FOUN 1210 - UWI
Normal science
science conducted within an existing paradigm, as defined by Thomas Kuhn
The scientific community is sometimes influenced by political and economic policies.
t, it was pointed out that volcanologists of the Seismic Unit of the UWI, St Augustine Campus had warned the government of Montserrat of the likelihood of an eruption over 10 years ago. They suggested that after Hurricane Hugo in 1989 the opportunity be taken to rebuild the capital in the north of the island which is relatively safe. These warnings were ignored in favour of the opinions of non-Caribbean scientists because of cost and other considerations.
What is the difference between objectivity and subjectivity?
the actual difference between objective and subjective piece of information lies in the facts and opinion. A neutral statement, which is completely true and real, unbiased and balanced, is an objective one. Subjective means something which does not show the clear picture or it is just a person's outlook or expression of opinion. An objective statement is based on facts and observations. On the other hand, a subjective statement relies on assumptions, beliefs, opinions and influenced by emotions and personal feelings. Objective information is provable, measurable and observable. In contrast, subjective information is relative to the subject, i.e. the person making it. The objective statement can be checked and verified. Unlike subjective statement or a series of balanced opinions, so they can't be checked and verified. When a piece of information is objective, it remains same, irrespective of the person reporting it. Conversely, a subjective statement differs from individual to individual. An objective statement is appropriate for decision making, which is not in the case of a subjective statement. You can find the objective statement in hard science, textbooks and encyclopaedias, but a subjective statement is used in blogs, biographies, and comments on social media.
hypothetico-deductive thinking
the graph is Ask a question/Observation do research Construct hypothesis Test with an experiment Collect Data/Analyse results Hypothesis is TRUE - report results if FALSE - try again wha
scientist never speak of proving a hypothesis
the most positive thing they can say is that the results of an investigation support the hypothesis. This cautious approach is necessary as more tests at a later date may provide evidence that overturns the hypothesis or shows that the prediction it made is incorrect. Hypotheses and theories cannot be conclusively proven.
Dependent Variable (DV)
the research variable that is influenced by the independent variable, and the impact can be measured
Plate Tectonic Theory
the theory that the lithosphere is broken up into large plates that move and then rejoin; considered the unifying theory of geology in the 18th century German von Humboldt and the American SniderPellegrini, suggested that in the past the continents on either side of the Atlantic had been joined together and later separated by floods. German scientist, Alfred Wegener, then presented a more startling hypothesis; there was once a single original continent that had separated and drifted apart. He offered a wide variety of evidence to support his claim but he was unable to explain how this took place. Wegner's postulations did not take credence until the 1950s
Empericism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation Aristotle
Khun - paradigm
the word paradigm was first used in science by the science historian, Thomas Kuhn, who used it to refer to the set of fundamental beliefs (or premises)to which scientists subscribe and which they use as a framework for conducting research. A
Francis Bacon said
"If we want to understand nature then we must consult nature/observe it" So for bacon it starts with observaiton (INDUCTION)
Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) English politician, writer. Formalized the empirical method. Novum Organum. Inductive reasoning.
Plato stood for INDUCTIVE
(429 -347 BC) ➢did not believe in empiricism ➢believed that all knowledge could be obtained through pure reasoning (inductive), no need to actually go out and measure anything (domain of craftsmen and artisans)
Brief history of technology
350,000 years ago - fire. 5000 - the wheel Mesopotamia (although Mayas used wheels on toys it does not appear as though they realized its significance) 1500 Archemedes Iron Claw Then the modling and shifting of iron ores. 500BC chinese had mastered this design Another example Ancient Egyptian mummies provide another good example of a sophisticated technology. The bodies that were mummified have shown little sign of any decomposition more than 3,000 years later. Recent research has established that those responsible for preparing mummies used a complex combination of plant and other oils along with other elaborate techniques to preserve the bodies of pharaohs and other Egyptian nobles. There is no evidence that they knew why these procedures worked but they must have discovered that they did.
Leo Szilard
leading physicsist in the Manhattan Project, came up with the petition signed by 70 other scientists arguing that it would be immoral to drop an atomic bomb on Japan without fair warning.
Science is said to be rational
other studies are said to be ideologies.
Kant
pointed out that knowledge could not be founded on sense experience alone, as we needed to have certain concepts to make sense of our observations. To see a tree, humans need to have a prior concept of a tree - sense experiences without prior concepts are blind. In Kant's view reason has to guide all investigation and observations can only produce knowledge through experiments designed to answer questions formulated by reasoning
Deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) VALID REASONING it is the TOP HEAVY methodology as it BEGINS with a theory and then moves on Hypothesis, then observation. then Conclusion.
Edward Teller once said
The science of today, is the technology of the future
The Kuhn Cycle
1. Normal Science 2. Model Drift 3. Model Crisis 4. Model Revolution 5. Paradigm Change
Quantitative
Data that is in numbers Made with instruments such as rulers, balances, thermometers - data is measurable
hypothetico-deductive method
Hull's method for establishing postulates from which experimentally testable conclusions can be deduced.
which can open new horizons?
Only inductive reasoning opens new horizons and sets new problems. Deduction does not, give us anything new.
An atom is a conceptual model
The Rutherford model of the structure of an atom was based on the solar system and the planets
the common view of scientific progress
• Logical, rational testing and observation of the world produces pieces of knowledge - "bricks These pieces of knowledge eventually reach some critical stage in which new scientific theories emerge - "buildings"
ethics of science
• Most modern scientists: not responsible to decide how technologies that can be developed, based on scientific discoveries, should be used by societies (political decisions) HOWEVER Scientists accept responsibility for making public aware of likely consequences
examples of scientific law and theory
➢Law of Gravity - - size of gravitational force - function of both mass and distance but it does not explain why gravity exists or even why it is as strong as it is • Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion - describes motions of planets but provides no explanation for their movements • Theory of Evolution - can explain the entire fossil record and the genetic code of all plants, animals and other forms of life using this theory
Objectivity in science
- Objectivity: Scientific observations that have not been interfered with using emotions or biases. - Although complete objectivity is impossible, due to the fact that no person can completely remove themselves from their past. Closest form of objectivity in Sociology can be obtained if proper methods are used to record, collect and analyze data. - Scientific rules are never definite, but if correct research is done, they make extremely good guidelines to life.
A deduction is
. A deduction is therefore a statement about the properties or behaviour of a particular object (or situation) that is derived from what is already known about the group to which the particular object (or situation) belong
what is a scientific hypothesis?
. A scientific hypothesis is basically the same as your suggested explanation except that certain conditions apply. While it is a reasoned guess based on current evidence it often includes a prediction from what is already known
Copernicus - an example of paradigm shift
1473-1543. Polish astronomer who was the first to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the earth from the center of the universe. This theory is considered the epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution.
Sir Isaac Newton
1643-1727. English physicist, mathmetician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian. Published work in 1687 describing universal gravitation, and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. what goes up, must come down. Attractive forces between two bodies, depend on their masses and on the distance between them
What is a Law?
A Law is a statement that is relevant and is true.
Rationalism
A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response plato and his rule philosophy kings
What is a theory?
A hypothesis that is supported by many different investigations and observations. Theories are the basis for describing patterns in nature
scientific law
A statement of fact that describes what scientists expect to happen every time under a particular set of conditions it can be summed up simply as a law predicts what WILL happen during the course of an experiment. It decribes an observed pattern of nature WITHOUT an attempt to explain it.
Scientific theory
A well-tested explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results.theory proposes why such a thing happens.
In February 2020 amazon CEO Jeff Bezos committed $10B
Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos announced Monday he is committing $10 billion to fight climate change, which he calls "the biggest threat to our planet." ... "I want to work alongside others both to amplify known ways and to explore new ways of fighting the devastating impact of climate change on this planet.
Subjectivity in Science
the speaker presents his/her opinion, which is always biased. Subjective perspective is based on personal feelings, likes, interest, dislikes, and the like. So,
Steps of the Scientific Method
Ask a Question Do Background Research Construct a Hypothesis Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion Communicate Your Results
Carbon dioxide levels today
Attributed largely to increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by use of fossil fuels: Carbon dioxide levels today (over 400 ppm in 2019) are higher than at any point in at least the past 800,000 years.
MORE TECH AND SCIENCE
Biochemistry, pharmaceuticals. How drugs are developed. extend lives. But is not cheap! Another example is in the field of computing A better understanding of optics, led to explosion of fiber optics and the world wide web connections. Technology does not always follow scientific breakthroughs - kitchen appliances
Edward Teller (1908-2003)
Commonly known as the father of the hydrogen bomb, this Hungarian-born American physicist was largely known for his contributions and advances to the infamous Manhattan Project. He was a large propagator for the usage of the hydrogen bomb despite its destructive qualities. ATOM BOMB Later in life, Teller proposed highly controversial techniques to solve military and civilian problems, one notable instance being when he decided to excavate an Alaskan mine through the use of thermonuclear explosives.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
Does knowledge about the world come from logic and reasoning or from experience and observation?
Different approaches to experimentation
Experitmentation using natural conditions Francis BAcon, then expanded upon by WILLIAM HARVEY Blood circulation in animals
Harvey is an example of PARADIGM SHIFT (along with Darwin, and Continental drift)
Galen (c.130 AD - c.210 AD) - discovered that arteries carry blood but believed that blood was produced by liver and then 'used up' by body • Harvey experimented on animals (and humans) to prove that Galen was wrong (1615): • showed that blood was passing from veins to arteries through heart and lungs • having no microscope unable to demonstrate capillary blood vessels PARADIGM SHIFT • Marcello Malpighi (1661) - examined brain and major organs to demonstrate their finer anatomical features - led to discovery of capillaries
Albert Einstein
German physicist. "the important thing is to never stop questioning"
Greta Thunberg
Girl who spoke against climate change in UN address
Robert Oppenheimer
He a physicist who was the director of the Manhattan. Project. He helped to ensure the development of the atomic bomb before the axis. Today, I am become death. Quoted the Bhaga Vita . Staunch oppose to its use following its use. But was a huge advocate to developing the weapon. August 6. 1945 HIROSHIMA. 815am Enola gray B29 bomber. 140K killed three days later NAGASAKI. 73,884 killed. Over next 5 weeks 250K died from radiation poisoning Oppenheimer. Edward Teller. LEo Szilard. - Szilard first recongized the potential to build a super weapon based on Albert Einstein's E=MC2
William Harvey (1578-1657)
He discovered the circulation of blood through veins and arteries in 1628, and he was the first to explain that the heart worked like a pump. He also explained the function of its muscles and valves.
Climate Change Strike
Held in September 2019 throughout dozens of countries. Influenced by Greta Thunberg.
Both knowledge and processes are
INTERDEPENDENT since the knowledge acquired depends on the questions asked and the methods used to find the answers.
Extraordinary Science
IT takes places OUTSIDE the paradigm. The reworking of old data, as well as the gathering of new data, under the framework of a new paradigm... science in a scientific rev sparks by several anomalies that can no longer be ignored that weaken the current paradigm.
Why is science import
It is the foundation and context of all human affairs. It helps to answer questions about mankind, and the universe we inhabit, how it operates, and how to predict things that may happen in the future.
Technology and Science are enablers of one another
In his groundbreaking work on the structure of the solar system, Galileo relied heavily on observationsthat he made through a telescope, a relatively new invention at that time. In other words, an advance in technology was an important factor in an advance in science.
Induction vs. Deduction
In induction we argue from the particular to the general. After making observations about an object or situation we apply and extend the resulting statement to new objects or situations. In deduction, on the other hand, we go from the general to the particular; we apply the consequences of a general statement to one particular object or situation that belongs to the class to which the general statement refers.
What methods do scientists use?
Induction Deduction hypothetico-deductive method
Induction cannot be justified on logical grounds. (Chalmers 1982)
Induction is therefore not a logically valid process. It appears that scientific knowledge has so-called laws, which are not derived in a logical way. This has been called the "Problem of Induction".
Difficulties with inductive reasoning
It can always be overturned by a later experience. Swans being white Roman Poet JUVENAL l, who characterized something as being like, "a rare bird in the lands and very much like a black swan
But is GM new?
It's BEEN HAPPENING son. from dogs, breeding, to foods and cross polinations .
Types of experiments?
Lab (controlled) Field Natural
The Roles of Models
Many theories are easier to understand by using models
Karl Popper and Falsifiability
More recently the philosopher Karl Popper emphasised the use of experimentsthat can show theories to be false. He holds that it is precisely the fact that scientific theories can be falsified by experiment that distinguishes scientific knowledge from other ideologically based disciplines, where whenever contrary evidence is presented it is explained away. In Popper's view, science proceeds by the formation of hypotheses and by attempts to disprove the hypotheses by testing them.
Is science ever finished?
Nerp. It is described as an ongoing process. Aristotle — 'The more you know, the more you know you don't know.'
Do scientific theories become laws?
No. Theories do not become laws, despite the rationale that they ought to. Remember, theories are explanations and laws are patterns that are seen in the collection of a large amount of data, which is USUALLY reflected as a mathematical equation to ensure repetition. A theory will always remain a theory; a law will always remain a law. Theories are usually „gladiatorial‟ in the sense that they are always contested by scientists as new technology or new information becomes available. Good examples are the Big Bang Theory, the theory of Evolution, and Climate Change. These are all THEORIES which have undergone rigorous scrutiny, to the point that they are widely accepted as scientific fact.
However, paradigms are resistant to change
OFTEN what happens when results apparently disprove the original theory many scientists resist the idea of changing the paradigm to fit the new data. Instead they try to give reasons why the new data are unsound or use some other technique to defend and maintain their paradigm
Technology does not always follow scientific break throughs
On the other hand, there are examples where the basic science is understood and the difficulty is in applying the scientific knowledge to build useful technologies. The structure of DNA, the famous double helix, has been known since the early 1950s. Crick and Watson published the paper describing the structure of DNA in 1953, nearly 50 years ago. This knowledge offers exciting potential for genetically engineering new foods and medicines but this potential has still not been fulfilled. Genetic engineers are still struggling to find reliable ways of using this knowledge.
Another name for scientific revolutions
PAradigm shifts Examples - plate tectonic theory/continental drift And the Theory of evolution.
Sir Winston Churchill
Prime Minister of Great Britain during the war Sir Winston Churchill that scientistsshould be "on tap not on top"
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Qualitative [Phone Number] Quantitative [Number of Siblings] [Grams of Carbs in Doughnut] The road is LONG the road is 5km
What is the cumulative concept
Science makes progress when it shows the accumulation of knowledge (Bird 2007) - CUMULATIVE CONCEPT
Antonio Guterres
Secretary General of the United Nations "Climate change is the defining issue of the time. and we are at a defining moment"
What is technology?
The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. Greek - Techne - craft - Logia - study of. Technology can be defined as the set of tools and techniques for controlling and changing one's environment.
why does climate change matter?
Threat to access to food and access to water The naturalist Sir David Attenborough has said climate change is humanity's greatest threat in thousands of years. The broadcaster said it could lead to the collapse of civilisations and the extinction of "much of the natural world". He was speaking at the opening ceremony of United Nations-sponsored climate talks in Katowice, Poland. The meeting is the most critical on climate change since the 2015 Paris agreement. Sir David said: "Right now, we are facing a man-made disaster of global scale. Our greatest threat in thousands of years. Climate change. "If we don't take action, the collapse of our civilisations and the extinction of much of the natural world is on the horizon.
What is Global warming
a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants. Started about 1 950 - continuing increases in temperatures • Climate data show that Earth's average temperature has risen at least 0.7 oC (1.3 oF) over the 20th century • Over the past 50 years average global temperature increased at fastest rate. • Temperature increases over the 21st century will probably be two and a half to five times as large
what is THE scientific method?
What is the scientific method?" This is a controversial question and few scholars would agree on an answer. The idea that science rests on a secure foundation built through observation and experi- ment has been challenged. So has the idea that there is some kind of procedure that enables us to derive scientific theories in a reliable way. An easier question for us to consider then is, "What methods do scientists use?"
What is the Gestalt effect?
What you see is not what is out there, but what you with your senses and brain make out of what you see Brain takes objects and creates meaningful wholes - filling information that is not there - GESTALT EFFECT
What is Khun's process of radical change?
When a body of data starts to accumulate that poses major problems for a theory Kuhn's process of radical change may occur. A new paradigm takes over, a new consensus begins to prevail and the revolution is underway. The new ideas enable a range of previously puzzling phenomena to be explained and so activities are undertaken to examine these phenomena.
What is scientific progress
When it gets closer to the truth and understanding why. Science makes progress when it develops concepts, typologies, frameworks of understanding, methods, techniques, or data that make it possible to uncover phenomena or test explanations of them. Thus, knowing where and how to look for discoveries and explanations is an important type of scientific progress
What is a scientific model
a representation of an object or event that can be studied to understand the real object or event They can be mathematical in nature (being made up of numbers and equations) physical (a tangible representation of a body or process, or conceptual (a representation of a system of ideas. Like the origin of life, or the Big Bang). Scientists seek to identify and understand patterns in our world by drawing on their scientific knowledge to offer explanations that enable the patterns to be predictable - and predictability is key to repetition which is key to ensuring that knowledge is sound.
Thomas Kuhn: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
a book he wrote as he became fascinated with process by which theories, once held to be true, were replaced by very different ones, also held to be true •Problem was two-fold: (i) to explain why scientific theories are accepted (ii) to explain why scientific theories are replaced Focuses on major innovations that have punctuated history of science in the past 350 years, associated with such investigators as Copernicus, Galileo, Lavoisier, Darwin, and Einst
Climate change
a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.
Interdependent
depending on each other
Ruther
discovered the nucleus Model of an atom Conceptual based it on the solar system
"Truth" in science is provisional since old information is constantly challenged and reevaluated. Which characteristic of science best reflects this perspective?
experimentaiton Einstein again "no amount of experimentation will ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong
Observations/Data
gathering of data from your own senses. can use tools.
What is rationalism
is based is based on the idea of discerning truth through logical arguments. Plato was a man of theory and logic. DEDUCTION
Qualitative
relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something rather than its quantity. Using your senses. Colours, texture.
What is empricism?
s based on data acquired through senses. Aristotle said science is meant to be an empirical discipline.
Normal Science
science conducted within an existing paradigm, as defined by Thomas Kuhn 'Set of fundamental beliefs (premises) to which scientists subscribe and which they use as a framework for conducting research
extraordinary science
the reworking of old data, as well as the gathering of new data, under the framework of a new paradigm... science in a scientific rev sparks by several anomalies that can no longer be ignored that weaken the current paradigm. Sometimes in science - Scientific Revolutions • Occur when disparities or anomalies arise between theoretical expectation and research findings that can be resolved only by changing fundamental rules of practice • These changes occur suddenly - in a process akin to Gestalt shifts: - In a relative instant, perceived relationships among the parts of a picture shift, and the whole takes on a new meani
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested. It is commonly called an educated guess. scientific hypothesis is the initial building block in the scientific method. Many describe it as an "educated guess," based on prior knowledge and observation. ... A hypothesis also includes an explanation of why the guess may be correct, according to National Science Teachers Association.
Inductive reasoning
A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. It is BOTTOM UP Cause it ENDS in theory Basically Observation - pattern - tentative hypothesis - theory IT BEGINS with a specific oberservation, creates an argument, and ends with a logical generalization
When is a deductive argument sound?
A valid deductive argument with true premises is said to be sound
Consider GMOs
An increasing proportion of corn and soybeans in the United States is grown from seeds that have been genetically modified. The genetic makeup of these plants has been changed artificially in ways that benefit farmers and consumers and in some cases the plant. In Jamaica, experiments are taking place at this moment with genetically modified papaya (paw-paw) plants. These papaya plants are grown from cells that have a gene inserted into them to make the plants immune to the papaya ring spot virus that affects the appearance of the fruits
the Steel Drum as technology
An interesting Caribbean example of a technological breakthrough, in the absence of scientific knowledge, is the steel drum, alleged to be the only new harmonic musical instrument developed in the 20th century. The steel drum was developed in Trinidad by musicians who could not even read music. They liked its sound and learned to manipulate steel to produce a wide range of tones and notes although they lacked any theoretical knowledge of the science of harmonics. Indeed, the basic theory behind the steel drum is still to be fully elucidated. . It is interesting to note that although the steel drum was invented in the Caribbean, most of the work on the science behind the instrument is taking place outside the region. In fact, a patent has already been granted in America for one method of manufacturing a steel drum. Research into the physics underlying the sound quality and the properties of the metal of steel drums started at the University of the West Indies St Augustine campus in the early 1970s, but unfortunately was never completed.
What is Science?
An organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world. From the latin word SCIO Generally speaking, it starts with observation, then uses experimentation, then applies logic to build a system of interlocking theories
Another example of Technology/Science
Even today there are many technologiesthat we know work but we still do not know why they work. We know that certain animals, such as cows, pigs, chickens, camels, and yaks, can be domesticated relatively easily and humans have been using this knowledge for the last 10,000 years. What makes it possible to domesticate a horse while a zebra (which does not look very different) is impossible to domesticate? Perhaps we will never know the answer.
remember - exceptions will disprove a law for induction
Exceptions may disprove a law. One amusing example is the story of the inductivist turkey told by Bertrand Russell (a well- known and, sometimes controversial, English philosopher). everyday fed at 9am. proven repeatedly for 51 weeks. all weather and variables head chopped off at 9am on chirstmas The theory has failed.
Technology has existed since the dawn of the human race
Our dependence on science nowadays suggests that scientific breakthroughs have to come before any technological innovations. However, there are many examples of civilizations knowing that certain things work and knowing how to do things, without knowing why they work. Technologies have existed from the dawn of the human race; it was not until fairly recently that scientific explanations for why these technologies work became available. Indeed, in some cases they are still outstanding The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids more than 3,000 years ago. More than 1,000 years ago, the Native Americans of Central America, such as the Aztecs and the Mayas, were highly sophisticated masons and constructed impressive buildings. Other impressive feats of construction include the Great Ruins of Masvingo in Zimbabwe, which were constructed more than 1,000 years ago, and the mediaeval cathedrals in Western Europe, many of which were constructed around the same time
Is science Ever Proven?
No. even with the body of knowledge acquired, nothing is ever 'proven'. While we may have a lot of data to support a theory that "knowledge" does not prove it. While we accept certain theories as 'true', we do this provisionally. 'Truth' today does not guarantee we will not tomorrow find evidence to the contrary. Science is constantly gathering additional evidence concerning known facts or theories ... just in case.
Khun divided science into two parts
Normal science Extraordinary science
Induction Reasoning Summary
Process where a small observation is used to infer a larger theory, without necessarily proving it • Many ancient philosophers used induction for making observations and constructing theories. • Ancient Greek philosophers believed that theories could be proved by logic alone and did not need experiments. They thought that mathematically strict laws, deduced from smaller observations, governed the universe. A good example is Aristotle and Galileo with objects of equal mass. According to the story, Galileo discovered through this experiment that the objects fell with the same acceleration, proving his prediction true, while at the same time disproving Aristotle's theory of gravity (which states that objects fall at speed proportional to their mass). TOWER OF PISA
Rationalism and Empiricism
Rationailism- deductions while empirisism uses science. Humanities use rationalism. Some times these approaches give different answers. Empirical methods disproved common sense • Capable of being verified (hypothesis testing cf Popper's principle of falsifiability)
How does science and technology relate?
Science is about building theories that allow us to explain the behaviours of the things around us and to make predictio Science thus, at least potentially, fulfils two deep-seated human desires. The first is the desire to understand our environment, the second, our need to manipulate it to suit our needs and desires. We can attempt to control our environment because science allows us to predict what will happen when we make certain changes to one or more of its components. Technology is about applying that understanding to the construction of objects and procedures in the service of man. Technology is as old as civilization
What is science and science knowledge?
Science is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge. Chalmers (1982)
Should science evaluate theories?
Scientists should start evaluating societal as well as economic implications of new research and innovations at the outset of their project (DARK SIDE)
Science paradigm
Technologies and instruments for making observations often play a role in so-called paradigm shifts in science. Accepting a particular paradigm implies acceptance of the methods used to collect the data on which the paradigm is constructed. This in turn would include accepting the instruments or technologies used to make the required observations.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Szilard and secrecy
The man was quiet about it at first for the sake of national security. But as soon as the war was won, he made it his mission to get the public up to date on the devasttign impacts of atomic weapons and why they should NOT be casually wielded.
Another example of technology/science
The wheel, 5000 years Mesopotamia But no one really tried to understand WHY. The world had to wait for the genius of Sir Isaac Newton, who lived from 1642 to 1727, to explain why the wheel allowed one to transport heavy loads more easily, even though it had been in use for at least 10,000
what about cloning?
This is well illustrated by the activities of some researchers in France and Italy who are insisting on cloning a human being using the techniquesthat allowed veterinarians in Edinburgh, Scotland to clone Dolly the sheep. They persist in their right to this research path despite major moral objections from large parts of the popula tion. Presumably they will proceed in secret but what are the consequences of allowing such individuals to do their work in secrecy?
Why is scientific knowledge considered "proven knowledge"?
This reputation rests on the belief that scientific knowledge is objective and reliable because of the methodology of science. Scientific methods are seen as making use of observation and experiment, to discover natural laws from which theories can be constructed and predictions made. These methods are considered to be culturally neutral and open to all. Given the right tools and the opportunity, any individuals conducting a particular investigation properly should reach the same conclusions.
Technology - LONG
UNESCO 1985 - 'the know-how and creative processes that may assist people to utilize tools, resources and systems to solve problems and to enhance control over natural and man-made environment in an endeavour to improve the human condition' In other words how people modify the natural world to suit their own purposes.
Thomas Khun
Used paradigm. He maintained that when scientists learn their field, they master not only the content of the science--important discoveries, general principles, facts, and so on--but also a way of looking at the world that is passed on from one scientist to another. suggested that scientific thinking when through a series of revolutionary and evolutionary stages -evolutionary- slower process, accumulate knowledge that fits in with broad picture
Models in science
Way to organize thought Parts provided by reductionist approach Model shows how they fit together Suggest experiments to test the model The term model is used academically to refer to an imagined mechanism or process that represents the real mechanism or process
Should there be restrictions on scientific inquiry?
We can look at genetic engineering. Concern over possible or potential misuse seems to always drown out arguments for the benefits. Indiviuals and governments express reservations as a result. s. Scientists are seen as meddling with nature in irresponsible ways and so highly motivated by the challenge of making new discoveries that they forget to consider the social and ethical implications of their work. In addition, much modern scien- tific research is funded and controlled by large and powerful corpo- rations that are largely motivated by profit. But a good example is the benefits of stem cell research and how it can easily lead to vaccines, new organs.
Carl Sagan once said
We live in a society exquisitely dependent on science and technology, in which hardly anyone knows anything about science and technology.
When is a deductive argument valid?
When it has a strong logical structure
What is the scientific method?
a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
What is an experiment?
a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact. Not ALL observations come from experiments.
Complex definition
a thing that mix several singular parts hard to understand (ant. coherent)
Karl Popper
concept of falsification
Aristole stood for deductive
contributions have been more influential, particularly when it comes to science and logical reasoning (deductive) ➢ Knowledge gained through senses ➢ first to realize importance of empirical measurement, believing that knowledge could only be gained by building upon what is already know
Types of variables
independent, dependent, control
Facts
information that is true or demonstrable. Observations which have been repeatedly confirmed
Penincillin
was discovered by LUCK
Science and the Imagination - Einstein
was not dervived from ANY DATA at all. He proposed this theory when no supporting experimental data were known; in fact, most of the experimental evidence appeared to refute it for many years. As time passed efforts were made to test the predictions of the theory. The results supported Einstein's theory and disproved competing theories
