FO Full
OB vs Social Psychology
- The difference is OB is what happens *at the workplace*
Biased Decision Heuristics
Individuals built-in decision heuristics that *automatically* distort the calculation of an alternative with the highest satisfaction 1. Anchoring and adjustment 2. Availability heuristic 3. Representativeness heuristic
Vision Board
Is a collage of images, pictures, and affirmations of one's dreams and desires, designed to serve as a source of inspiration and motivation, and to use the law of attraction to attain goals.
Minimizing Social Loafing
+ Form smaller teams + Specialize tasks + Measure individual performance + Increase job enrichment + Select motivated, team-oriented members
Core Job Characteristics does not cover...
**Social characteristics of the job** 1. Task interdependence = the extent to which team members must share materials, information, or expertise in order to perform their jobs. (Sequential (=moderate) interdependence: assembling a car) 2. Feedback from others (from coworkers, clients, etc.) **Information processing demands** 1. High task variability --> job has nonroutine work patterns 2. High task analyzability --> uses known procedures or rules
Five-Factor Personality Model (CANOE)
*Conscientiousness-Organized, dependable *Agreeableness-Trusting, helpful, flexible *Neuroticism-Anxious, self-conscious *Openness to Experience-Creative, nonconforming *Extraversion-Outgoing, talkative, energetic
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
*EFFORT --> PERFORMANCE --> OUTCOME* A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. Main contribution - The previous theories explained what motivates us but didn't explain what we are motivated to do (=expectancy theory provides clear guidelines how to increase employee motivation) Main limitations - Is mostly focused on extrinsic motivation - Ignores emotions - Doesn't explain how employees develop expectancies
2. Appreciative Inquiry Approach
*Frames change around positive and possible future, not problems* 1. Positive principle: focus on positive, not problems. 2. Constructionist principle: conversations shape reality. 3. Simultaneity principle: inquiry and change are simultaneous. 4. Poetic principle: we can choose how to perceive situations (=glass half-full). 5. Anticipatory principle: people are motivated by desirable visions.
Situational Leadership Model
- A commercially popular but poorly supported leadership model stating that effective leaders vary their style. - Four styles: telling, selling, participating, delegating - Best style depends on follower ability and motivation
Scientific Management
- A fundamental theory of management, introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor in early 1900s - Championed specialization and standardization - Also popularized training, goalsetting, incentives
Job satisfaction
- A person's evaluation of his/her job and work context - Collection of attitudes about different aspects of the job and work context
Intuition
- Ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best course of action without conscious reasoning - Intuition = Emotional experience + Rapid nonconsious analytic process ***But not all our emotions are intuition!!!*** - Gut feelings shouldn't always drive your decisions. - Emotions happen earlier than logical process and motivate us to think ***Intuition relies on action scripts = programmed decision routines that speed up our response to pattern matches or mismatches.
Team Effectiveness
- Accomplish tasks - Satisfy member needs - Maintain team survival
Self-Verification Examples
- An employee is more likely to remember the info consistent with his/her self-concept - An employee is more likely to dimiss the feedback that contradicts his/her self-concept - An employee is more likely to interact with those who affirm his/her self
Divisional Structure (M-form)
- An organizational structure in which employees are organized around geographic areas, outputs (products or services), or clients. - The form of divisional structure depends mainly on the primary source of environmental diversity or uncertainty (where are you uncertain? use that model) - 3 main types: product/service, geographic, and client.
Matrix Structure
- An organizational structure that overlays two structures (such as a geographic divisional and a product structure) in order to leverage the benefits of both. - Matrix with regional groups by product groups Pros 1. Uses resources and expertise effectively 2. Potentially better communication, flexibility, innovation 3. Focuses specialists on clients and products 4. Supports knowledge sharing within specialty 5. Solution when two divisions have equal importance Cons 1. More conflict among managers who share power 2. Two bosses dilute accountability 3. Dysfunctional conflict, stress
Virtual team success factors
- Applying effective team behaviors - Toolkit of communication channels, and freedom to choose channels that work best for them - Fairly high task structure - Opportunities to meet face-to-face
2. Aligning artifacts with the desired culture
- Artifacts are also mechanisms that keep the culture in place or shift the culture to a new set of values and assumptions
Adjustment process
- Individuals need to adjust to their new work environment. - Newcomers with diverse work experience adjust better
Stereotyping
- Assigning traits to people in social categories. Why people stereotype: 1. Categorical thinking 2. Drive to comprehend and predict others' behavior 3. Supports self-enhancement and social identity (see next slide) Example: stereotyping is one of the reasons why there are a few women in IT and science
Selective attention biases
- Assumptions and expectations - Confirmation bias
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect Is Strongest
- At the beginning of the relationship - When several people have similar expectations about the person - When the employee has low rather than high past achievement
5. Attracting, selecting, and socializing employees
- Attraction-selection-attrition theory - Socialization practices
Team Composition
- Being effective is not only about being high performing - Effective team members are motivated, able, and understand their roles, but also need to work well with team members. - Employee behaviors that support effective teams are shown as the 5 Cs
Emotional Intelligence Outcomes
- Better teamwork - Emotional labor - Leadership - Decisions involving others - Positive mindset in creativity It's possible to develop EI through - Training, coaching, practice, and feedback - Age increases EI
2. Brainwriting
- Brainstorming without conversation - Less production blocking, but technology-bound
3. Electronic brainstorming
- Brainwriting with computers - Low production blocking, evaluation apprehension, conformity
4. Nominal group technique
- Brainwriting with verbal stage Steps: 4.1. Silently and independently document their ideas. 4.2 Collectively describe these ideas to the other team members without critique, and then 4.3 Silently and independently evaluate the ideas presented.
Physical Structures and Symbols
- Building structure may shape and reflect culture - Office design conveys cultural meaning Attributes: furniture, office size, wall hangings, friezes
Two main elements of rational choice
- Calculating the best alternative - Decision-making process
Natural grouping
- Combining highly interdependent tasks into one job Example: the tasks are grouped together to complete an entire product (=video journalist)
Consequences of Influence
- Commitment = Identify with behavior, highly motivated without external sources - Compliance = Agree to behavior, motivated only by external sources - Resistance = Oppose the behavior the influencer wants ** Soft tactics generally more acceptable than hard tactics ** Appropriate influence tactic depends on: (1) influencer's power base (2) organizational positions (3) values and expectations
Problems with Email/Written Digital Channels
- Communicates emotions poorly - Reduces politeness and respect (flaming) - Inefficient for ambiguous, complex, novel situations - Increases information overload
Simple Structure
- Companies having a simple structure employ only a few people and typically offer only one distinct product/service. - There is minimal hierarchy (=employees reporting to the owners). - The roles of employees are broadly defined. Examples: family-owned bars, restaurants, barbershops
Task complexity
- Complex tasks require skills and knowledge beyond one person's abilities - Complex tasks divisible into specialized roles EX: Surgical team: high task complexity
Shared Values
- Conscious beliefs - Evaluate what is good or bad, right or wrong
Why does problem identification matter?
- Correctly identifying the problem is one of the most important stages in the decision-making problem. - Incorrectly identified problem will bias all the other stages of DM process
Stories and legends are most effective when they
- Describe real people (=realistic human side to expectations) - Are assumed to be true - Known throughout the organization - Are prescriptive
Self-regulation
- Human beings set goals and engage in intentional/purposive action - People self-regulate be engaged in self-reinforcement = reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn't "take" it until completing a self-set goal BAD Example - Rewarding yourself with pizza after an hour of workout (incongruous goal and reward --> unhealthy food =/= healthy lifestyle)
Overcoming stereotype biases
- Difficult to prevent stereotype activation - Possible to minimize stereotype application
Role of Emotions in Attitudes
- Emotional markers attach to incoming sensory information - We experience emotions from initial information and recalling it (recall activates attached markers) - Attitudes influenced by cumulative emotional episodes - We "listen in" on our emotions **Potential conflict: cognitive versus emotional thinking Emotions also directly affect behavior
Emotions vs. Moods
- Emotions are directed towards somebody or something - Moods are longer-term
1. Membership and Seniority Based Financial Rewards
- Fixed pay, most employee benefits, - "Golden handcuffs" (=rewards that discourage employees from quitting because of deferred bonuses or generous benefits that are not available elsewhere) Pros 1. Attract applicants 2. Reduce turnover and have employees less insecure Cons 1. Doesn't directly encourage good work 2. May keep the bad performers from leaving 3. "Golden handcuffs" may undermine performance
1. Actions of founders and leaders
- Founder's values and personality play a role in establishing the firm's core values and assumptions - Subsequent leaders should actively guide, reinforce, & (sometimes) alter this culture - Cultural change is associated with transformational and authentic leadership
How Four Drives Motivate
- Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming sensory information - Emotions are usually nonconscious, but become conscious experiences when sufficiently strong or conflict with each other - Mental skill set relies on social norms, personal values, and experience to transform drive-based emotions into goal-directed choice and effort.
Schedule of Reinforcement
- Frequency & timing of reinforcement The most effective schedules: continuous reinforcement for *learning* (=after every occurrence) & variable ratio schedule for *motivation* (=after a variable number of times)
Emotional labor is higher in jobs requiring
- Frequent or lengthy emotional displays - Variety of emotional displays - Intense emotional displays Example: a salesperson Example: a policeman
2. Formal Hierarchy
- Hierarchy assigns legitimate power to individuals, who then use this power to direct work processes and allocate resources - In other words, work is coordinated through direct supervision - *the chain of command* - Formal hierarchy is still important but less popular today Cons a) It's not agile b) Limited number of direct supervisees c) Today's workforce demands more autonomy and more involvement in the company's decisions
Organic Structure
- High variability + low analyzability - Competition through Innovation
Team cohesion is stronger and occurs faster with
- Higher member similarity - Smaller team size - Regular and frequent member interaction - Somewhat difficult entry into the team (membership) - Higher team success - More external competition and challenges
Social Loafing Causes
- Individual performance is hidden or difficult to distinguish - Low task significance - Work is boring - Low social identity - Team dynamics undermine employee motivation
Swift trust
- Initially a moderate or high level of trust in coworkers when people join a team - Trust tends to decrease over time.
Personal attributes perspective
- Is one of the most recently studied perspectives of leadership. - Is no longer accepted as an approach to understanding leadership in organizations. - Takes a contingency approach by identifying the best leadership competencies under different conditions. - Holds the view that the leader's competency is dependent on the situation. - Presents the view that certain personal characteristics distinguish great leaders from the rest of us.
HRM Old Approach
- Just hiring, staffing, and compensation - Focus on resource efficiency and service quality
Cross-Cultural Communication
- Language problems - Voice intonation differences - Different meaning of silence and conversational overlaps - Nonverbal differences (including silence)
2. Model the vision
- Leaders should enact the vision = do the things that symbolize/demonstrate it("walking the talk") - Modelling the vision has 2 functions: a. Legitimize and demonstrate the vision b. Build employee trust in the leader
Mechanistic Structure
- Low variability + high analyzability - Low-cost Strategy
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory
- Lowest unmet need is strongest source of motivation until satisfied, then next higher need becomes top motivator. - Self-actualization = growth need, never fulfilled
4. Pilot projects
- Many companies introduce change through a pilot project - Advantage: pilot projects are more flexible and less risky than systemwide changes
Media Richness Exception
- Media richness doesn't apply well to electronic channels because of: a. Ability to multicommunicate b. More varied communication proficiency c. Social presence effects
Virtual teams
- Members operate across space, time, and firm's boundaries, linked through information technologies Teams have degrees of virtuality - Low: e.g., employees are living in the same town; once a week 1-2 team members work from home - High: e.g., members are spread around the world
Characteristics of strong organizational cultures
- Most employees understand and embrace the culture - Institutionalized through artifacts - Long-lasting = may originate with founder or founders
Intrinsic motivation
- Motivated to do an activity for its own value—needs directly fulfilled - Related to drives for competence and autonomy Examples: "I love my job, I love to help people" "I love my company, we have a wonderful team"
High-cohesion teams usually perform better
- Motivated to maintain membership, achieve team objectives - Share information more frequently - Higher coworker satisfaction - Better social support (minimizes stress) - Resolve conflict more swiftly and effectively
Extrinsic motivation
- Motivated to receive something beyond own control—needs indirectly fulfilled - Three forms of extrinsic motivation 1. Deadlines 2. Payments 3. Rewards/Awards Extrinsic motivators seldom undermine intrinsic motivation
People have better well-being with
- Multiple selves (complexity) - High-consistency selves - Well-established selves (clarity)
Dark tryad traits
- Narcissism - Psychopathy - Machiavellianism
Learned Needs Theory
- Needs can be strengthened or weakened (learned) through self-concept, social norms, past experience - Training can change a person's need strength through reinforcement and altering their self-concept - Introduced by David McClelland
Problems with stereotyping
- Overgeneralizes and doesn't represent everyone in category - Stereotype threat - Foundation of systemic and intentional discrimination
Behaviorism: Pavlov's Dogs Study
- Pavlov trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell
Behavior modelling
- People learn by imitating/practicing others' behaviors (=direct sensory behavior helps us to acquire tacit knowledge). - Behavior modelling increases self-efficacy, especially when the observers are similar to the model in age/gender/experience
Learning behavior consequences
- People learn the consequences of behavior by observing/hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly experiencing the consequences - People logically anticipate consequences in related situations
Emotional labor solutions
- Perceive emotional labor as professional skill - Engage in deep acting, not surface acting
Confirmation bias
- Post-decisional justification) - Inflate strengths of the selected alternative - Ignore or deflate strengths of rejected alternatives
Leadership prototypes
- Preconceived beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of effective leaders - Favorable evaluations for leaders who fit the prototype
Communication
- Process by which information is transmitted and understood between people
Establishing client relationships
- Putting employees in direct contact with their clients rather than using another job group or the supervisor as the liaison between the employee and the customer. - Direct responsibility for specific clients - Direct communication with those clients
Rational Choice
- Rational choice decision making has dominated in Western societies for the most of written history Rational = use pure logic + apply all available information *Rational choice: effective decision-makers identify, select, and apply the best possible alternative*
Content
- Relative ordering of shared values - Several models of organizational culture classify organizational cultures into a handful, easy-to-remember categories: 1. Innovation 2. Stability 3. Respect for people 4. Outcome orientation 5. Attention to detail 6. Team orientation 7. Aggressiveness
Point Systems
- Reward systems motivate most employees, but only under the right conditions. 1. Link rewards to performance 2. Ensure rewards are relevant 3. Give team rewards for interdependent jobs - Are better in highly interdependent jobs - Encourage cooperation 4. Ensure rewards are valued (=the solution is to ask employees what they value) 5. Beware of unintended consequences
Organizational and Team Environment
- Rewards - Communication - Org. structure - Org. leadership - Physical space Organizational and team environment represents all conditions beyond the teams' boundaries that influences its effectiveness Environment = resource pool that either support or inhibits the team's ability to function and achieve its objectives.
3. Introducing culturally consistent rewards
- Rewards systems and informal recognition practices are artifacts having a particularly powerful effect on strengthening/reshaping the organizational culture
Stories and legends
- Serve as powerful social prescriptions - Advise people on what to do or not to do - Some tales recount heroic deeds, whereas others ridicule past events that deviate from the firm's core values. - Include emotional markers
Why personal values fail to influence decisions and behavior
- Situation can influence our behavior more than our values - Values are abstract (=we don't think about them) and some of our actions are routines (=we don't evaluate their consistency with our values) -> we need to remind ourselves about values when make a decision/act
Self-Concept: Social Self
- Social Identity Theory - Social Identity
3. Social networks and viral change
- Social network = formally unstructured group - Viral change = process that adopts principle found in world-of-mouth and viral marketing - *Change through social networks*: information seeded to a few people is transmitted to others through their friendship connections - Provide opportunities for behavior observation
Preventing or changing dysfunctional team norms
- State desired norms when forming teams - Select members with preferred values - Discuss counter-productive norms - Introduce team-based rewards that counter dysfunctional norms - Disband teams with dysfunctional norms
4. Build commitment to the vision
- TLs have to enact and behave consistently with the vision (=image of trust, honesty, and integrity) - Also through rewards, recognition, celebrations
3. Encourage experimentation
- TLs have to encourage employees to question current practices and experiment with the new ones that are better aligned with the desired vision - Supporting a learning orientation
Cohesion effect on performance is stronger when
- Task interdependence is high - Team norms are consistent with organizational objectives
Well-structured tasks
- Task variability: low (=when a team performs same tasks every day) - Task analysability: high (=when the work is predictable enough for well-established procedures) EX: Supermarket team: low task variability and analysability
Team Processes
- Team development - Team norms - Team cohesiveness - Team trust
Team cohesion
- The degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members - Mechanism behind strong team cohesion: team members make the team part of their *social identity*
Technology
- The mechanisms or processes an organization relies on to make its products and services. - It also includes how the production process is physically arranges and how the production work is divided among employees.
Organizational Culture
- The values and assumptions shared within an organization - Provides direction toward the "right way" of doing things - "Company's DNA": invisible, yet powerful template for employee behavior
4. Support workforce stability and communication
- To avoid high turnover which may weaken organizational culture - Frequent and open communication reinforces organizational culture
Shared Assumptions
- Unconscious, taken for granted perceptions or beliefs - Implicit mental models, ideal protoype for behavior
1. Develop and communicate the vision
- Vision's effectiveness depends on how leaders convey it to followers and other stakeholders - TLs have to use symbols, metaphors, stories - TLs have to frame the vision = refer to team's strengths and potential and should suppress leader-follower differences - TLs have to communicate it with humility, sincerity, passion
Email and Other Written Digital Communication
- Written digital is preferred for sending clear information and coordinating work - Less face-to-face and telephone - More upward communication - Better relations with management - Reduces status differences ("sent from my iPhone" is an exception) - May reduce stereotyping
Organizations
-Groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose -Collective entities -Collective sense of purpose
4 OB Modification Consequences
1) Positive Reinforcement 2) Punishment 3) Extinction 4) Negative Reinforcement
Self Concept Model
1) Self-enhancement 2) Self-verification 3) Self-evaluation 4) Social self **These four processes shape self-concept and motivate a person's decisions and behavior
Behaviorism: assumptions
1) When we are born, our mind is a 'tabula rasa' (=blank slate) 2) Internal processes can be explained through external, observable behaviors 3) All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple, stimulus-response association 4) There are no fundamental differences between human and animal behavior, therefore we can study animal responses, and make conclusions about humans (=comparative psychology)
Global Mindset Abilities
1. Ability to understand and respect other views and practices 2. Ability to empathize and act effectively across cultures 3. Ability to process complex information about novel environments 4. Ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking
Flow: Organizational Learning Processes
1. Acquiring Knowledge - Learning (external) - Environmental scanning - Hiring and grafting - Experimenting 2. Sharing Knowledge - Communicating - Learning (internal) - Info systems 3. Using Knowledge - Sense making (locating knowledge) - Requisite skills - Autonomy to apply knowledge - Learning orientation culture 4. Storing Knowledge - Human memory - Documentation - Knowledge transfer - Practices and habits
4 Approaches to Organizational Change
1. Action Research Approach 2. Appreciative Inquiry Approach 3. Large Group Intervention Approach 4. Parallel Learning Structure approach
Changing, Strengthening Organizational Culture
1. Actions of founders and leaders 2. Aligning artifacts 3. Introducing culturally consistent rewards 4. Support workforce stability and communication 5. Attracting, selecting, and socialization of employees
Teams vs. Groups
1. All teams are groups but not all groups are teams!!! 2. Groups not necessarily have an organizationally focused objective 3. Group members are not necessarily interdependent.
6 Basic Emotions
1. Anger 2. Disgust 3. Fear 4. Happiness 5. Sadness 6. Surprise
Directive/Task-oriented Style of Leadership
1. Assign work, clarify responsibilities 2. Set goals and deadlines, provide feedback 3. Establish work procedures, plan Advantages: higher job performance
Large firms encourage informal communication through
1. Assigning liaison roles to employees, who are expected to communicate and share information 2. Where coordination is required among several work units, companies create integrator roles 3. Organizing employees from several departments into temporary teams
Strategies of merging 2 cultures
1. Assimilation = acquired firm's staff embrace acquiring culture. 2. Deculturation = acquiring firm imposes its culture and practices. (rare) 3. Integration = composite culture preserves best of past cultures. 4. Separation = merged firms keep their own corporate cultures and practices (rare)
Improving Perceptions
1. Awareness of perceptual biases - Be more mindful of our thoughts and actions (=recognize that the stereotypes exist and don't trust the myths) Problems: has limited effect, may reinforce stereotypes Improving self-awareness - By doing formal tests (e.g., IAT = Implicit Association Test) - By applying Johari window Meaningful interaction (MI) - Based on contact hypothesis = a theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person (=the effect is stronger when the two have a shared goal) - Improves empathy - MI vs. Johari Window: MI is more indirect (yet potentially powerful), JW relies on direct conversations
Identifying Problems Effectively
1. Be aware of problem identification biases 2. Resist temptation to look decisive (=decisive leadership problem) 3. Develop a norm of "divine discontent" (=never be satisfied with current conditions). An individual, respecting this norm, will be more likely to search for problems/opportunities 4. Discuss the situation with colleagues
Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior Model
1. Behavior is influenced by both attitudes and emotions. 2. Traditional attitude model (left side of model) considers only logic and perceptions, not emotions. 3. Beliefs = perceived facts about the attitude object—formed from experience, other learning 4. Feelings = conscious positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object (formed from beliefs about the attitude object) 5. Behavioral intentions = motivation to engage in a particular behavior regarding the attitude object—formed from feelings—the source and direction of motivation 6. Behavior: best determined from behavioral intentions (motivation to act)
3 perspectives to learning
1. Behaviorism 2. Cognitivism 3. Constructivism
Three Factors in Centrality
1. Betweenness = connected between others 2. Degree centrality = number of connections 3. Closeness = stronger connections
Creative Team Structures
1. Brainstorming 2. Brainwriting 3. Electronic brainstorming 4. Nominal group technique
Three levels of trust (from lowest to highest)
1. Calculus-based = logical calculation that other team members will act appropriately because they face sanctions if their actions violate reasonable expectations. 2. Knowledge-based = is based on the predictability of another team member's behaviour (only positive expectations) 3. Identification-based = is based on mutual understanding and an emotional bond among team members *** People are more reluctant to acknowledge a violation of the higher-level trust
Reducing the Restraining Forces
1. Communication - Very first step - EX: Customer complaint letters are shown to the employees 2. Learning - EX: Employees learn how to work in teams 3. Employee involvement - EX: Company creates a task-force including employees to solve a problem 4. Stress management - EX: Employees attend sessions that help them discuss their worries about the change 5. Negotiation - EX: Employee agrees to change but only in return for more job security 6. Coercion - EX: "Get with the program or leave" **Negotiation and coercion can be used - For people who will clearly lose something from the change - Where the speed of change is critical
Why communication is important
1. Communication = means through which teams synchronize their work. 2. Organizational learning 3. Decision making 4. Behaviour change (=persuasion, feedback) 5. Supports employee wellbeing (by conveying knowledge & minimizing stress emotionally)
Supportive/People-oriented Style of Leadership
1. Concern for employee needs 2. Make workplace pleasant 3. Recognize employee contributions 4. Listen to employees Advantages: lower absenteeism, grievances, and turnover
Three functions of strong cultures
1. Control system (=form of social control that influences employee decision and behaviour) 2. Social glue (=bonds people together and makes them feel part of the organizational experience -> social identity) 3. Sense-making (=helps employees make sense of what goes on, why things happen in the company)
Ways to Support Ethical Behavior
1. Corporate code of ethics 2. Educate and test employee's ethical knowledge 3. Systems for communicating and investigating wrongdoing 4. Ethical culture and ethical leadership
How to Unfreeze
1. Create sense of urgency 2. Weaken or remove the restraining forces
Self-directed teams
1. Cross-functional groups organized around work processes 2. Complete entire piece of work, require interdependent tasks 3. Autonomy over task decisions *Success factors* - Responsible for entire work process - High interdependence within the team - Low interdependence with other teams - Autonomy to organize and coordinate work - Work site/technology support team communication/coordination and job enrichment Example: a team of scientists in an institution/university
Contingencies of Culture Strength
1. Culture content aligned with environment - When misaligned may lead to poor decisions and behaviors in relations with stakeholders 2. Culture strength is not the level of a cult which - Locks people into mental models - Suppresses subcultures and dissenting values 3. Culture is an adaptive culture - Adaptive culture = an organizational culture in which employees are receptive to change, including the ongoing alignment of the organization to its environment and continuous improvement of internal processes. - Learning orientation!
Cultural Issues in Leadership
1. Culture shapes leader's values and expectations of the followers. 2. Some features of leadership are universal, others differ across cultures. 3. The most universal: charismatic visionary = cluster of concepts including visionary, inspirational, performance orientation, integrity, and decisiveness
Transformational Leadership Elements
1. Develop and communicate the vision 2. Model the vision 3. Encourage experimentation 4. Build commitment to the vision
Why do some teams remain in a particular stage longer?
1. Developing team identity - Team becomes part of the person's social identity 2. Developing team mental models and coordinating routines - Team mental models (HR manager sees things from an HR POV)= knowledge structures mutually held by team members about expectations and ideals of the collective task and team dynamics. - Can be shared or complementary
Four main path-goal leadership styles:
1. Directive - Task-oriented behaviors; provide structure 2. Supportive - People-oriented behaviors; provide support 3. Participative - Employee involvement 4. Achievement-oriented - Stretch goals; positive self-fulfilling prophecy
2 mechanisms in organizational structures
1. Division of labour 2. Coordination
3. Increasing outcome valences
1. Ensure that rewards are valued 2. Individualize rewards 3. Minimize countervalent outcomes
1. Action Research Approach Steps
1. Form client-consultant relationship 2. Diagnose need for change 3. Introduce intervention 4. Evaluate and stabilize change 5. Disengage consultant's services *problem focused*
Stages of Team Development
1. Forming - Learn about each other; evaluate membership 2. Storming - Conflict; members proactive, compete for roles 3. Norming - Roles established; consensus around team objectives and team mental model 4. Performing - Efficient coordination; highly cooperative; high trust; commitment to team objectives; strong team identity 5. Adjourning - Disbanding; shift from task to relationship focus
4 types of Team Building
1. Goal Setting: help team members clarify the team's performance goals, increase the team's motivation to accomplish these goals, and establish a mechanism for systematic feedback. 2. Problem Solving: focused on decision making and developing critical thinking skills 3. Role clarification: clarifies and reconstructs the roles and role perceptions of other team members. 4. Interpersonal relations: oldest and the most common type of TB. Helps to learn more about each other, build trust, manage conflict, and strengthen team members' social identity
Strategies that can increase motivational potential of jobs
1. Job rotation 2. Job enlargement 3. Job enrichment Benefits: 1. More skill variety, may increase motivation and satisfaction 2. Minimizes repetitive strain injury 3. Multiskills the workforce
Ways to Build Affective Commitment
1. Justice and support: company applies humanitarian values (fairness, etc.) and supports employee well-being 2. Shared values: employee-organization values congruence 3. Trust: employees trust leaders and have a degree of job security 4. Organizational comprehension: reasonably clear or complete mental model of the firm's strategic, social, physical characteristics - good communication 5. Employee involvement: psychological ownership of and social identity with the company
1. Increasing Effort-to-Performance expectancies
1. Hire or train staff, and adjust job duties to skills 2. Provide sufficient time and resources 3. Provide coaching and behavioral modeling (examples of successful coworkers) to build self-efficacy
Rational Choice Decision-Making Process
1. Identify problem or opportunity 2. Choose the best decision process 3. Discover or develop possible choices 4. Select the choice with the highest value 5. Implement the selected choice 6. Evaluate the selected choice
Communication Barriers
1. Imperfect perceptual process Example: we overestimate how well other people understand our message 2. Language problems - Ambiguity of language - Jargon = specialized words and phrases for specific occupations or groups - Filtering = Solution: "culture of candor" 3. Information overload - Condition in which the volume of information received exceeds the person's capacity to process it. Result - Information overlooked or misinterpreted Two sets of solutions - Increase information-processing capacity - Reduce information load
How to develop a Global Mindset
1. Improve self-awareness 2. Compare mental models with people from other cultures 3. Develop better knowledge of people and cultures— especially through immersion
3 levels of Self-Concept
1. Individual = personal traits 2. Relational = connections to friends and cowokers 3. Collective = membership in teams, organizations, social groups, and other entities
Cross-Cultural Differences: main dimensions
1. Individualism = the degree to which people in a culture emphasize independence and personal uniqueness 2. Collectivism = the degree to which people in a culture emphasize duty to groups 3. Power distance = the degree to which people in a culture accept unequal distribution of power in a society 4. Uncertainty Avoidance = the degree to which people in a culture tolerate ambiguity (low UI) 5. Achievement-nurturing orientation = people in a culture emphasize competitive versus cooperative relations with others
3 coordination mechanisms
1. Informal communication 2. Formal hierarchy 3. Standartization
Reasons why we should study Organizational Behavior
1. It is vital to an organization's survival and success 2. It is important for people in all jobs 3. Some of the OB's functions = it helps to: -Comprehend and predict workplace events -Adopt more accurate personal theories -Influence organizational events
Gender Issues in Leadership
1. Little difference in task- and peopleoriented leadership. 2. Female leaders use more participative leadership 3. Women rated higher on emerging leadership styles (coaching, teamwork, empowerment) 4. The effect of gender stereotypes: women are evaluated negatively when trying to apply more directive and autocratic approaches
Job specialization problems
1. Low motivation 2. Absenteeism and turnover 3. Higher wages to offset tedium 4. Work quality affected
Motivation Theories
1. Maslow's need hierarchy theory 2. Learned needs theory 3. Four-drive theory 4. Expectancy theory 5. Goal-setting theory 6. Equity theory 7. OB Mod Theory 8. Social Cognitive Theory
Critical Psychological States
1. Meaningfulness of work 2. Responsibility for outcomes 3. Knowledge of results
2. Increasing Performance-to-Outcomes expectancies
1. Measure performance accurately 2. Explain how rewards are linked to performance 3. Provide examples of coworkers rewarded for performance
Influences on Ethical Conduct in the Workplace
1. Moral intensity of the issue = degree an issue demands application of ethical principles *Moral intensity is high when the decision will affect many people, the outcome is viewed as good/bad, decision has substantial good/bad consequences, high probability that good/bad outcome will occur 2. Individual's moral sensitivity = person's ability to detect the presence and importance of moral issue * Higher moral sensitivity due to: - Expertise - Previous dilemma experience - Empathy - Ethical self-concept - Mindfulness 3. Situational influences = external forces to act contrary to moral principles and values
Four-drive Theory Limitations
1. More than 4 potential drivers? 2. Social norms, personal values, and past experience = not a full set of individual differences
Why People Resist Change
1. Negative valence of change (= more negative than positive outcomes) 2. Fear of the unknown: worst assumed, perceived lack of control 3. Not-invented-here-syndrome = when staff oppose change in their area introduced by others (=to protect self-esteem) 4. Breaking routines (=cost and discomfort of changing routines and habits) 5. Incongruent team dynamics (=when team norms conflict with desired change 6. Incongruent organizational systems: systems and structures reinforce status quo and pull employees back to old ways
4 Most Common Workplace Stressors
1. Organizational constraints: interfere with performance, lack of control (=situational factors in the MARS model) 2. Interpersonal conflict - Interferes with goals, other's behavior threatening - Includes psychological and sexual harassment 3. Work overload: more hours, intensive work 4. Low task control: worse when responsible but have limited control (ex: soccer coaches under pressure to win games but they have little control over what happens on the field)
Contingencies to Organizational Design
1. Organizational size 2. External environment 3. Technology 4. Organizational strategy
Characteristics of Legitimate Power
1. Originates from *formal job descriptions* and informal rules of conduct. 2. Zone of indifference = the set of behaviors that individuals are willing to engage in at the other person's request - Restriction to legitimate power - Increases with the level of trust in the power holder 3. Managers are not the only individuals having legitimate power, employees also have legitimate power over their bosses. - Norm of reciprocity = a felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something of value to you. 4. Legitimate power through informational control- Gatekeepers = people who have the right to control information that others receive. - Two ways to gain power: by selectively distributing info or by framing the situation in a more positive light.
Problems with Organizational Culture Models and Measures
1. Oversimplify diversity of possible values - Most frequently stated values are: integrity, teamwork, innovation, respect, quality, safety, community, communication, and hard work. 2. Ignore shared assumptions (=shared values only) 3. Assume company cultures are clear and unified a. Diverse subcultures ("fragmentation") b. Values within individuals, not work units c. Not easily decipherable
Teams' main characteristics
1. Permanence = how long a team exists 2. Skill diversity = degree of team members' skills and knowledge 3. Authority dispersion = degree that decision-making responsibility is distributed throughout the team or centralized
Attributes of Effective Leaders
1. Personality 2. Self-concept 3. Drive 4. Integrity 5. Leadership motivation 6. Knowledge of the business 7. Cognitive and practical intelligence 8. Emotional intelligence
Important Characteristics of Power
1. Power is not an act of changing someone's attitudes/behaviour, it's a *potential* to do so (=people have power they don't use) 2. Power is based on the target's perception that the power holder controls a valuable and desired resource for a target 3. Power involves asymmetric/unequal dependence of one party on another party 4. All power relationships depend on some minimum level of trust
Stages of socialization
1. Pre-Employment Stage 2. Encounter Stage 3. Role Management
Functions of Social Media
1. Presenting identity, enabling conversations, etc. 2. Potentially improves employee knowledge sharing, socializing 3. Increases sense of voice 4. Helps to maintain relationships, supports communities 5. Reveals reputation and status *Using digital media (including socials) may often lead to miscommunication*
Organizational Justice
1. Procedural Justice 2. Distributive Justice 2a. Equity Theory
Driving Forces
1. Push organizations toward change 2. External forces or leader's vision
Correcting Inequity Tension
1. Reduce our inputs: less organizational citizenship 2. Increase our outcomes: ask for pay increase 3. Increase other's input: ask coworker to work harder 4. Reduce others outputs: ask boss to stop giving preferred treatment 5. Change our perceptions: start thinking that coworker perks aren't valuable 6. Change comparison other: compare self to someone closer to your situation 7. Leave the field: quit job
Managing Work-Related Stress
1. Remove the stressor - Minimize or remove stressors - Work-life balance initiatives 2. Withdraw from the stressor - Permanent (transfer) - Temporary (vacation) solutions 3. Change stress perceptions - positive selfconcept, humor 4. Control stress consequences - Healthy lifestyle, fitness, wellness 5. Receive social support - Emotional and informational support
Understanding Resistance to Change
1. Resistance takes many forms: a. Overt: complaints, absenteeism, passive noncompliance b. Covert: subtle resistance (more common than overt) 2. Resistance = task conflict: it signals that employee lacks readiness for change or that change strategy should be revised 3. Resistance = a form of employee voice
Restraining Forces
1. Resistance to change 2. Employee behaviors that block the change process 3. Try to maintain status quo
Causes of Escalation
1. Self-justification effect = people try to convey a positive public image (=reputation) of themselves (conscious). 2. Self-enhancement effect (often nonconscious). 3. Prospect theory effect= a natural tendency to feel more dissatisfaction from losing a particular amount than satisfaction from gaining an equal amount. Motivates us to avoid losses(=negative emotions) 4. Sunk costs effect. Sunk costs = the value of resources already invested in the decision (e.g., time, finance, closing costs)
Attribution Errors
1. Self-serving bias = tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors (narcissists) 2. Fundamental attribution error: - Tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person's behavior compared to our own behavior (=it's all the person's fault and not bc of their situation!!!) - This error is less common that previously thought.
Improving Communication Coding and Decoding
1. Sender and receiver have similar codebooks 2. Sender is experienced in encoding messages 3. Sender and receiver are motivated and able to use the selected channel 4. Sender and receiver have shared mental models of the communication context
Evaluating Decisions Better
1. Separate decision choosers from evaluators 2. Establish a preset level to abandon the project 3. Find sources of systematic and clear feedback 4. Involve several people in the evaluation process
Types of Influence
1. Silent authority 2. Assertiveness 3. Information control 4. Coalition formation 5. Upward appeal
Path-Goal Contingencies
1. Skill and experience - Low: directive + supportive leadership 2. Locus of control - Internal: participative and achievement leadership - External: directive and supportive leadership 3. Task structure - Nonroutine: participative leadership - Nonroutine + complex: directive leadership - Routine + simple: supportive leadership 4. Team dynamics - Low cohesion: supportive leadership - Dysfunctional norms: directive leadership
Core Job Characteristics
1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback
Problem Identification Challenges
1. Solution-focused problems: some decision makers describe the problem as a "veiled solution" (=failure to fully diagnose) 2. Decisive leadership: ill-defined problem due to leader's overconfidence 3. Stakeholder framing: employees/suppliers would point to external problems rather than their own fault. (Self-serving bias) 4. Perceptual defense: people sometimes fail to become aware of problems that threatens their self-concept (Self-enhancement) 5. Mental models: mental models of an individual affect his/her problem framing
Elements of Organizational Structure
1. Span of control 2. Centralization 3. Formalization 4. Departmentalization
Effective feedback should be
1. Specific: connected to goal details 2. Relevant: relates to person's behavior 3. Timely: links actions to outcomes 4. Credible: trustworthy source 5. Sufficiently frequent, depending on: - Employee's knowledge or experience - Task cycle Sources of feedback: social; non-social 360- degree
Specific perceptual processes problems
1. Stereotyping 2. Attribution 3. Self-fulfilling prophecy 4. Other perceptual effects
Social Network Ties
1. Strong ties - Close-knit relationships (interact often, multipurpose, psychological closeness) - Offer resources more quickly and plentifully, but less unique 2. Weak ties - Acquaintances - Offer unique resources, but more slowly 3. Many ties - Resources increase with the number of ties - Information technology helps, but still a limit
OB challenges: 4.Increasing Workforce Diversity
1. Surface-level versus deep-level diversity 2. Consequences of diversity: - Better team creativity and decisions, but slower team development Easier to recognize and address community needs - Higher risk of dysfunctional conflict 3. Diversity is a moral and legal imperative
Choosing Channels
1. Syncronicity 2. Social presence 3. Social acceptance 4. Media richness
Choosing Alternatives Better
1. Systematically evaluate alternatives against relevant factors; don't be too decisive 2. Revisit decisions later when emotions or moods have changed 3. Engage in scenario planning
Team Design
1. Task Characteristics 2. Team Size 3. Team Composition
Types of Individual Behavior
1. Task performance 2. Organizational citizenship 3. Counter-productive behavior 4. Joining/staying with the organization 5. Maintaining attendance
General Guidelines for Team Decisions
1. Team norms should encourage critical thinking 2. Sufficient team diversity 3. Checks and balances to avoid dominant participants 4. Maintain optimal team size 5. Introduce creative team structures
Recent Organizational Behavior Challenges
1. Technological change 2. Globalization 3. Emerging employment relationships 4. Increasing workforce diversity
Reduce Cognitive Dissonance
1. To undo or change behavior -> rare & difficult 2. Typically change beliefs and feelings about attitude object 3. Compensate by recognizing previous consonant decisions
4 Perspectives to Leadership
1. Transformational leadership 2. Managerial leadership 3. Implicit leadership 4. Personal attributes perspective
4 ingredients in effective change process
1. Transformational leadership 2. Coalitions 3. Social networks 4. Pilot projects
Grapevine characteristics
1. Transmits information rapidly in all directions 2. Follows a cluster chain pattern 3. More active in homogeneous groups 4. Transmits some degree of truth 5. The Internet has expanded grapevine networks around the globe
Three Ethical Principles
1. Utilitarianism = the only moral obligation is to seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people 2. Individual rights = everyone has same natural rights such as freedom of movement, physical security, freedom of speech, and fair trial. 3. Distributive justice = benefits and burdens should be the same or proportional
Higher procedural fairness with
1. Voice 2. Unbiased decision maker 3. Decision based on all information 4. Existing policies consistently applied 5. Decision maker listens to all sides 6. Respectful treatment of those with grievances 7. Full explanations for those with grievances Otherwise... = Feeling of injustice --> Emotion = anger --> Behavior: withdrawal or agressiveness
Communicating in Hierarchies
1. Workspace design implies creating a more sociable work environment - (a) open-space offices (Problems: open spaces produce noise, cause distraction and loss of privacy) - (b) cloistering people in team spaces 2. Internet-based organizational communication - E-Zines and Wikis 3. Direct communication with management - Town hall meetings - Roundtable forums - Management by walking around (MBWA) = a communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organization through face-to-face dialogue.
Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
A balance of positive and negative information about the job and work context
Multiple Levels of Analysis in OB
3 Levels of Analysis 1. Individual 2. Team 3. Organization
Schwartz's Values Model
57 values clustered into 10 categories, further clustered into four quadrants: - Openness to change: Motivated to pursue innovative ways - Conservation: Motivated to preserve the status quo - Self-enhancement: Motivated by self-interest - Self-transcendence: Motivated to promote the welfare of others and nature
Social Identity
A complex combination of many memberships arranged in a hierarchy of importance (gender, age, minority status). *You first identify your self with a minority and then with an organization (same for gender).* Groups form social identity when they are easily identified, have high status, and your minority status in a situation highlights the group
Learning
A complex process of transformation at the end of which an individual finds that his/her knowledge, skills, abilities, and/or attitudes differ from what they were before. - The change that is produced is not temporary, but rather, persists over time, and produces a stable development of the individual - Learning requires the utilization of physical, cognitive, and emotional energy
Centrality
A contingency of power pertaining to the degree and nature of interdependence between the power holder and others. *Centrality increases with the number of people dependent on you & strength of this dependence.
Unconditioned stimulus
A feature of the environment (e.g., meat)
Unconditioned Stimulus
A feature of the environment that causes a natural reflex action. E.g. a puff of air blown into the eye causes an involuntary blink.
Conditioned Stimulus
A feature of the environment that has an effect through its association with a U.C.S. E.g. Pavlov's dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell
Conditioned stimulus
A feature of the environment that has an effect through its association with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. sound of the bell).
Financial Rewards
A form of exchange (labor/skill/knowledge for money) Money: a tool (=an instrument of acquiring other things of values) or a drug (=an object of addictive value in itself) Men: money = symbol of power and status Women: money = tool
Job Characteristics model
A job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties.
Fiedler's contingency model
A leadership model stating that leader effectiveness depends on whether the person's *natural* leadership style is appropriately matched to the situation Pros - It recognizes the importance of the leaders' power in determining the best leadership style - That leaders might not be able to change their style easily to fit the situation Cons - Lacks research support
Transformational Leadership
A leadership perspective that explains how leaders change teams or organizations by creating, communicating, and modeling vision for the organization or work unit and inspiring employees to strive for that vision.
Path-goal leadership theory
A leadership theory stating that effective leaders choose the most appropriate leadership style(s), depending on the employee and situation, to influence employee expectations, about desired results and their positive outcomes. - *Main idea: best leadership style is contingent on an employee and the situation* - This theory is consistent with Contingency Anchor of OB (Session 1)
Need for affiliation (nAff)
A learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation - Leaders and decision-makers require a relatively low nAff
Need for achievement (nAch)
A learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success. - Money is a week motivator for people high in nAch
Need for power (nPow)
A learned need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources to benefit: - Either themselves (personalized power = advance their personal interests) - Or others (socialized power = power as means to help others)
Johari Window
A model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown areas.
General Adaptation Syndrome
A model of the stress experience Stage 1: initial shock that negatively affects an individual's energy level and effectiveness Stage 2: an individual has more energy and engages coping mechanisms to overcome/remove the source of stress Stage 3: people have limited resistance capacity
Four-drive Theory
A motivation theory based on the innate drivers to *acquire, bond, learn, and defend* that incorporates both emotions and rationality - Focused on emotions (=most of motivation theories consider cognitive aspects) - No hierarchy, drivers are independent from one another - Proactive (*3) vs. reactive driver (defend). - 4 drivers counterbalance each other (bond vs. acquire, defend vs. comprehend).
2. Self-efficacy
A person's belief that he/she has the ability, motivation, correct role perceptions, and favorable situation to complete a task successfully. - General self-efficacy = "can-do" belief across situations - Self-efficacy = an individual's perception regarding the MARS model in a specific situation
3. Locus of control
A person's general belief about the amount of control he/she has over personal life elements. - Locus of control = generalized belief, but varies across different situations - Internal vs. external (Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control)
Organizational learning perspective
A perspective that holds that organizational effectiveness depends on the organization's capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge.
Vision
A positive image or a model of the future that energizes and unifies employees. Features: 1. It refers to an idealized future with a higher purpose. 2. Vision is value-based = associated with personal values that fulfill the needs of multiple stakeholders. 3. Vision is unifying = aligns employees' personal values with the organization's values. 4. Vision = challenging, distant, and abstract goal
Strengths-based coaching (=appreciative coaching)
A positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee's strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses. Strengths-based coaching process: 1. Employee identifies area of strength or potential 2. Coach's questions guide employee to discover how to leverage this strength 3. Discussion of situational barriers and solutions Strengths-based coaching motivates because - People seek feedback about their strengths, not flaws (positive OB!) - Personality, interests, preferences, etc. stabilize as an adult *Based on Peter Drucker's idea that "leaders are more effective when they focus on strengths rather than weaknesses"*
Implicit Favorite
A preferred alternative that the decision maker uses repeatedly as a comparison with other choices. Example: implicit favorite brand of a phone (=comes from your past experience) WHY? 1. Individuals are more likely to compare just 2 choices rather than systematically evaluate 2. Confirmation bias 3. Cognitive Dissonance
Bicultural Audit
A process of diagnosing cultural relations between companies and determining the extent to which cultural clashes will likely occur **Purpose: minimizes cultural collision by diagnosing companies Three steps in bicultural audit: 1. Identify cultural artifacts 2. Analyze data for cultural conflict and compatibility 3. Identify strategies and action plans to bridge cultures
Stock options
A reward system that gives employees the right to purchase company stock at a future date at a predetermined price.
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)
A rewards system that encourage employees to buy company stock
2. Responsibility
A sense of being personally accountable for the work outcomes
Behavior
A set of reactions to external stimuli, to which we mechanically learn to respond; the individual plays a passive role in learning by being subject to automatic stimulus-response laws
Job
A set of tasks performed by one person
Counterculture
A subculture that embraces values/assumptions that directly oppose the organization's dominant culture.
Gainsharing plans
A team-based reward that calculates bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and productivity improvement.
Equity Theory
A theory explaining how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources. *Your outcome-to-input ratio is compared to other's outcome-to-input ratio* --> whether or not it is considered "fair" depends on the 2 principles 1. Equality principle 2. Need principle
Leadership Substitutes
A theory identifying conditions that either limit a leader's ability to influence subordinates or make a particular leadership style unnecessary. Examples - Training and experience replace task-oriented leadership - A cohesive team replaces supportive leadership Important! --> *Substitutes help, but don't completely substitute for real leadership*
Social Identity Theory
A theory stating that people define themselves by the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment. *originally formulated by Henri Tajfel & John Turner* Two opposing motives: Personal identity=define self as unique, distinctive Social identity=define self as socially connected to groups *We always compare them these two groups*
Implicit leadership theory
A theory stating that people evaluate a leader's effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders (leadership prototypes) and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events. - *In short: followers' perceptions play a role in a leader's effectiveness* 1. Leadership prototypes 2. Romance of leadership effect
Organizational Behavior Modification
A theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior *Antecedent (your phone makes a ping) --> Behavior (you look at your phone) --> Consequence (you learn new and useful information
Social Cognitive Theory
A theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior 1. Behavior modeling 2. Learning behavior consequences: 3. Self-regulation:
Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory
A theory that states that organizations have a natural tendency to attract, select, and retain people with values and personality characteristics that are consistent with the organization's character, resulting in a more homogeneous organization and a stronger culture.
Coercive Power
Ability to apply punishment.
Personal attributes perspective: the Limitations
AKA Leader Attributes Perspective 1. Universal approach: same characteristics are supposed to be suitable to all situations (=nope). 2. Different combinations of attributes may be equally good 3. Views leadership within person (=leadership should be relational). 4. The link between personal characteristics and effective leadership is muddied by several perceptual distortions (e.g., followers may assign desired traits to the leader they like). 5. Competencies refer to leadership potential, not performance (=leadership is not necessarily a talent acquired at birth). EXAMPLE of an attributes perspective - Is narcissistic leadership: Narcissists are charismatic and successful emerging leaders, but negatively influence their follower in the long term
Attitudes versus Emotions
ATTITUDES - Judgments about an attitude object - Formed in the cognition process (=logical thinking) - More stable over time EMOTIONS - Experiences related to an attitude object - Formed in the emotion process (=nonconscious) - Experienced briefly
Network Structure
Aan alliance of several organizations for the purpose of creating a product or serving a client. *It includes a core firm (=hub) and multiple satellite organizations. The core firm orchestrates the network process and provides on/two core competencies. ***Core competency = a knowledge base that resides through the organization and provides a strategic advantage. Increasingly common due to rapidly changing technology, complex work processes Pros 1. Highly flexible 2. Not saddled with old facilities, resources 3. Potentially more efficient Cons 1. Exposed to market forces 2. Less control over subcontractors
Achievement-Nurturing Scale
Achievement to Nurturing - Japan (=most focused on High achievement orientation: Assertiveness, Competitiveness, & Materialism) - Austria - USA - Netherlands - Sweden (=most focused on High nurturing orientation: Value relationships & focus on human interaction)
Organizational Culture Dimension: Outcome orientation
Action-oriented, high expectations, resultsoriented
1. Action orientation and research orientation
Action: to achieve the goal of change Research: testing application of concepts Action research principles: 1. Open systems perspective 2. Highly participative process 3. Data-driven, problem-oriented process
Eustress
Activates and motivate people to achieve goals, change their environments, and succeed in life's challenges (=positive)
Impression Management
Actively shaping through self-presentation and other means the perceptions and attitudes that others have of us. * Self-presentation symbols and behavior * Ingratiation = liking by, perceived similarity to, the target person
Stress
Adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being **Why does it happen? Stress prepares us to adapt to hostile environmental conditions
Anchoring and Adjustment
Adjusting expectations and standards around an initial anchor point (e.g. opening bid, first impression)
Team Advantages and Challenges
Advantages 1. Better decisions, products 2. Better information sharing and coordination 3. Higher motivation (engagement) due to team membership Challenges 1. Process losses = resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance rather than the task. *Brook's law = the principle that adding more people to a late software project only makes it later. 2. Social loafing
Legitimate Power
Agreement that people in specific positions can request behaviors from others
Structural Hole
An area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties.
3. Knowledge of Results
An awareness of the work outcomes based on information from the job itself
Global Mindset
An individual's ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from different cultures, and to process complex cross-cultural information
Continuance commitment
An individual's calculative attachment to an organization Motives: an employee stays because: - He/she doesn't have other job opportunities - It's too costly to quit Potential outcomes: Lower turnover Lower performance, organizational citizenship & cooperation
Self-concept
An individual's self-beliefs and self-evaluations Right questions to ask - "Who am I?" - "How do I feel about myself?" Role: self-concept guides our decisions and actions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
An instrument designed to measure Jungian types - Most widely used personality test in business - Good for self-awareness and other awareness - Poor predictor of performance, leadership, team development
Coordination
An organization's ability to divide work among people depends on how well those people can coordinate with each other. - It becomes more expensive and difficult as the division of labour increases
Team-based Structure
An organizational structure built around self-directed teams that complete an entire piece of work - Typically an organic structure - Usually found within *divisionalized structure* Pros 1. Responsive, flexible 2. Lower admin costs 3. Quicker, more informed decisions Cons 1. Interpersonal training costs 2. Team development 3. More stressful 4. Team leader issues 5. Duplicated resources
Functional Structure
An organizational structure in which employees are organized around specific knowledge or other resources (e.g., marketing, production) *Most mechanistic!* Pros 1. Economies of scale 2. Supports professional identity and career paths 3. Easier supervision Cons 1. Emphasizes subunit more than organizational goals 2. Higher dysfunctional conflict 3. Poorer coordination—requires more controls
Tall Organizational Structure
An organizational structure in which the pyramidal organization chart would be quite tall because of the various levels of management - As companies grow, they build a taller hierarchy and/or widen span, increase the division of labor (job specialization), coordinate with more standardization Cons - Poorer upward information - Higher overhead costs - Undermines employee empowerment and engagement
Flat Organizational Structure
An organizational structure that has only a few levels of management and emphasizes decentralization
Organizational Grapevine
An unstructured and informal communication network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions.
Organizational Behavior Anchors
Anchors=basic beliefs or knowledge structures (=always existed) Systematic research anchor 1. OB knowledge is built on systematic research 2. Evidence-based management= the practice of making decisions and taking actions based on research evidence *Not many use Systematic research anchor Multidisciplinary anchor 1. Many OB concepts adopted from other disciplines 2. OB develops its own theories, but scans other fields Contingency anchor 1. A particular action may have different consequences in different situations 2. Need to diagnose the situation to choose best action Multiple levels of analysis anchor 1. Individual, team, organizational level of analysis 2. OB topics are usually relevant at all three levels of analysis
Influence
Any *behavior* that attempts to alter another person's attitudes or behavior. Essential activity in organizations: ✓Coordinate with others ✓Part of leadership definition ✓Everyone engages in influence Power (=capacity) <--> Influence (behavior)
Stimulus
Any feature of the environment that affects behavior (e.g., food)
Stimulus
Any feature of the environment that affects behavior. E.g. in Pavlov's experiments food was a stimulus.
Attraction
Applicants self-select based on compatible values Example: an interviewer may actively describes company values on a job interview
Abilities
Aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task Aptitudes = Natural talents, can't be learned (e.g., finger dexterity, an ear for music) Learned capabilities = Mental skills and knowledge, can be acquired (e.g., math skills, bicycle) Person-job matching strategies: 1. Selecting employees 2. Developing/training employees 3. Redesigning jobs
Organizational Politics
Behaviors perceived as self-serving at the expense of others and possibly the organization *Consequences* - Lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship, task performance - Higher work-related stress & motivation to leave the organization *How to minimize* - Increase resources - Reduce ambiguity - Manage change effectively - Discourage political behavior
Learning orientation
Beliefs and norms that support the acquisition, sharing, and use of knowledge as well as work conditions that nurture these learning processes
Organizational Grapevine Benefits and Limitations
Benefits - Fills in missing information from formal sources - Strengthens corporate culture - Relieves anxiety - Associated with the drive to bond Limitations - Distortions might escalate anxiety - Perceived lack of concern for employees when company official channels are slower than grapevine
Expert Power
Capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value Problem: mindless deference to expertise One of the forms of expert power = ability of coping with uncertainty. - Organizations operate better in predictable environments - People gain power by using their expertise to: 1. Prevent environmental changes 2. Forecast environmental changes 3. Absorb environmental changes
Referent Power
Capacity to influence others through identification with and respect for the power holder *Associated with charisma
High Job Specialization
Cashier - Narrow subset of tasks - Short time cycle (=time required to complete a task)
Upward Appeal
Claiming higher authority support or showing evidence of that support
3 Cs: Clarity
Clarity = the degree to which a person's self-concept is clear, confidently defined, and stable. Clarity is higher: - With age - If an individual has consistent multiple selves
Organizational Culture Dimension: Team orientation
Collaboration, people-oriented
4. Performance - Based Financial Rewards
Commissions, merit pay, gainsharing, profit sharing, stock options Pros 1. Motivates task performance 2. Pay variability may be used to avoid layoffs in a downturn Cons 1. May weaken job content motivation 2. Distance reward from receiver 3. Discourage creativity 4. Tend to address symptoms, not underlying behavior
Communication Channels
Communication = Non-verbal + Verbal Verbal = written (email) + spoken (face to face)
Organizational Culture Dimension: Aggressiveness
Competitive, low emphasis on social responsibility
External Environment
Compex - Many things (stakeholders) to monitor, manage - Decentralize Simple - Few environmental elements - Less need to decentralize
Effects on individual behavior and performance
Complexity High = More adaptive, diverse networks, but more stressful Low = More resources to develop identities Clarity High = Better performance, leadership, career development, less threatened in conflict Very high = Role inflexibility
3 Cs: Complexity
Complexity = the number of distinct roles or identities that people perceive about themselves (=we have multiple selves) Example: a student, a son, a footbal fun Complexity increases with - Number of selves - *High separation* among selves (e.g., not all about work) Self-expansion = motivation to increase one's complexity. * People are generally motivated to increase their complexity
Situational factors
Conditions beyond person's shortterm control that constrain or facilitate behavior Constraints = bad - Time, budget, facilities, etc. Cues = good - Signs of warning of nearby hazards, situations that motivate, etc.
3 Cs: Consistency
Consistency is higher when - Multiple selves require similar attributes (=personality traits, values etc.) - Person's attributes are compatible with self-concept
Maslow's Theory: Contributions vs. Limitations
Contribution 1. Holistic perspective: recommended studying multiple needs together 2. Humanistic perspective: recognized that social dynamics, not just instinct, influence motivation 3. Positive perspective: a. Emphasized importance of self-actualization (growth needs) b. Foundation of positive OB Limitations 1. Model lacks empirical support. 2. Each of us has a unique needs hierarchy—there is no universal hierarchy. **Example: you can't think about studying or hanging out with your friends when you are hungry**
The 5 Cs
Cooperating Coordinating Communicating Comforting Conflict Handling
Social Acceptance
Degree that others support use of that communication channel for that purpose Depends on 1. Firm and team norms for using the channel 2. Individual preferences for using the channel 3. Symbolic meaning of the channel Example: older generation usually prefers face-to-face interaction Example: some people avoid Instagram because it's "toxic", full of fake "perfect life" pictures, photoshopped Instagram models, and native advertising
Organization's Job Related Goal
Design jobs that can be performed efficiently leaving employees motivated and engaged
4 D model of Appreciative Inquiry
Discovery: discovering the best of "what is" Dreaming: forming ideas about "what might be" Designing: engaging in dialogue about "what should be" Delivering: developing objectives about "what will be"
External Structure
Diverse - Many products, clients, etc. - Use divisional structure and decentralize Integrated - Single product, client, area - Less need for divisional structure, decentralization
Four-Drive Theory of Motivation
Drive to acquire: seek, acquire, control, retain objects or experiences Drive to bond: form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others Drive to comprehend: satisfy curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment Drive to defend: protect ourselves physically and socially
External Environment
Dynamic - Rapid change, unique situations - Use organic structure Stable - Regular cycles, predictable change - Use mechanistic structure
Internal attribution
E.g., attributing your behaviour to your motivation or ability
EVLN Model: Responses to Dissatisfaction
EXIT - Leaving the situation - Quitting, transferring VOICE - Changing the situation - Problem solving, complaining LOYALTY - patiently waiting for the situation to improve NEGLECT - Reducing work effort or quality - Increasing absenteeism
Emotional Labor
Effort, planning, and control to express organizationally desired emotions
OB challenges: 3.Emerging Employment Relationships
Emerging = changed, of new forms (e.g., longer hours, less work-nonwork separation, etc.) Main antecedents: happens due to technology, globalization, etc. Work-life balance = degree of conflict between work and nonwork demands Remote work: - Working at client sites (e.g. repair technicians) - Telecommuting (teleworking) - working from home
Affective commitment
Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization Potential outcomes - lower turnover, higher motivation and organizational citizenship
Emotional Labor Challenges
Emotional display norms vary across cultures - Expressed emotions discouraged: Ethiopia, Japan - Expressed emotions allowed or expected: Kuwait, Spain
Interpreting Incoming Information
Emotional markers automatically evaluate information (=very quickly!)
Cognitive Dissonance
Emotional response to incongruent beliefs, feelings, and behavior. - Violates image of being rational - Emotion motivates consistency
Employee engagement
Employee's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposeful effort toward work-related goals Challenge = the majority of employees aren't very engaged
Attrition
Employees with incompatible values quit or are removed. Example: an individual who chose not to work for a tobacco company, because he doesn't want to contribute to lung cancer becoming widespread
Availability Heuristic
Estimating probabilities by how easy an event is recalled; however, even ease of recall is due to other factors in addition to frequency Example: we easily remember dramatic events (e.g., earthquakes) and overestimate how often they happen
Representativeness Heuristic
Estimating the probability of something by its similarity to known others rather than by more precise statistics Example: imagine that there are only 15 exchange students in a 100 students class (10%, each 10th). However, we are likely to evaluate whether someone next to you is an exchange student
Two features of all emotions
Evaluation (=approach vs. avoid): good or bad Activation (=state of readiness): strong or weak
Consequences
Events following a particular behavior that influence its future occurrence.
Antecedents
Events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences. *Antecedents don't cause behavior.*
Problems with Maximization
Expectation = Decicion makers will choose an alternative with the highest payoff Reality = Decision makers tend to - Engage in satisficing - Oversimplify criteria - Avoid the decision
Problems with information processing
Expectation = Decision makers can process information about all alternatives and their consequences Reality = Decision makers evaluate only a few alternatives. They evaluate them sequentially
Organizational Culture Dimension: Innovation
Experimenting, opportunity-seeking, risk-taking, few rules, low cautiousness
Organizational Culture Dimension: Respect for people
Fairness, tolerance
Low Job Specialization
Family doctor - Many different tasks - Can take varied time to complete everything
Selection
Firms select applicants with compatible values
Pavlov's Dogs
First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning
Primacy effect
First impressions are difficult to change
2. Cognitivism
Focus - *Processing* of information - How the learner organizes new information within preexisting schema (internal) Learner = *Proactive* Type of Learning - Higher-level reasoning and information processing - Emphasis on memory, organization
1. Behaviorism
Focus - What the learner *does* - Proper response to a given stimulus (observable) Learner = *Reactive* Type of Learning - Basic definitions and explanation of concepts - Generalization, recall
3. Constructivism
Focus - How the learner *interprets* the new information and applies to their own reality Learner = *Proactive* Type of Learning - Higher-level problem-solving and critical analysis - Emphasis on real-world scenarios
Romance of leadership effect
Followers tend to inflate the perceived influence of leaders on the organizational success. Reasons 1. Followers' need to simplify explanations 2. Followers' need for situational control
Team Building
Formal activities to improve the team's development and functioning. - Accelerates team development - Can be applied to new teams, but it is more *commonly introduced for existing teams that have regressed or in the cases of membership turnover/loss of focus* - Team building can be effective under specific conditions
Social Loafing
Free riding = the problem that occurs when people exert less effort (and usually perform at a lower level) when working in teams than when working alone.
Job autonomy
Giving employees the right to do the work they want, how they want, and when they want.
1. Self-esteem
Global self-evaluation = the extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with themselves. - Can differ across multiple identities (=bad driver, good husband) - Global self-esteem = overall evaluation coming from different identities - An individual with high self-esteem: less influenced by others, more persistent, more logical thinking
OB challenges: 2. Globalization
Globalization = Economic, social, and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world Main antecedents = Happens due to better information technology and transportation systems Effects of globalization on organizations - Expands markets, lower costs, increases knowledge - Affects teamwork, diversity, cultural values, leadership - Increases competitive pressures and work intensification
Needs
Goal-directed forces that people experience - Emotional energy channeled toward specific goals (= emotions we are consciously aware of) - Goals formed by self-concept, social norms, and experience
Teams
Groups of two or more people who interact with and influence each other, are mutually accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization. - Groups of two or more people - Exist to fulfill a purpose - Interdependent: interact and collaborate - Mutually accountable for achieving common goals and to influence each other - Perceive themselves to be a team
3. High-Performance Work Practices (HPWPs)
HPWPs = workplace practices that enhance human capital How HPWPs improve effectiveness: - Develop employee skills and knowledge - Adapting better to rapidly changing environments - Better motivation and attitudes toward the employer Most cited HPWPs (best when bundled together): - Employee involvement - Job autonomy - Competence development (hire, training) - Performanceand skill-based rewards
Job Satisfaction & Performance
Happy workers are somewhat more productive workers, but relationship is weaker because: - General attitude vs specific behaviors - Low employee control over work output Job - Job performance isn't rewarded (reverse causation)
Drives (primary needs)
Hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals. - Innate and universal (=everyone has them, they exist from the birth) - Produces emotions that energize us to take action (prime movers of behavior) - Emotions are amplified or suppressed by self-concept, social norms, past experience (->different intensity)
Studying Organizational Behavior
Helps us better comprehend the employees and choose the most appropriate practices in order to maximize organizational effectiveness
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg's theory stating that employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs, not by lower-level needs. Lower-level needs (=hygienes) prevent dissatisfaction. Examples: working conditions, job security
Individualism & Collectivism
High to Low Individualism - South Africa - USA - Japan - Denmark - Venezuela - Taiwan High to Low Collectivism - Taiwan - Israel - India - USA - *Japan* <-- japan LOW on Collectivism!
Power Distance & Uncertainty Avoidanace
High to Low Power Distance - Malaysia - India - Japan - USA - Denmark - Israel High to Low Uncertainty Avoidance = Feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (or you tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty) - Greece - Belgium - Norway - USA - Denmark - Singapore
Emotional Intelligence Model & Hierarchy
Highest to Lowest 1.Management of others' emotions 2.Aware of others' emotions 3.Management of our own emotions 4.Aware of our own emotions
3. Large Group Interventions
Highly participative events involving employees and other stakeholders 1. Involve the "whole system" 2. Future-oriented (=similar to 2. Appreciative Inquiry) 3. View organizations as open systems (=similar to 1. Action Reseach) Cons - Limited opportunity to contribute - Risk that a few people will dominate - Focus on common ground may hide differences - Generates high expectations about ideal future
4. Parallel Learning Structure Approach
Highly participative social structures composed of people across organizational levels who apply the Action Research Approach to produce meaningful organizational change. - The social structures are developed alongside the hierarchy - Sufficiently free from firm's constraints - Purpose: increase organizational learning and develop change solutions applied back into the larger organization Example: Covid-19 emergency committee in several countries and companies
External Structure
Hostile - Resource scarcity and competition - Use organic structure for responsiveness Munificient - Plenty of resources and product demand - Less need for organic structure
Task Analyzability
How much the job can be performed using known procedures and rules.
Personal Values and Behavior
How personal values influence decisions and behavior 1. Affect the relative attractiveness of choices 2. Frame perceptions 3. Act consistently with self-concept and public image
Task Variability
How predictable the job duties are from one day to the next
Strength
How widely and deeply employees hold the company's dominant values and assumptions
Stock: Intellectual Capital
Human Capital - The stock of habits, knowledge, social and personality attributes embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce economic value Structural Capital - The supportive infrastructure, processes, and databases of the organization that enable human capital to function. Structural capital is owned by an organization and remains with an organization even when people leave. Relationship Capital - Value derived from satisfied customers, reliable suppliers, etc.
Co-workers
Ideal when accessible, role models, tolerant, and supportive
Teams vs. Informal Groups
Implications of informal groups existence - Groups that exist primarily for the benefit of their members - Informal groups potentially benefit organizations Reasons why informal groups exist 1. Innate drive to bond 2. Social identity—we define ourselves by group memberships 3. Goal accomplishment 4. Emotional support
Horizontal Organization
In terms of areas of expertise: finance, IT, HR, etc.
Nonverbal communication
Includes actions, facial gestures, physical distance, and even silence ***Most information is communicated non-verbally*** - Mostly automatic and nonconscious - More ambiguous and suspectable for misinterpretation Examples = Body language, mimics, vocal aspects, use of objects, clothes, office decorations
Stakeholders and CSR Stakeholder perspective
Includes corporate social responsibility (CSR): - Benefit society and environment beyond the firm's immediate financial interests or legal obligations - Organization's implicit contract with society *Triple bottom line = Economy, society, environment
Team Norms
Informal rules, shared expectations help regulate behavior Norms develop through - Initial team experiences - Critical events in team's history - Experience and values members bring to the team
Feedback
Information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly directing our effort toward it. *It is a critical partner of goal setting.*
Locus of Control Example
Internal - I succeeded because I'm smart and beautiful - I succeeded because I worked hard - I succeeded because I'm a good manager External - I succeeded because others helped me - I succeeded because it was an easy task - I succeeded because of the circumstances - I succeded because we are a good team
Motivation
Internal forces that affect a person's voluntary choice of behavior 3 elements of motivation (example: driving a car): 1. Direction = where you steer the car 2. Intensity = how much you put your foot on the gas pedal 3. Persistence =for how long you drive toward your destination
Social Media
Internet/mobile-based channels with user-generated, interactive content - Encourages formation of communities ("social") - More conversational and interactive - Receivers become participants - Enable users to develop a public identity
3. Standartization
Involves creating routine patterns of behavior or output Takes 3 distinct forms A) Standardized processes (e.g., job descriptions) B) Standardized outputs (e.g., sales targets) C) Standardized skills (e.g., training)
Exchange
Involves promise of benefits or resources in exchange for the target person's compliance with your request (reciprocity!).
Reward power
Is derived from the person's ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions.
Job specialization advantages
It improves work efficiency 1. Less time changing activities 2. Jobs mastered more quickly 3. Better person-job matching
Service Profit Chain Model
Job satisfaction increases customer satisfaction and profitability because: 1. Satisfied employees display more positive emotions, producing more positive customer emotions 2. Satisfied employees have lower turnover, resulting in better quality, more consistent, familiar service Example: customers will be more satisfied after interacting with a more polite and smiling salesperson
Mental models
Knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us *Are important for sensemaking: fill in missing pieces and predict events *Problem: may block recognition of new opportunities or perspectives
Force-Filed Analysis
Kurt Lewin's model of systemwide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational change.
2. Coalitions
Leaders need assistance of guiding coalition = group of people with a similar degree of commitment to change *Formally structured group
Sources of Power
Legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, referent
Managerial Leadership
Managerial Perspective A leadership perspective stating that effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being toward current objectives and practices. - Assumes that environment and organizational objectives are stable (unlike transformational)
OB challenges: 1. Technological Change
Long history = a disruptive force in organizations Effects of *technological change*: - Higher productivity, but displaces employees and occupations - Alters work relationships and behavior patterns - Improves health and wellbeing *Effects of information technology*: - Gives employees a greater voice vis-à-vis executives - Worsens work-nonwork overlap, attention span, techno-stress
1. Open Systems Perspective
Meaning: organizations are complex systems that "live" within and depend on the external environment Effective organizations: - Maintain a close fit with changing conditions - Transform inputs to outputs efficiently and flexibly *Foundation for the other three organizational effectiveness perspectives
Cross-Gender Communication
Men view conversations more as power, status, functionality - Report talk - Give advice quickly - Dominate conversation Women consider more interpersonal relations - Rapport talk - Indirect advice or requests - Sensitive to nonverbal cues
Ethics
Moral principles or values, determine whether actions are right or wrong and whether outcomes are good or bad
Emotion vs. cognition
Most emotions are nonconscious
Recency effect
Most recent information dominates perceptions
MARS for diffusing change through a pilot project
Motivation - Pilot project successful, rewarded -> employees motivated to change - Minimize resistance to change Ability - Employees learn pilot behavior Role perceptions - Translate pilot to other situations Situational factors - Provide resources to apply pilot elsewhere
MARS Model of Individual Behavior
Motivation, ability, role perceptions, situational factors
Learning process
Newcomers make sense of the organization's physical, social, and strategic or cultural dynamics.
HRM New Approach
OLD 1. Administrative Services and Transactions (compensation, hiring, and staff) Emphasis: Resource efficiency and service quality NEW 2. Business Partner Services - Develop effective HR systems and helping implement business plans, talent management Emphasis: Knowing the business and exercising influence - problem-solving, designing effective systems to ensure needed competencies 3. Strategic Partner - Contribute to the business strategy based on considerations of human capital Emphasis: Knowledge of HR and of the business competition, the market, and business strategies
Punishment
Occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior occurring
Positive Reinforcement
Occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. *It is preferred to others, because it leverages the power of positive OB
Negative Reinforcement
Occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. *It's opposite to punishment (=the removal of punishment).
Extinction
Occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it.
False-consensus effect
Overestimate extent that others share our beliefs or traits
Halo effect
One trait affects perception of person's other traits
2. Organizational Learning Perspective
Organizational learning = An organization's capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge *Consider both the stock and flow of knowledge - Stock: intellectual capital - Flow: acquisition, sharing, use, and storage processes (*4)
Why HRM is important
Organizations are not buildings or machinery or financial assets; rather they are people in them.
Categorical thinking
Organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory
Examples of Organizations
PAST -People building pyramids -Guilds of merchants in Rome PRESENT -Non-profit and for-profit organizations
1. Brainstorming
Participants think up as many ideas as possible Brainstorming rules 1. Speak freely 2. Don't criticize 3. Provide as many ideas as possible 4. Build on others' ideas - Brainstorming is more effective under specific conditions, such as having an experienced facilitator, supportive culture.
3. Competency - Based Financial Rewards
Pay increase based on competency, skill-based pay Pros 1. Improves workplace flexibilty 2. Improve quality 3. Consistent with employement Cons 1. Relies on subjective measurement of competencies 2. These plans are very expensive
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness in the individual's ratio of outcomes to contributions relative to a comparison other's ratio of outcomes to contributions.
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.
Perceptual Process Model
Perception: the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
Personality in Organizations
Personality = relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics In short, personality traits: - Clusters of internally-caused behavior tendencies - Situation suppresses behavior tendencies, but still evident - EX: Narcissism = personality trait, "a clinical condition of perverse self-love" - EX: Humility = the quality of being humble (=having a low view of one's importance, free from pride or arrogance)
Jungian Personality Theory (main idea)
Personality is mainly represented by individual's preferences regarding perceiving and judging information
Persuasive Communication
Persuasion = The use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person's behavior. Spoken communication is more persuasive - Accompanied by nonverbal communication - Has high-quality immediate feedback - Has high social presence *** Written communication: may be more persuasive when technical detail is required
Ceremonies
Planned displays of organizational culture, conducted specifically for the benefit of an audience (=are more formal than rituals) Examples: award ceremonies, Deloitte annual case championship
Profit-sharing plans
Plans that distribute a portion of an organization's profits to its employees.
Coalition Formation
Pooling members' resources and power to influence others Coalition = a group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members. - Formed by people who lack sufficient power alone. - 3 functions: (1) pools resources (2) creates sense that the issue deserves attention because it has broad support (3) reinforces social identity
Trust
Positive expectations one person has toward another person or group in situations involving risk
Values Incongruence
Potential incongruence between personal and company values EX: Work for a tobacco company - potential incongruence between personal and company values
Visibility
Power doesn't flow to unknown people in the organization Examples: - High vs. low: working in more visible work areas vs. remote work High: Educational diplomas and awards placed on the wall Low: Working from home
Substitutability
Power increases with nonsubstitutability = when power holder is a monopolist - Resource has few or no other sources - Resource has few or no substitutes Nonsubstitutability increases - By increasing control over the resource - By differentiating the resource (=your personal brand) Example: you are not the only IT person in a company. However, your are only one who knows Java and R languages (differentiation -> power)
Silent authority
Power-holder's request or mere presence influences behavior *Legitimate power
Organizational Culture Dimension: Attention to detail
Precise, analytic
Organizational Culture Dimension: Stability
Predictability, security, rule-oriented
Maintaining work attendance
Presenteeism = attending scheduled work during significantly reduced capacity (illness etc.) Absenteeism = Organizational effectiveness
Problems vs Opportunities
Problem = a deviation between the current and the desired situation Opportunity = a deviation between current expectations and potentially better situation that was not previously expected
2. Job status - Based Financial Rewards
Promotion based pay increase, status-based pay increase Pros 1. Tried to maintain equity 2. Minimizes pay discrimination 3. Motivates employees to work for promotions Cons 1. Encourages hierarchy (which can be bad) 2. Reinforces status differences
Equity Theory: Pros and Cons
Pros - A frequently used theory - It predicts various situations involving feelings of workplace injustice Cons - Doesn't identify the comparison other. - Doesn't identify which outcomes/inputs are most valuable. - Focused on distributive justice (what about procedural?)
Self-Enhancement Pros and Cons
Pros - Better mental and physical health - Overconfidence -> «can-do» beliefs -> higher motivation (=persistence in difficult/risky tasks) Cons - Unsafe behaviors, riskier decisions - Slow recongition of mistakes (=>repeating bad decisions) - Inflated perceived personal credit (=«we've succeded because of me!»)
Transformational Leadership: Pros vs. Cons
Pros - Higher organizational citizenship behavior - Better and more creative decisions Cons - Circular logic: transformational leadership is defined by its effect on employees (inspiring them) - Mixed models: TL combines leader behaviors with leader characteristics (visionary, imaginative, sensitive, thoughtful). Characteristics can be predictors of the behaviors. - Transformational leadership is supposed to be suitable for all situations (=nope).
1. Informal Communication
Pros - It is vital in non-routine and ambiguous situations - Increasingly possible in large firms through technology - Most flexible form of coordination Cons - Becomes chaotic as the number of employees increases
Divisional Structure (M-form) Pros and Cons
Pros 1. Building block structure -> accommodates growth 2. Focuses on markets, products, clients Cons 1. Duplication, inefficient use of resources 2. Silos of knowledge: expertise isolated across divisions 3. Problematic when there is more than one source of uncertainty **Conclusion: geographic structures becoming less common because of online purchases, reduced geographic variation, and etc.**
Emotions
Psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes that create a state of readiness
Rational Choice Assumptions Versus Organization Behavior Evidence
Rational Choice paradigm assumptions *vs* Observations from Organizational Behavior A = Goals are clear, compatible, and agreed upon *vs* Goals are ambiguous, are in conflict, and lack full support. B = Decision makers can calculate all alternatives and their outcomes *vs* Decision makers have limited information-processing abilities. C = Decision makers evaluate all alternatives simultaneously *vs* Decision makers evaluate alternatives sequentially. D = Decision makers use absolute standards to evaluate alternatives *vs* Decision makers evaluate alternatives against an implicit favorite. E = Decision makers use factual information to choose alternatives *vs* Decision makers process perceptually distorted information. F = Decision makers choose the alternative with the highest payoff *vs* Decision makers choose the alternative that is good enough (satisficing)
Emotions and Making Choices
Rational choice view overlooks the role of emotions. Emotions affect the evaluation of alternatives in three ways 1. Emotions form early preferences before conscious evaluation occurs (=emotional markers) 2. Moods and emotions affect the decision process (Angry -> More optimistic about the success of risky alternatives, Sad -> More attention to the details) 3. Emotions serve as information in decisions (=temporary emotional intelligence)
Human Resource Management
Refers to the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees' behavior, attitudes, and performance
Soft influence
Relies more on personal sources of power (referent, expert) and appeals to the target person's attitudes and needs. Types 1. Persuasion 2. Impression Management 3. Exchange
Escalation of commitment
Repeating or further investing in an apparently bad decision
Team Roles
Role = a set of behaviors that people are expected to perform because they hold certain positions in a team and organization. 6 role categories: organizer, doer, challenger, innovator, team builder, and connector.
Proactive Learner
Searching for additional info in the Internet, practicing, attending trainings
Satisficing
Selecting an alternative that is satisfactory or "good enough", rather than the alternative with the highest value Why people satisfice: - Cognitive limitations - Alternatives appear sequentially, not all at once
Selective attention
Selecting vs. ignoring sensory information - Affected by = characteristics of perceiver, object perceived, and the context - Emotional markers = emotions we experience when perceiving smth; are later reproduced when we are recalling the perceived info (=helps us to store the info in memory)
Self Concept: Self-Evaluation
Self-Evaluation: is defined by the three elements: 1. Self-esteem 2. Self-efficacy 3. Locus of control
Self Concept: Self-Enhancement
Self-enhancement = a person's inherent motivation to have a positive selfconcept (and to have others perceive him or her favourably) Examples: being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, and important General trend: successful companies strive to help employees feel values => self-enhancement
Self Concept: Self-Verification
Self-verification = motivation to confirm and maintain self concept Purpose = Self-verification stabilizes our self concept How (example): employees actively communicate their selfconcepts so coworkers understand it and provide verifying feedback (not necessarily flattering as in case of self-enhancement)
Values Congruence
Similarity of a person's values hierarchy to another source Important for team cohesion, team performance, job satisfaction, loyalty
Perceptual grouping principles
Similarity or proximity Closure—filling in missing pieces Perceiving trends
Team Size
Smaller teams are better because - Less process loss—less coordination, quicker agreement - Require less time to develop - More engaged with team—know members, more influential - Feel more responsible for team's success **But team must be large enough to accomplish task
Social Networks
Social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence.
Vertical Organization
Some people are assigned the task of supervision other
Why organizations can't live without teams
Some tasks cannot be executed by individuals, for example, when a task is complex and requires variety of skills - Orchestra, surgery
Broker
Someone who connects two independent networks and controls information flow between them
Joining/staying with the organization
Staying with the organization vs employee turn over
Effective Goal-Setting Features (SMARTER)
Specific - What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished Measurable - how much, how well, at what cost Achievable - challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P) Relevant - within employee's control Time-framed - due date and when assessed Exciting - employee commitment, not just compliance Reviewed - feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment
Values
Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences - Define right and wrong, good and bad - What we "ought" to do - Direct our motivation, potentially decisions and behavior - Value system: hierarchy of values Compared with personality traits, values are: - Evaluative - May conflict with each other - Affected more by nurture than nature
Values
Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide preferences for outcomes or courses of action in various situations
4. Stakeholder Perspective
Stakeholder perspective = Understand, manage, satisfy stakeholder needs Stakeholders = entities who affect or are affected by the firm's objectives and actions Challenges: - Conflicting interests - Firm's limited resources Value and ethics: influence how corporate boards and CEOs allocate organizational resources
Communication Process Model
Step 1. The sender forms a message and encodes it into words/gestures/voice intonations/other symbols or signs. Step 2. The encoded message is transmitted to the intended receiver through voice, text, nonverbal cues, or other channels. Step 3. The receiver senses and decodes the incoming message into something meaningful. Ideally, the decoded meaning is what the sender had intended. *this is not always the case!*
How to Improve Interpersonal Communication
Step 1: The Sender = Ability to get the message across 1. Empathize 2. Repeat the message 3. Use timing effectively 4. Focus on the problem, not the person Step 2: The Receiver = Active listening
Who typically engages in organizational politics (=self-serving behavior)?
Strong need for personalized power (as opposed to socialized)
Organic Structures
Structures that are flexible and decentralized with low levels of formalization where communication lines are more fluid and flexible 1. Wide span of control 2. Decentralized decisions 3. Low formalization 4. Better operate in rapidly changing environments !!!*Are more compatible with organizational learning and High-performance work practices (HPWPs)*!!!
Mechanistic structures
Structures that resemble a bureaucracy and are highly formalized and centralized 1. Narrow span of control 2. High centralization 3. High formalization 4. Better operate in stable environments
Organizational Behavior
Studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations
Ethics
Study of moral principles and values, whether actions are right or wrong, outcomes are good or bad
Division of Labor
Subdivision of work into separate jobs assigned to different people. Subdivided work leads to job specialization, because each job now includes a narrow subset of the tasks
Contingencies of Power
Substitutability, centrality, visibility, discretion
Deep vs. surface level diversity
Surface: different races, gender, age, disabilities Deep: differences in psychological characteristics
Job Evaluation
Systematically rating the worth of jobs within an organization by measuring the required skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions.
Team Effectiveness Model
Team Design Team Effectiveness Team Processes Organizational and Team Environment
Team diversity
Team members have diverse knowledge, skills, perspectives, values, etc Advantages - View problems and alternatives from different perspectives - Broader knowledge base - Better representation of team's constituents Disadvantages - Take longer to become a high-performing team - Susceptible to "faultlines"= less motivated for cohesion and coordination
Supervisors
Technical information, performance feedback, job duties
Emotional Dissonance
Tension when trying to display required emotions which contrast with true emotions
Leadership
The ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness of the organizations of which they are members.
Emotional contagion
The automatic process of sharing another person's emotions by mimicking their facial expressions and other nonverbal behavior Serves three purposes 1. Provides continuous feedback to speaker (understand & empathize) 2. Improves empathy 3. Fulfills drive to bond
Conditioned Response
The behavior elicited by the C.S. E.g. Salivation when the bell rings.
Response
The behavior elicited by the stimulus (e.g., salivation)
Response
The behavior elicited by the stimulus. E.g. in Pavlov's experiment salivation was a response.
1. Meaningfulness
The belief that one's work is worthwhile or important
Machiavellian Values
The beliefs that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable.
Power
The capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others
Countervailing Power
The capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship Ex: Harvey Weinstein vs #MeToo
Media Richness
The channel's data-carrying capacity = information volume and variety that can be transmitted per time unit - High media richness features - Conveys multiple cues - Allows timely feedback - Allows customized message - Permits complex symbols Example: face-to-face communication
Decision making
The conscious process of making choices among alternatives with the intention of moving toward some desired state of affairs - Decision making "is vital to an organizational health, rather like breathing is to a human being"
Distress
The degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation from healthy functioning (=negative)
4. Autonomy
The degree to which a job gives employees the freedom, independence, and discretion to schedule their work and determine the procedures used in completing it.
3. Task Significance
The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the organization and/or larger society
2. Task Identity
The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or an identifiable piece of work
Role Perceptions
The degree to which a person understands the job duties assigned to or expected of him/her. Role perceptions are clearer when we understand: - Our tasks or accountable consequences - Task and performance priorities - Preferred behaviors and procedures
5. Job Feedback
The degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing from direct information from the job itself
Centralization
The degree to which formal decision authority is held by a small group of people, typically those at the top of the organizational hierarchy - Most organizations begin with centralized structures - Larger organizations typically decentralize - Centralization may vary in different areas of the company
Decentralization
The degree to which lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions
Formalization
The degree to which organizations standardize behaviors through rules, procedures, formal training, and related mechanisms - More formalized organizations: usually are older, larger, regulated firms Pro - It increases efficiency and compliance Cons - Less organizational flexibility - Less organizational learning and creativity - Lower work efficiency - Greater job dissatisfaction and work stress - Attention focusing on rules and procedure
Departmentalization
The dividing of organizational functions into separate units 1. Simple 2. Functional 3. Divisional 4. Team-based 5. Matrix 6. Network
Organizational Structure
The division of labor as well as the patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities. * In short, organizational structures are about reporting relationships
Extinction
The dying out of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the C.S. and the U.C.S. E.g. When the bell repeatedly rang and no food presented Pavlov's dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell.
Social Presence
The extent to which a communication channel creates psychological closeness to others, awareness of their humanness, and appreciation of the interpersonal relationship i.e. **talking to people face to face** Face-to-face communication: the highest E-mail sent to a long distribution list: low When do we need high social presence? - Need to empathize with others - Need to influence others
1. Skill variety
The extent to which employees must use different skills and talents to perform tasks within their jobs
Task interdependence
The extent to which team members must share materials, information, or expertise in order to perform their jobs. Lowest to Highest - Pooled interdependence - Sequential interdependence - Reciprocal interdependence
Synchronicity
The extent to which the channel requires or allows both sender and receiver to be actively involved in the conversation at the same time (synchronous) or at different times (asynchronous). Face-to-face communication: synchronous E-mails: asynchronous Online texting: either synchronous or asynchronous Synchronous = for complex & urgent issues Asynchronous = for simple & non-urgent issues
Unfreezing
The first part of the change process, in which the change agent produces disequilibrium between the driving and restraining forces.
Employee Motivation
The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior
Discretion
The freedom to exercise judgement, to make decisions without referring to a specific rule or receiving permission from someone else.
Task performance
The individual's voluntary goaldirected behaviors that contribute to organizational objectives a. Proficient b. Adaptive c. Proactive
How to use 4 drivers in the workplace
The jobs and the workplaces should provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the 4 drivers (=remember the counterbalance!)
Social Capital
The knowledge and other resources available to people or social units from a durable network that connects them or others. Networks offer 3 power resources: 1. Information (expert power) 2. Visibility 3. Referent power
Refreezing
The latter part of the change process, in which systems and structures are introduced that reinforce and maintain the desired behaviors.
Philosophy of POSITIVE organizational behavior
The leaders need to develop and maintain a positive, yet realistic, expectation towards all employees in order to improve organizational success and individual well-being)
1. Span of control
The number of people directly reporting to the next level above in the hierarchy
Artifacts of Organizational Culture
The observable symbols and signs of an organization's culture *Organizational structures is cognitive, artifacts are its observable manifestations. 4 types of artifacts: 1. Stories and legends 2. Organizational language 3. Rituals & ceremonies 4. Physical structures and symbols - *Shared* Values - *Shared* Assumptions
Discrimination
The opposite of generalization i.e. the ability of the subject to tell the difference between two similar stimuli E.g. Eventually Pavlov's dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The perceptual process in which our expectations about another person cause that person to act more consistently with those expectations Examples: - Your boss believes in you, and you work harder in order not to disappoint him - Your boss believes that you are stupid and you're giving up on working hard
2. Job enlargement
The practice of adding more tasks to an existing job Example: video journalist Traditional news team = Operates camera, sound, and reports story Current video journalist does all three
3. Job enrichment
The practice of giving employees more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning their own work 1. Natural Grouping 2. Establishing client relationships
1. Job rotation
The practice of moving from one job to another for the purpose of improving the motivational and psychological conditions of the work
Organizational Socialization
The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization. - Two functions 1. To maintain a strong corporate culture 2. Help newcomers adjust to the workplace
Job Design
The process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs.
Active listening
The process of mindfully sensing the sender's signals, evaluating them accurately, and responding appropriately
Goal setting
The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Improves employee performance 1. By amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort 2. By giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled towards behaviors that will improve work performance.
Rituals
The programmed routines of daily organizational life that dramatize the organization's culture. Examples: to greet visitors in a certain way, weekly department briefings
Job specialization
The result of a division of labor, in which work is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people. !!!Comes from Scientific Management by F. Taylor!!!
Spontaneous Recovery
The return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time. E.g. When Pavlov waited for a few days and then rang the bell once more the dog salivated again
Organizational Effectiveness
The ultimate dependent variable in OB, composite of 4 perspectives 1. Open systems 2. Organizational learning 3. High-performance work practices 4. Stakeholder
Persuasion
The use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person's behavior. * Most widely used and accepted strategy for influencing people * Effects of the persuader, message, medium, audience
Dominant Culture
The values and assumptions shared most consistently and widely by the organization's members. It's usually supported by senior management.
Espoused Values
The values that corporate leaders hope will eventually become the organization's culture, or at least the values they want others to believe guide the organization's decisions and actions. - Socially desirable - You may find them on companies' web-sites
Authentic leadership
The view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept. Authentic leadership is more than self-awareness = it also involves behaving in ways that are consistent with that self-concept rather than pretending to be someone else. *Know Yourself, Be Yourself*
Servant Leadership
The view that leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa; leaders help employees fulfil their needs and are coaches, stewards, and facilitators of employee development. Features of servant leaders: 1. Have a natural desire or "calling" to serve others. 2. Maintain a relationship with others that is humble, egalitarian, and accepting. 3. Anchor their decisions and actions in ethical principles and practices. 4. Is typical for religious leaders. 5. Servant leadership is associated with higher performance.
Shared leadership
The view that leadership is a role, not a position assigned to one person (=may include all employees) Shared leadership flourishes where - Formal leaders are willing to delegate power - Culture is collaborative, not competitive - Employees develop effective influence skills
Bounded Rationality
The view that people are bounded in their decision-making capabilities, including access to limited information, limited information processing, and tendency toward accepting an available option as satisfactory rather than maximizing when making choices. * Bounded rationality explains why it's impossible to apply rational choice decision making. ** by Herbert Simon, Nobel Prize-winning scholar
Organizational Strategy
The way the organization positions itself in its environment in relation to its stakeholders, given the organization's resources, capabilities, and mission. 1. !!!Structure follows strategy!!! 2. Organizational structure doesn't evolve as a natural response to environmental conditions. 3. Strategy influences both the contingencies of structure and the structure itself. Recommendations: Low-cost Strategy = Mechanistic structure Competition through Innovation = Organic structure
Need principle
Those with the greatest need should receive more outcomes than others with less need
Self-Concept Model: Three Cs and Four Selves
Three Cs of Self-Concept - Complexity - Consistency - Clarity 4 Selves of Self-Concept - Social Self - Self Enhancement - Self Evaluation - Self Verification
Transformational and Managerial Leadership
Transformational 1. Assumes that environment and organizational objectives are stable 2. Micro-focused 3. Concrete Managerial 1. Assumes that environment and organizational objectives are dynamic 2. Macro-focused 3. Abstract ***Important*** 1. The 2 styles are INTERdependent 2. Every manager has to apply both 3.Senior executives require more transformational leadership than others
1. Transformational leadership
Transformational leaders are change agents when they: 1. Champion vision of desired future 2. Communicate the vision meaningfully 3. Act consistently with the vision 4. Encourage employee experimentation Strategic vision = key element of leading change - Change: provides a sense of direction, identifies critical success factors to evaluate change - Employees: links employee values to the change, minimizes employee fear of the unknown - Clarifies role perceptions
Attribution Theory
Tthe perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused largely by internal or external factors (=forming beliefs about the caused of behaviour/event. Why did it happen?)
4 Common problems with team decision-making
Under *certain* conditions teams are more effective than individuals in decision-making. 1. *Time constraints* - Production blocking = a time constant in team decision making due to the procedural requirement that only one person may speak at a time. - Coordination 2. *Evaluation apprehension* = individuals are reluctant to mention ideas that seem silly because they believe (often correctly) that other team members are silently evaluating them. - Mechanism: individuals desire to create a favourable self-presentation. 3. *Peer pressure to conform*: suppressing dissenting opinions 4. *Overconfidence* (inflated team efficacy) - Team efficacy = the collective belief among team members in the team's capability to successfully complete a task. - Caused by self-enhancement, cohesion, external threats
Language
Use of customized phrases and labels. - Used by leaders to anchor or change culture - Also differentiates subcultures Labels: some restaurants call their clients "guests" Customized language: prohibit to say "I don't know" to clients
Enacted values
Values are enacted when they actually guide and influence decisions and behavior (=put into practice.)
Organizational citizenship (OCB)
Various forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that support the organization's social and psychological context. - Not necessarily discretionary (i.e. may be job requirement) - Has positive and negative consequences OCB --> towards individuals and towards organization
Subcultures
Vary across geographic regions, division, and occupational groups. - Two functions of subcultures: 1. Surveillance and critical review 2. Source of emerging values
Deep acting
Visualizing reality differently, which then produces emotions more consistent with the required emotions (=requires EI)
Assertiveness
Vocal authority - reminding, checking, bullying * Legitimate and coercive power
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)
Voluntary behavior that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization - Intentional vs. unintentional. - Examples: harassment, unneccessary conflict, fraud.
Reactive Learner
Waiting for a teacher to explain the material and motivate him to learn
Narrow span of control
When a manager has few direct reports Examples: top management team, start-up *The best performing manufacturing plants currently have an average of 38 production employees per supervisor (US, 2000).*
Wide span of control
When a manger has many direct reports Possible when - Other coordinating mechanisms are present - Tasks are routine - Employee interdependence is low Examples: call center operators, plant workers
Generalisation
When a stimulus similar to the C.S. also elicits a response. E.g. Initially Pavlov's dog salivated at the sound of any bell - not just the food bell.
Surface acting
When individuals pretend that they feel the expected emotion even though they actually experience a different one
Individual Differences in Stress
When people experience less stress or less negative stress outcomes when they have 1. Better physical health (exercise, lifestyle) 2. Appropriate stress coping strategies 3. Personality: lower Neuroticism and higher Extraversion 4. Positive Self-concept
Equality principle
When we believe that everyone in the group should receive the same outcomes.
Telecomuting: benefits and problems
Why do we care? - 37% of US workers telecomute - 1/3 of them working from home at least 6 days a month Is telecommuting efficient? Benefits - Better work-life balance - Valued as a work benefit - Higher productivity - Better for the environment - Lower real estate costs for company Disadvantages - Less connection with coworkers, more social isolation - Less informal communication to help an individual's career - Lower team cohesion, weaker organizational culture How to decide? -> Several employee, job, and company contingencies
Information control
Withholding, filtering, restructuring information
Rational Choice Best Alternative Calculation
Your company's expected satisfaction (=valence) depends on 3 selection criteria - Product quality - On-time delivery - Low prices Each criteria has its weight (+9, +4, +6) Take the weight times (*) the expectancy of meeting the criteria Take whichever one has the higher expected value
