based upon the most abundant element, which tells you the MNI. Takes number present in a complete skeleton into account. Other elements will drop off from this amount. Typically, more durable or identifiable elements are at the top and the rest drop off from there.

Tooth Wear

results in gradual, patterned dentin exposure. Final stages may include pulp cavity exposure

history of urbanization

rise of commensalism and the spread of commensal species reflects the increase in urbanization over the past 12,000 years mirrored by spread of house mouse and rat species from their former Asian range to worldwide

seasonal species availability

salmon runs occur in the Fall many bird species are migratory to or from an area seed harvest for most species is late Summer to early Fall

Epiphyseal fusion (methods of aging)

same method as for humans, but growth occurs much faster in other mammal species. Timing has been determined for all economically important species. Problems: unfused bones are the ones most likely to be subtracted from an assemblage due to taphonomic forces. Timing of fusion for domesticated vs. wild species may not be identical

Tooth eruption and succession

same method as for humans, but growth occurs much faster in other mammal species. Adults normally have third molars erupted and are in occlusion. Has been determined for all economically important species.

Atapuerca, Spain

several caverns in one location, some of which likely were faunal traps Sima de los Huesos (pit of bones) accumulated large sample of Homo heidelbergensis from the middle pleistocene bears in the site have a catastrophic age profile (falling in instead of hibernating)

chop mark

sharp implement was used as a blunt force instrument, impacting perpendicularly to the bone surface

saw mark

sharp implement with teeth was used in a slicing parallel motion; bone ground to dust and shed slowly, leaving a missing area.

changes resulting from domestication

size tends to decrease for large mammals and increase for small mammals ( the animals have to be controllable but also economically viable) other size changes took place long after initial domestication (dogs got both smaller and much larger than wolves) emphasis of secondary product production: milk, wool, fur

history of disease transmission (microfauna)

small rodents especially are vectors for disease transmission directly or through their parasites bubonic plague caused by Yersinia pestis bacterium vector was fleas carried by black rats evolved in china/ Central Asia 3 major pandemics (and many smaller)

analytical uses of microfauna (human diet)

small species often consumed by humans yet are not as archaeologically visible as megafauna fills an important ecological niche: a source of reliable protein and other nutrients which: can be raised in a small space, fed what otherwise would be food waste and recycles it back into food, can be tended by children, egg-laying species have a double benefit

Domesticate characteristics

social dominance hierarchy already present; humans are taking over for the alpha individuals can be bred in captivity fast growth rate more desirable does not have a highly specialized diet herd/gregarious species not hyper-aggressive toward humans even though most start out aggressive not super panicky

Why domesticate something? Invention hypothesis

someone had the ideas about 12,000 years ago to try and domesticate something could have originated as an off-shoot of keeping wild pets, which is widespread in the world and involves many kinds of species never domesticated why bother to domesticate something when there are so many animals walking around free for the killing that do not have to be tended to?

paleoclimatology

study of ancient climates

Mammology

study of animals

Ornithology

study of birds

Ichthyology

study of fish

Ethology

study of living animal behavior

palynology

study of pollen grains

Herpetology

study of reptiles and amphibians

equipment for wet screening

system created by Christina Hastorf uses a welded oil drum with a metal hopper on top to hold samples and direct water flow part of the water recirculates to reduce water supply needed

General Utility Index (GUI)

takes into account the meat associated with a bone and its overall fat content. Kill sites theoretically should be low in high-utility bones, as these were transported away and the low-utility bones were left behind.

Modified General Utility Index (MGUI)

takes the rider effect into account; some low-uitlity bones get a boost due to their attachment to a higher utility bone.

Koppen-Geiger climate classification

the first classification of world climates presented by the German scientist Wladimir Koppen available as a world map which was updated in 1954 and 1961 by Rudolf Geiger updated by multiple authors since then

Catastrophic Profile

the majority of the life assemblage is wiped out at once through a natural catastrophe. INDIVIDUAL PHYSICAL FITNESS DOES NOT INCREASE CHANCES OF SURVIVAL. death assemblage=life assemblage. can also accrue this same profile gradually in a situation where a chronic source of mortality is present in the environment like natural traps, snares, bush, etc. May even favor the death of prime age adults.

indicator species

the presence of various species which can survive only under certain ecological conditions indicates the presence of those conditions near the site arctic species in Europe commonly used for indicators of tundra conditions in the Pleistocene *species with wide distributions over multiple ecological zones: cosmopolitan

fossil assemblage

those from the site assemblage that are preserved until excavation

deposited assemblage

those introduced to a site from the death assemblage

death assemblage

those killed from the life assemblage

analyzed assemblage

those specimens analyzed from the excavated assemblage

published assemblage

those specimens from the analyzed assemblage that are never published

hibernation deaths

torpor: state of reduced body temperature and metabolism; dormancy (can be seasonly or daily) hibernation: long term torpor as a response to seasonal cold conditions (many species of rodents, bears are different - they drop metabolism but not body temp) aestivation: long term torpor as a response to seasonal hot, arid conditions

growth rings

tree rings (dendrochronology) follow the same patterns cannot presume that wood was used the same time that it was cut and growth rings stopped developing molluscs grow incrementally and death during a season may be recorded, one can presume a very limited shelf-life for molluscs

divergence

two taxa split from a common ancestor

convergence

two unrelated taxa appear similar due to evolutionary forces acting in parallel example: mustelids and viverrids are similar looking but unrelated

Strigidae

typical owls

sessile

unable to move about

geological methods

used to reconstruct climate and by extension the paleoenvironment often measure degree of spalling from cave sites as an indicator of how cold it was when deposited

features of cave dens

utilize natural features such as limestone caverns , other rock fissures or lava tubes can persist for tens of thousands of years frequently have an entrance chamber large enough for adults and restricted rear chambers in which juveniles can hide potential for reoccupation is high bone accumulation potential is high relatively uncommon also includes shorter-lived erosional features in sediments paleontological visibility is low

microfauna

vertebrate species with an average adult body mass less the 5kg largest contribution come from: passerines and other small birds, rodents, shrews, bats, and other small mammals, most amphibians and reptiles, some fish species but all fish usually treated as a separate field of study

Rodent Size Classes (Pokines)

very small small medium large

Digitigrade (Mammalian locomotion postures)

walking on the toes with the more proximal; elements permanently raised

plantigrade (Mammalian locomotion postures)

walking with metapodials flat to the ground

Marrow extraction

wild species are very lean, especially from winter to spring as their fat reserves are depleted. The large fat supplies of domesticated species are in no way typical. Fat reserves of adults concentrated in long bone marrow cavities. Carnivores access marrow by gnawing on the ends

Dental Morphology (comparative morphology and function)

Crown height: Brachydont- low crowns (humans) Mesodont- moderate crowns (carnivores) Hypodont- high crowns (horses) Patterning: Homodont- all teeth the same (sharks) Heterodont- variable teeth (most other mammals) Cusp: Bunodont- rounded cusp. Secodont- cusps modified into sharp cutting edges or blades. Lophodont- folded cusps oriented bucco-lingually (elephants) Selenodont- folded cusps oriented mesial-distally and are crescent-shaped (horses and bovids) Carnassial teeth: evolved in carnivores to scissor past each other

Sacrificial taphonomic pattern (Animal sacrifice)

Cut marks from killing should be localized; adjacent to vital organs (heart) or large arteries (throat). Very easy to kill the animal and leave no marks on bone, especially by cutting the throat. May leave perpendicular marks on the ventral surface of the cervical vertebrae. If decapitated, will leave chop marks through the dorsal cervical vertebrae.

1990s

DNA!

Fisher (1995 Bone Surface Modifications)

Cut marks from stone tools -carcass reduction with a cutting tool is a means of accessing and using some of these carcass products -a cut mark consists of an elongate, relatively narrow, linear striation. They are of ten v-shaped in cross section and have flat sides -cutmark morphology reflects the shape of the tool's cutting edge, the angle at which the tool is held, the force with which the tool is applied to the bone, and the protective effect of periosteum or other soft tissue -Parallel microstriations within the borders of a larger striation can be produced by carnivore teeth or sedimentary particles -shoulder effects consist of short marks created during the same stroke as the accompanying cut mark by contact between the bone and the shoulder of the tool -a barb consists of a striation (or a set of multiple, closely spaced, parallel striations) that diverges at an acute angle from the end of an associated striations -formed by small, inadvertent motions of the hand either in initiating or in terminating a stroke -splitting of a mark is expressed as one or more lines that originate from the main mark and take a diverging course -configurational approach: attempts to discriminate between genuine cut marks and striations produced by other processes by taking into account: -the anatomical placement of the striations - the proportion of bones in the assemblage that are marked -the number of striations present per specimen -the orientation of striations relative to one another and to the shape of the bone - shape of the bone surface where the marks occur -the range of shapes exhibited by the striations -associations with other kinds of surface modifications (like punctures and polish) - external variables: -geological context of the deposits like the size and sharpness of sedimentary particles, abrasion by water, windborne particles, etc. -striations produced by sedimentary abrasion, carnivore gnawing, and other things can mimic cut marks -cut marks can only be made when the cutting implement comes into direct contact with a bone -persistnat cutting (sawing) at a particular location can produce a saw mark, a mark consisting of a set of multiple, closely spaced, parallel or nearly parallel cut marks that cumulatively create a deep incision Scrapemarks: -consist of a set of multiple, closely spaced and parallel striations that are elongate, linear, and relatively narrow -produced by moving a sharp stone tool edge across the bone in a direction approximately perpendicular to the long axis of the tool edge -chattermarks - ridges oriented perpendicular to the long axis of scraping striations -often to remove the periosteum and soft tissue to access marrow Chop marks: -a broad, relatively short, linear depression that generally has a v-shaped cross section -might be carried out on a carcass that has dried out and become resistant to cutting tools or when separating articulated bones -could be confused with percussion pits that were produced by a failed attempt to break a bone open using a hammer stone with v-shaped striking edge Conchoidal flake scars and bone flakes- -produced by applying strong force to a bone with a hard object -produced when striking the shaft of a long bone with a hammer stone -display the same basic technical attributes of percussion as occur on flakes and flake says of knapped fine grained stone: Flakes possess a platform at the impact point and a bulb of percussion below the platform They sometimes show ripple marks and/or hackle (stress) marks originating at or near the platform or bulb Flake scars display the negative bulb of percussion created by flake removal -the term flake issued for those bone specimens that possess technical attributes associated with percussion or pressure Percussion pits and percussions striations- Small depressions of variable size that are roughly circular and accompanied in most cases by micro striations -sometimes hard to differentiate between carnivore teeth marks Incipient fracture cracks: Fracture lines that extend partly or completely across a bone specimen Crushing: The inward crushing or displacement of bone cortex into the spongy bone space within Punctures: Deep punctures that penetrate partly or completely through a bone Stabbing with considerable force using a pointed object Tooth marks: Chewing on bone by humans creates mashed edges Difficult to distinguish between carnivore gnawing at this point Gouge marks: Elongate gouges that expose cancellous bone Polish- Smoothing and rounding that can occur on edges, protrusions, and flat surfaces of bone Bone modification by nonhuman processes Weathering: The effects are cracking, splitting, exfoliation, disintegration, decomposition Varies depending on geographic location Abrasion and polish: Conditions resulting from the removal of bone material from the surface of a specimen Polish- sheen or glossy Abrasion- smoothing or rounding but lacking sheen Trampling: Produce striations, polish, conchoidal flake scars Tooth marks: Striations, furrows, pits, punctures, ragged edges, chipped edges, sinuous edges, polish, conchoidal flake scars, and bone flakes Uniform depth Small flakes compared to hammer stone percussion Digestion- Erosion, dissolving, scalloping, smoothing, polishing, thinning, perforation Usually in combination of several of these traits Root etching: Thin shallow lines can be etched into the surface of bones by acids associated with plant roots that have grown against the bone Consists of multiple lines imparted in distinctive sinuous or wavy configurations that are macroscopically visible, have u-shaped cross section and are identifiable with little difficulty Rockfall: Sharp projections or edges can slide across a bone in a fashion similar to sharp-edged stone tool, and the percussive impact of rockfall can imitate the blow of a hammer stone Striations, scrape marks, conchoidal flake scars that resemble human induced modifications such as cut marks, scrape marks, hammer stone induced conchoidal flake scars and chop marks Ice movement: River ice breakup Striations, polish, abrasion, conchoidal flaking, irregular flaking, and breakage Vascular grooves: Can be confused with cut marks microscopic examination reveals the vascular grooves have a smooth internal surface Excavation or preparation damage: Need to standardize analysis Needed to facilitate the comparisons among sites Use of the singe word terms: cutmark scrapemark and chopmark

Serjeantson (2009- biology, behavior, and anatomy of avifauna)

Flight and flightlessness Ratites- flightless, lost their ability to Max size in which a species can attain while still retaining the ability to fly most birds make a nest except seabirds Seabirds can breed anytime of year since less food restricted Varied number of eggs Hatchlings- first hatch Nestlings- until they leave the nest Fledglings- before they are fully fledged Birds skeletally mature before they are considered to be mature via full plumage Precocial - to a greater or lesser degree independent of parents Altricial - period of dependency on parents is extended Bird bones has Haversian canals but no osteons Appositional growth - from the shaft to the end Some fusion Bird bones achieve their strength with trabeculae More bone marrow in young birds vs adults Pneumatisation: the bodies of birds contain hollow sacs or diverticula filled with air - air sacs originate in the lungs and surround or penetrate many of the bones and organs. The elements which are pneumatised have foramina which allow the entry of the air sacs For weight reduction - full reason for this is not clear Approx 100 bones in bird skeletons Vertebral bodies are saddle shaped The wing: humerus, radius, ulna, 2 carpal bones (carpometacarpus, and the wing digits) Gizzard stones - aid digestion in place of teeth hard to digest foods are ground to a pulp through the muscles of the gizzard and stones

Cementum annuli

It is an avascular calcified connective tissue covering the root of a tooth. Serves to anchor gingival and periodontal fibers. Excreted by cementoblasts. Thickest at the root apex. Softer than dentin and consist of about 45% to 50% hydroxyapatite by mass. Laid down in bands that sometimes exhibit an annual structure which can be counted to estimate age (like tree rings) Problems: Partial resorption of cementum might occur while the organism is alive. Where you sample on the tooth therefore may affect counting results. Softer than the rest of the tooth; easily destroyed postdepositionally. The ring structure is often anything but uniform. There are seasonal metabolic changes in animals that affects their physiology; why would this be relevant to humans?

Binford (1984)

Minimum Animal Units MAU= conversion of the MNE counts relative to the number of that element occurring in an animal Anatomy of the living animal take as the standard for reporting frequencies of the MNE. example: if two of that element present MNE/2

Over time vs moment in time

Models both the overall population at that moment, and tracks an individual birth season through time. Example assumes a stable population undergoing no net growth or decline, which is never the case

Zoogeographic Zone

Nearctic Neotropic Palearctic Afrotropic/Ethiopian Indo-Malaya Australia Oceania Antarctic

Fossorial

burrowing

Age Classes

Neonate Juvenile Subadult Adult Prime-age adult Old adult

Hesse and Wapnish (1985)

Objectives: determine interactions between animals and people in a cultural setting to understand the processes motivating the zoo cultural system Folk biology- delimits and describes native categories of plants and animals and the structure of folk classifications; bones initially sorted according to anatomical part and Linnaean classification, meaningful cultural and historical interpretation requires that the resulting groups be rearranged into ethnographically relevant units; folk biology provides the tools for this transformation Kingdom, phylum, class, order, Family, Genus, Species Species- groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups Animals as technofacts, sociofacts, and ideofacts Animal bone research design: address 2 questions: what animal categories are important and how should they be contrasted

Analytical uses (data obtained from microfaunal studies)

Paleoenvironmental indicators: Often not harvested by humans and therefore lack bias from this source of site introduction. Human diet: Small species often consumed by humans yet are not as archaeologically visible as megafauna. Fills an important ecological niche, a source of reliable protein and other nutrients which can be raised in a small space and fed what otherwise would be food waste and recycles it back into food (like pigs and dogs). They can also be tended to by children which make up a large proportion of growing populations and egg-laying species have a double benefit. Important domesticated species: Chicken (gallus gallus) Guinea pig (cavia porcellus) and edible dormouse (glis glis) Also, many important species of wild game are easy to capture like turtles, frogs, small fish, etc. Niche comparison: ---> Large fauna: herded or hunted by adults or older juveniles. Less reliable food source (sometimes you have to follow the heard). One generation/year (they usually don't give birth more than once a year). Large nutrient payoff (you have to either eat it all or find a way of preserving it like jerky). Worth stealing. Needs large space. High prestige. ---> Small fauna: Raised or hunted by almost anyone. Reliable food source. Multiple generations per year. Small nutrient payoff. Rarely worth stealing. Meeds small space. Low prestige Other body part utilization: Pelts, bone tools, bird bones especially useful for making small tubes. History of Urbanization: Rise of commensalism and the spread of commensal species reflects the increase in urbanization over the past 12,000 years. Mirrored by spread of mouse and rat from their former Asian range to worldwide. History of Disease Transmission: small rodents especially are vectors for disease transmission directly or through their parasites. Bubonic plague cause by Yersinia petis bacterium. Vector was clears carried primarily by black rats. Evolved in China/Central Asia. Three major pandemics (Plague of Justinian 6th and 7th century AD, Black Death 1346-1353, and China and India in the 1890s)

Domesticated species

Problems with naming: each domesticated species is usually the same species as its wild ancestor, most common ones were given a separate species name early in the naming process, these are usually retained due to common usage and precedence example: Bos taurus (cattle) and Bos primigenius (aurochs)

Continuously growing teeth (Comparative Morphology and Function)

Some teeth do not form permanent roots or stop developing; they grow continuously (incisors of rodents and molars in some rodent species) Some teeth continue to push out from the jaws as they wear down. Both adaptation for heavy wear to prolong the use-life of the tooth

Brain (1981- Food Remains of Carnivores in African Caves)

Spotted hyena: 2 types of lairs Bone contents mainly splintered and gnawed remains of the spotted hyenas themselves, especially teeth and foot bones, all ages, lots of droppings, among other animal remains Many gnawed bones of animals with less common remains of the spotted hyenas Some doubt as to whether hyenas brought carcasses back to their dens and therefore responsible for bone accumulations in caves However evidence suggests that spotted hyenas do do this Lairs in Burrows: Number of entrances Dis-used ant-bear burrows sometimes taken over by hyenas Lairs in Recesses and Caves: Rocky or mountainous habitats Porcupines sometimes used these lairs - bones collected by either agent Use of Lairs by more than one species: Interpretations of bone accumulations extremely complicated due to porcupines as collecting agents; hyenas tend not to mind their use of the dens Transport of bones by spotted hyenas to secluded feeding places and lairs: Direct observation of hyenas carrying remains to den is significant; these have been made numerous times Carrying large heavy portions of carcasses When disturbed an uneasy, hyenas will rapidly dismember and carry away Bones and other animal remains recorded at spotted hyena lairs: Few observations and analyses have been made about bone in and around lairs Regurgitations as a source of bones at lairs: Hyenas do not regurgitate food for their cubs; they regurgitate indigestible parts Similarity of hyena corroded bone fragments to human artifacts is sometimes striking Droppings of spotted hyenas: Abundant in caves - tend to have specific latrine areas inside - scatology Diet of spotted hyenas: Effective predators and scavengers Wildbeest forms very important dietary item, gazelle, and zebra Hunt waterbuck, eland, buffalo Impala Whatever they can get humans Cannalbalistic at times - sometimes wait until the body of one of their fellow has partially decomposed to eat it Eating their young - no strong inhibition Food storage in water: Storage surplus in water - accumulation at a bottom of water hole Importance of scavenging as opposed to hunting: Adaptations to scavenging but also good hunters Hunting/scavenging range of hyenas: 2 factors: availability of food and density of hyena population Mechanics of hyena chewing action and resulting bone damage: Premolars - bone crackers Powerful jaw closure Gnawing by incisors and canines - skull bowl Splintering of bones by adult Gnawing of bones by juvenile Scooping out of cancellous bone Damage by partial ingestion The brown hyena: Smaller than spotted, jaws more powerful Sloping back, shaggy hair, banding on front legs Lairs in burrows: Ant-bear dens used Lairs in caves and recesses: Numerous bones and droppings found inside on a site They share their dens with other animals that they tolerate - porcupines Composition of bone accumulations at dens: Carcasses found at entrances of dens Active hunting - bone littered the area In one instance, lots of the accumulation was of carnivores Diet: Wide variety Cannibalism Predation on primates: not aware of attacks on people; lots of baboons Food storage in water not observed Store food in tall grass or take down a hole These guys often kill small carnivores and bring back the carcasses to their cubs Undamaged craniums Striped hyena: Africa, Middle East, Asia Overlaps in range with spotted hyena but not with brown hyena Lairs: Porcupine burrows, caves, crevices under boulders Diet: Smaller vertebrates, substantial quantities of fruit and insects Extinct hyenas: Hyaenictis and Euryboas different than modern... hunting hyenas Leopard: Africa and asia Secretive predators that make use of caves as retreats, feeding places, breeding lairs Hunting baboons Punctured tooth marks Diet: majority of Bovid Size Class II, zebras, warthogs, baboons, ververt monkeys, domestic dogs Baboon troops pose a threat to a leopard Preferential taste Predation on Homo: May have preyed on early hominids - leopards tend to avoid Once acquire taste for humans - they become exclusive predators of humans Transport of prey: Usually don't eat at kill site - transport to a feeding site - not transported generally more than 100m Food storage: Trees Secluded feeding lairs Black eagle: Aquila verreauxi: Eat most of the bones - leave the larger elements and skull Rodents - Bone accumulation - drop bones in the nest Have 2 babies - the first one is a bully and eats all the food even if no food The second starves and dies - Cain and Abel struggle Surprise attack and push off cliff let fall and die then pick up and eat If nest above cave entrance bones can be attributed to hyena assemblage mistakenly - need to distinguish between the 2

Davis (1987 ch. 7 Later domesticates and the secondary uses of animals)

The exploitation of livestock for their so-called secondary products: milk, fibers, dung, muscular power Shift to secondary products represents two stages of development in the OW: 1. Early stage of cultivation in which technology and transport were based upon human muscle power and in which animals were kept primarily for their slaughter products such as meat and hides Later stage of plough agriculture; pastoralism and a technology based upon the harnessing of animal power In near east: some time after initial domestication, sheep and goat continued to be regarded as mobile reserves of meat and hide. It wasn't until several 1000s of years later than the new emphasis was upon exploiting the living animal in a continuous manner Milk- advantages and problems More efficient in terms of protein and energy output than meat production \ Geography and origin: In the near east/europe ? Wool: Arch evidence for milk and wool: For milk: consideration of species frequencies and the ages at which animals were slaughtered in antiquity - predominance of juveniles - meat producing economy; predominate of older animals - milk and wool economy (older than 5) Earliest evidence for wool in the Near East via literary and pictorial records Arch evidence of animal power usage: Sex ratios and pathologies induced by mechanical stress and castration impact of equids: Expansion and trade 9th-7th millennia- slaughter products - meat and hides Sixth-fourth millennia- economic changes: exploitation for milk and wool, and animal power Trade requires transport - need for pack animals and animal wheeled vehicles Trade supports economic and population growth

Mark of butchery

direct damage to bone