General Psychology-Exam #3
What is chunking?
Chunking is organizing information into manageable bits or chunks
Declarative Memory
Declarative memory is a type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience
Who is Albert Bandura?
We learn by observing and imitating others
What is the spacing effect?
We retain information better when encoding is distributed over time
Real-world examples of observational learning
Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct stance and movement for her students (live model).Models don't have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modeling, children can learn a behavior by watching someone demonstrate it on television.
What are the three stages that a memory must pass through in order to go into storage?
1)Sensory Memory 2)Short-Term Memory 3)Long Term Memory
Who is B.F. Skinner?
American psychologist who developed the operant conditioning model of learning; emphasized studying the relationship between environmental factors and observable actions, not mental processes, in trying to achieve a scientific explanation of behavior
What is an acronym?
An abbreviation formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word
What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
Anterograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma, and retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma
Real-world example of operant conditioning
Behavior Modification in Children-Sticker charts are a form of token economics. Each time children perform the behavior, they get a sticker, and after a certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior.
Encoding
Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system.
Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is a type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory
Who are we most likely to model?
Family members, Coworkers, Friends etc.
What is a flashbulb memory? What causes flashbulb memories (e.g., arousal theory)?
Flashbulb memory is exceptionally clear recollection of an important event. Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called arousal theory. For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory; therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our memory for a non-emotional event. When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event
What is the capacity and duration of our short term/working memory?
Has a limited capacity (7±2) bits and a short duration (20 seconds).
What is the difference between implict and explicit memories? Which parts of the brain are responsible for processing implict and explicit memories?
Implicit memory is memories that are not part of our consciousness, and explicit memory is memories we consciously try to remember and recall
How does rehearsal impact memory?
It helps the short-term memory store thoughts or ideas and pass them into the long-term memory
Real-world example of classical conditioning
Let's say you have a cat named Tiger, who is quite spoiled. You keep her food in a separate cabinet, and you also have a special electric can opener that you use only to open cans of cat food. For every meal, Tiger hears the distinctive sound of the electric can opener ("zzhzhz") and then gets her food. Tiger quickly learns that when she hears "zzhzhz" she is about to get fed. Ex. Electric Can Opener(CS)+Food(UCS)=Saliation(UCR) Squeaky Cabinet Door+Electric Can Opener(CS)=Salivation(CR) Squeaky Cabinet Door=Salivation(CR)
What is a mnemonic?
Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Ex. ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
What is consolidation?
Memory consolidation is active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory
What is misattribution?
Misattribution is memory error in which you confuse the source of your information
What are misinformation effects?
Misinformation effect paradigm is after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event
Unconditioned response(UR)
Natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus Ex. Dog salivation
What is observational learning?
Observational learning is a type of learning that occurs by watching others
Pavlov, a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. In his studies with dogs, Pavlov surgically implanted tubes inside dogs' cheeks to collect saliva. He then measured the amount of saliva produced in response to various foods. Over time, Pavlov observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don't naturally salivate at the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. In his studies with dogs, Pavlov surgically implanted tubes inside dogs' cheeks to collect saliva. He then measured the amount of saliva produced in response to various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don't naturally salivate at the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?
Positive punishment is adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior, and negative punishment taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior.
What is the difference between a positive and a negative reinforcer?
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior, and negative reinforcement is taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
What is the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference?
Proactive interference is old information hinders the recall of newly learned information, and retroactive interference is information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim
What is classical conditioning?
Process by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus
What is the difference between recognition memory and recall memory?
Recognition memory is identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue, and recall accessing information without cues
Fixed ratio
Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses(e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses).
Variable-ratio
Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).
Fixed-interval
Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).
Variable-interval
Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
Reinforcement is implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior, and punishment is implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior.
What is the capacity and duration of our long term memory?
Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
What is relearning?
Relearning is learning information that was previously learned
Conditioned response(CR)
Response caused by the conditioned stimulus Ex. Dog salivation
Retrieval
Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function.
What is a Skinner box?
Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning. He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber. A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.
What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?
Stimulus generalization is demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, and stimulus discrimination is the ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.
Unconditioned stimulus(US)
Stimulus that elicits a reflexive response Ex. Dog sees meat powder
Conditioned stimulus(CS)
Stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus Ex. Dog hears bell
Storage
Storage is the retention of the encoded information
What is sensory memory? How long does it last for?
The storage of very brief (a couple of seconds)sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds.
What is operant conditioning?
The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.
What was the Bobo doll experiment?
•Children were put in a room to complete an art activity •Adult begins attacking an inflated doll •Child goes into another room with lots of toys •Child is told that he/she can't play with the toys - "saving the good toys for the other children" •Frustrated child goes into another room with other toys, including inflatable doll •Children not exposed to aggressive adult played calmly •Children exposed to aggressive adult modeled behavior
Strategies to help study effectively
•Rehearse, Rehearse, Rehearse! •Space out your rehearsals of the material •Review right before being tested on the material •Try to make the material personally meaningful •Be aware of interference •Get enough sleep!