Geog 252 Study Guide

What are 1st order processes? Name 2

-Act on large/global scales (1000s of kms) -Tectonics: oceanic spread and uplift -> sea level variation Leading edge: sea cliffs, coast mountains, deep water Trailing edge: lagoons, barrier islands, shallow water -Climate change: natural, human leads to sea level variation submergence (fjords), emergence (marine terraces)

What are territorial waters?

12 nautical miles from the coast Defined in 1982 by UN law of the sea Countries have sovereignty over water, airspace over waters, seabed below it

What is 'The Blob'?

1st detected fall 2013 Has grown, covers Alaska to Mexico Approx 2.5°C warmer, 100 m deep NPO never experienced such warm temperatures for this long Poorly understood - static high pressure, reduced winds are proximal drivers But ultimate cause? 'The Blob' in the news -Has now fairly dissipated -Temperatures have come back down, still slightly warmer than normal -Lowest catch rates of juvenile coho, Chinook salmon, and forage fish in 20 years Predicted decreased salmon stocks over next few years as fish didn't survive first few months in warm water systems -Below average runs of steelhead -Record numbers of warm-water fish -Changes to the food web -Fewer nutrient rich copepods -More warm-water (low nutrient) copepods -Consequences for forage fish and salmon (smaller fish which are usually feed for other fish)

Briefly sum up salmon lifespans in BC. What's the difference between semelparous and iteroparous?

5 species of salmon, all undergo salmon migration Different species have different life strategies Spawn in freshwater, live for 1-3 years, then migrate to ocean for 1-2 years until mature After reaching sexual maturity, return to natal stream for spawning Obtain up to 99% of body mass in marine environment, as opposed to freshwater Reproduce and die (semelparous) -Contrast with iteroparous

Social implications of coastal areas

53% of countries have >80% of their population living within 100 km of coast Canada = 24% of population within 100 km of coast 21 of 33 megacities (>8m people) are coastal Coast occupies 20% of land area with 41% of population Coastal population growing at a fast rate: Population growth Migration

Describe estuarine communities. Why are estuaries ecologically important?

Abundant, diverse, and unique communities High productivity due to high amount of mixing terrestrial and marine nutrients -Nutrient supply from river bed and oceans -Sediment and nutrient trap -Well oxygenated -Intermediate salinities Species composition -Ecotone between sea, land, and freshwater -Tolerance to salinity and exposure -Headwater elevation can affect this as well Eelgrass as fish nurseries Bird habitat -Overwintering -Feeding -Migration rest spot -Breeding Wildlife habitat

Describe Pacific Herring and how they could be considered a spatial subsidy.

Abundant, dominant forage fish (foundation for other species) Spawn in 'silver wave' along Pacific coast (BC = 450-600km) Approximately 3x the biomass of all Pacific salmon in BC Herring can spawn multiple times, unlike salmon. Eggs hatch in 2-3 weeks Traditional way: hang cedar baths in water and wait for herring to spawn, or collect eggs that have spawned on seaweed in water - allows multiple annual spawns as opposed to modern fishing methods that threaten populations, leading to declines. Heavily exploited by humans: eggs for roe, bodies for fish food Intertidal and terrestrial linkages -Spawn earlier in the year during storm periods -Eggs washed up on beaches in huge piles Massive transfer of high lipid biomass to coastal areas Spawn in spring, when alternative resources low = accessible to intertidal and terrestrial consumers; large aggregations of marine consumers Sister species, atlantic herring, responsible for largest biological flux of energy on the planet

What are 2nd order processes? Name 4

Act on medium scale (100s - 1000 km) Erosion -> cliffs Biogenic -> coral, mangroves Cryogenic -> seasonal carving of ice-laden coast Deposition -> deltas, dunes

What are the competing sources/activities in an estuary? How are the First Nations affected?

Agriculture livestock, hobby farms, commercial operations Urban runoff Pets Recreational boating and live-aboards Commercial shipping Sewage discharge Wildlife Industry (fishing, mills, log sorting/storage) First Nations -Decimation of cultural sites -Inability to practice traditions -Loss of traditional food sources

What are the two different types of ecosystem engineers?

Allogenic engineers - mechanically change materials from one form to another Ex: beavers, salmon (digging redds/nests in river bed) Autogenic engineers - modify themselves, physical presence modifies environment Ex: trees, kelp forests?

What's an estuary?

Any coastal embayment that is influenced by freshwater runoff and that typically displays tidal circulation with the open ocean

Summarize the Martinez et al paper The Coasts of our World: Ecological, Economic, and Social Importance

Assess relative importance of coastal regions beyond traditional economic value - Global scale - Ecological (biomes) - Ecological economics - (ecosystem goods and services) (services that ecosystem provides to us, forest = oxygen, mangroves = protection from storms, etc) - Social (population) Summary: The coast can be defined as a margin or linear boundary usually assigned a sea level dependent on the purpose Due to different vertical data and scales, there are wide inconsistencies when mapping coastal areas Boundaries of transition area can be fixed and variable

What are the three main parts of a coastal zone? Which parts make up the coastal ecosystem?

Back shore, nearshore, offshore (together make up littoral zone) Back shore and nearshore make up coastal ecosystem Backshore: immediately landward of the high water mark, usually dry (unless in heavy storms), characteristic large berms Nearshore: HWM to seaward edge of breaker zone, swash zone (where waves hit the beach, depends on tide), surf zone (swash zone to end of breaker zone), breaker zone (where waves start to break, typically 5-10m) Offshore: poorly defined, everything deeper than the breaker zone in the nearshore

Name three methods of 'cleaning up' spilled oil

Booming: method used to 'corral' viscous, heavy oil in calm seas, then sucked up with machine Dispersants for large-scale spills (illegal in Canada, needs federal approval) -Break up surface slicks, increase surface area of spill so microbes can digest it quicker -Uses solvents (allows oil to be broken down into little droplets + sink through water) -Issues about birds getting oil on feathers, how that affects them -Droplets increase weight, aren't able to fly, have to sit on water longer, freeze In-Situ Burning: -Currently illegal in Canada, looking to be explored through Ocean Protection Plan -Used as an alternative to oil washing up onshore and destroying habitats

What is a kelp forest? What are its uses? Threats?

Brown seaweeds Holdfast vs root, reliant on having hard surface to hold on to Primary producers Intertidal to shallow subtidal Grows up to 50 cm/day Gas filled floats help keep photosynthesizing frons closer to surface, able to access light Habitat for many species Food source Spawning habitat Ecosystem engineer Food sources Sushi, herring roe Alginate (gelling agent) Possible future source of energy (biofuel) Over harvesting of kelp, other controlling species Invasive species Climate change (sensitive to temperature change) Bryozoan invaded kelp forests on east coast (same species as west) -Having massive impact, as east coast kelp didn't evolve with this problem -Makes the frons very brittle, prone to breaking off Invasive fish in NSW threatening kelp forests, eating baby kelps Overall, we're seeing a decrease in kelp forests around the world

What's are 3 problems with using coast as a linear boundary (aerial)?

Can't tell how deep water is Can't tell how tall trees are Can't tell how mountainous

What's the economic impact of marine related activities in Canada?

Canada's ocean only represents around 1.2% of GDP Only 1.1% of population employed in ocean sector

General ecological importance of coastal areas

Coastal Biomes (geomorphological features, climate) 44% of global natural coastal vegetation is forest 72% of coastal region considered natural/unaltered Canada has largest area of natural and relatively well-preserved coastal terrestrial ecosystems Biodiversity in dry coastal ecosystems is distributed throughout the globe Least biodiversity data on subtidal habitats (difficulties in researching) Coral reefs most diverse

Implications for future of coastal areas

Coasts are facing increasing pressure that will compromise the diversity and ESP Effective coastal planning and establishment of marine protected areas, which are currently limited, are necessary to manage this pressure and impact

What's involved in the Cowichan Estuary Management Plan? (9)

Conservation of certain lands Sewage treatment for pollution reduction Reduction of log storage Water quality monitoring Salmon restoration Eelgrass restoration Hydrological restoration Education Watershed management overhaul

Describe the tagging study of pacific predators

Deployed 4,306 tags on 23 species in the NPO Unprecedented tracking study of 265,386 tracking days from 2000 to 2009 Results: -Importance of the CCLME (California Current Large marine ecosystem) -Predator hotspots in the Pacific Ocean and ocean highways -Migrant predators show to the cool, nutrient-rich CCLME, with movements of >2000 km

What's ENSO? What are the conditions for each phase? What are the Pacific-wide and global consequences of ENSO?

El Niño Southern Oscillation -Oscillation of the ocean-atmosphere system in the Pacific and Indian oceans El Niño conditions: weakened western-flowing trade winds, upwelling declines/halts, warm SST phase, high pressure in Western Pacific La Niña Conditions: Strong upwelling, strong tradewinds, cold SST phase, low pressure in Western Pacific 1982 - 1983, El Niño killed 600, $2b fishing losses and damage in Peru El Niño more common in climate change scenarios 2015 a strong, potentially aberrant El Niño -Warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation -Warm waters, higher precipitation in BC

Describe the Nanaimo River Estuary and the problems it's facing. Why is log storage a huge issue? What's involved in the Restoration Management Plan?

Encroachment and impacts by industrial, residential, recreational, and agricultural -Washing coal, dyking for agriculture, agricultural practices, forestry, infilling and reclamation, residential buildings, sewage disposal, runoff sediments, nutrients, and pollution, waste water withdrawal, aquaculture, log storage, tourism, fishing, hunting, marinas and boats, introduced/invasive species, nature viewing Eelgrass habitat -Increase in eelgrass in NE -Loss of eelgrass in NW -Log handling site for 20 years, lots of log debris Bird populations -Wintering population of Brant are extirpated -Reduced populations of Western Grebe, scoters -Also issues for fish, reduced/extirpated salmon populations in area Water Quality -Links land use with ecosystem health -Bivalve shellfish closures: -Closed: high fecal coliform -Far exceeded swimming standards (not in summer) -Prohibited: other toxins Environmental impacts of log storage: -Shading/blocking of sunlight -Compaction of sediments -Deposition of bark and debris, releases toxins (bark) -Microbes require oxygen to break down bark, creating anoxic zones -Scouring from grounding, escaped logs, towing, propellor wash -Increase turbidity -Catch crab trap lines Research, restoration, education

What's the EEZ?

Exclusive Economic Zone 200 nautical miles off of coast UN law of the sea - defined as beyond the 12 nm Countries have 'sovereign rights' for the purpose of managing natural resources, both living and nonliving

Describe eelgrass meadows. Why are they important? Why are eelgrass communities important?

Form between intertidal and subtidal zones in estuaries and shallow coastal areas. Low energy system Depend on sea temperature, sunlight, water quality Stabilizes sediment, prevents erosion. Blue carbon environment (up to 90x more efficient at storing carbon than equivalent area of forest) Community: Nursery and spawning grounds for numerous species Food sources for number of species Can support over 1000 different species (plants and animals) 80% of commercially important fish and shellfish species use eelgrass Some species are unique to eelgrass beds

Coastal ecological economics

Goods :Food, raw materials Services: Erosion control, waste treatment Social: Recreation, cultural Natural ecosystems contribute more than altered ecosystems (economically) Highest ES $US/ha/yr Swamps, floodplains Estuaries Evergreens Wetlands 77% of global ESP comes from the coast Coastal aquatic ecosystems contribute 95% of coastal ESP (5% of total natural coastal ecosystems) Swamps/floodplains contribute 76% of coastal esp, 59% of global esp

What are the primary impacts to estuaries? (5)

Habitat loss -Agricultural processes (dyking) have biggest impact, resulting in huge losses to estuaries Habitat degradation -Water quality deterioration -Change to water flows -Log, sediment buildup -Population reduction (salmon, herring, clams, crab, eelgrass, kelp)

What was the Ocean Fertilization 'experiment'?

Haiida Gwaii 2012 Dumping iron sulphate into ocean to trigger blooms to stimulate salmon runs Massive bloom happened, but coincidence? 'Rogue Experiment' -No controls, just one guy doing experiment -No way for us to determine whether this had an impact or was coincidence

What is Ekman Transport?

How wind and water interacts together Movement of surface water at an angle from the wind, as a result of the Coriolis Effect Top sheet of water moving at 45° from wind -Next layer moving at 45° from top layer of water Coriolis effect deflects water moving under the 'dragging' force of the wind; water moves in surface sheets, that drag on the layers beneath them Each sheet deflects relative to the sheet above them (right in NH)

How are salmon a marine-terrestrial subsidy? How do they affect wolves?

In general, salmon subsidy considered a major influence on coastal biodiversity, at least in the ecosystems that receive them Terrestrial use: Diverse assemblage of predators and scavengers rely on salmon (>100 species), largest and most widely distributed are bears -Bears primary vectors of carcass transfer into forest -Coastal bears receive 33-94% of their yearly protein from salmon -Fitness consequences for grizzly and black bears -Just 8 bears in Haida Gwaii loaded 3100 salmon (10,700 kg) to the riparian zone and consumed approximately one-half of each carcass -Higher predation rates on larger salmon and on male salmon; high quality salmon (large and fresh) transferred farther into the forest Carcasses leech nutrients and bears distribute N via urine; net input of salmon-derived nitrogen N loading results in increased conifer growth of up to 3x and increased foliar N Shifts plant communities toward nutrient-rich, dominant species, which decreases overall plant diversity Not just 'nutrient pumps', also release toxins from oceans -Could possibly be human health risk Grey wolves on the Central Coast: Average capture rate 21 salmon/hr, 39% success rate Typically only eat brains Good nutrients and few parasites Evidence that salmon subsidy disrupts tight coupling between wolves and deer - wolf consumption of salmon related to abundance of salmon, rather than abundance of deer

Name 4 threats to salt marshes. How can they be restored?

Land reclamation (land stealing, repurposing for something else, like agriculture) Upstream agriculture (eutrophication, growing of livestock -> increased nutrients, toxins) Sea level rise (plants can't survive in saltwater for extended periods, can't relocate higher up) Invasive plants outcompeting native species, not as effective at carbon sequestering See increase in diversity if land left to saltmarsh Also see shift with removal of invasive species

What are tidal amplitudes? Name two factors

Large geographic variation in tidal heights due to: Weather (high/low pressure systems) Amphidromic points: -combo of Coriolis Effect, interference from ocean basins and shore topography

Describe the Pacific Ocean. What are its currents?

Largest single geographic feature Plays irreplaceable role in planetary cycles (carbon, water, energy) Supports vast biodiversity Subpolar, North Pacific, South Pacific gyres North Pacific Current splits north into Alaska current, and south in California current Generally no currents in middle of gyres

What's the difference between a leading and a trailing edge tectonic?

Leading edge: sea cliffs, coast mountains, deep water Trailing edge: lagoons, barrier islands, shallow water

What's the relationship between light and marine zones? What's the euphotic layer?

Light penetration into ocean very important for marine productivity Euphotic layer: the top, or photic zone, where light is present

What are Marine Derived Nutrients? (MDN)

MDN from salmon: N, P, C, Ca, trace metals, etc Stable isotopes used as ecological tracers (N15 and C15) -Any influx of nitrogen in coastal setting, probably coming from marine enviro Also complex molecules: amino acids and lipids Coastal forests typically N-limited Freshwater typically P-limited although N also important

What's the National Topographic Series?

Mean sea level, halfway point between mean high and mean low tide

Why are zooplankton? Why are they so important? Describe their migration patterns and 5 theories as to why they migrate. How does their migration effect the ocean?

Non-photosynthetic planktonic protists and animals, from single cells to juvenile fish Ex: Copepods, krill, jellyfish In temperate and polar zones, typically see zooplankton track phytoplankton abundance Migration: -Zooplankton characterized by diurnal vertical migration, largely driven by light and season -Observations of 800m by copepods and jellies -Passive and active descent; active ascent -Very common across zooplankton taxonomic groups, but not universal -Turbulence 3-4x higher during zooplankton migration than during the day -Biologically generated mixing may influence transport of nutrients to depleted surface waters, community influences unknown but likely, atmospheric gas exchange with stratified ocean layers Adaptive Hypotheses: 1. Strong light: UV radiation adversely influences zoop 2. Phytoplankton recovery: zoop exploit phytoplankton but allow recovery during the day 3. Predation: zoop leave light-filled waters to avoid capture by visual predators 4. Energy conservation: advantageous to spend day in cooler waters + feed at night 5. Surface mixing: zoop dive to avoid being transported away; new, replenished waters at the surface the next night Strong light, predation most likely

Describe the California current

Offshore, the slow moving CC is generally southward year round However, over the continental shelf, flows are southward only in spring, summer, fall In winter, flow over the shelf weakens and reverses (moves northward), driven by winds Spring and fall transition period At fine spatial and temporal scales, highly variable upwelling Implications for productivity, dispersal, patterns of biodiversity

What's a coastal area?

Part of the land most affected by its proximity to the sea, and that part of the ocean most affected by its proximity to the land (Hinrichsen, 1998) 1. Intertidal and subtidal areas on or above the continental shelf (to a depth of 200m) 2. Areas routinely inundated with sea water 3. Adjacent land, within 100 km from the shoreline

Who are the Quw'utsun?

People of the 'Warm Land' Winter villages on the Cowichan and Koksilah Rivers and Cowichan Bay Hunt and gather throughout Gulf Islands throughout year, before moving to village lands on Fraser River Taught at an early age to only take what is needed and to share the rest Abundance of chinook, coho, and chum salmon, presence of sockeye and pink Prior to colonisation, used to be able to tie up their boats to kelp when fishing for sea urchins 'Grandfather used to be able to preserve his full requirement of dried fish by mid-May but now the fish aren't even available until June'

What are the biophysical components of a coastal ecosystem? (6)

Physical processes, physical form and composition, biological communities, biological processes, communities and human use, and the interaction among them

What's terrain resource inventory mapping?

Provincial standard for mapping Only shows landmasses, some contours on land Use High Water (can differ by 5 meters)

Describe estuarine tidal circulation

Salt water (denser) able to move up under less dense fresh water, creating 'wedge' Allows fresh water to travel further out, and salt water to travel further inland -Higher transport of marine/freshwater nutrients Extent of saltwater wedge depends on many factors Turbulent water = less defined wedge, much more mixing of fresh and saltwater

What is the relationship between otters, kelp, and sea urchins? What is a trophic cascade?

Sea otters extirpated from hunting (fur source) -Led to an increase in sea urchins -Sea urchins now mowing down kelp forests Trophic cascade: otters feeding on kelp predators, has indirect, positive effect on kelp -By removing highest trophic level, allows greater effect on lowest trophic level Alternative stable states: same ecosystem can exist in multiple different states, can shift back between themselves -Kelp dominated to urchin dominated -With exceptionally long time, can shift back to first healthy ecosystem Black and copper rockfish, with otter presence, juveniles in separate trophic level Presence of kelp allowed juvenile kelp to be bumped up trophic level because of new food source Instead of feeding on lower level nutrients, high abundance in kelp forest communities, leading to faster growing, healthier rockfish

Describe phytoplankton and coccolithophore blooms. Why are they important? Name three other primary producers

Seaweed, kelp bed, eelgrass Most important: phytoplankton (plants, single celled algae): -Produce food for other organisms, produce lots of oxygen -Seasonal dynamics in temperate zone plankton -Thick blooms mostly present during summer (more sun for growth and food) -Seasonal succession of blooms depends on nutrient availability, demand Coccolithophore Blooms -Early spring to early summer -Such high density can be seen from space -Common in high latitude shallow shore -Bodies formed from calcium carbonate plates -Change the optical properties of water column by scalar irradiance -Likely ecosystem engineers, with negative consequences for diving predators (murres) but visual, surface predators improve foraging success (kittiwakes)

Lee's research on oil spills?

Shoreline retention of diluted bitumen, measuring rate at which sea water moves through sediment Tries to address sediments with mixed grain size composition Mapping coastal sites that might need to be addressed first in the event of an oil spill close to Vancouver Island

What are 3rd order processes? Name 4

Small scale Wind -> dunes Tides -> rocky shores, tidal flats, estuaries Waves -> rocky shores (exposed), sandy beaches (semi-exposed), barriers islands (protected)

What is the importance of upwelling zones?

Some of the most important upwelling zones are along the planet's western coasts Except Somalia Cool, dense, nutrient-rich water upwelled from depth - Upwelling zones highly productive (more than downwelling zones) Upwelling zones = <3% ocean surface by area; >25% global fisheries catch Regional and local areas of upwelling/downwelling generate a mosaic of conditions -Cyclones upwell water from depth Seasonal variation -California Current, highest winds in late spring/summer

What are spatial subsidies?

Spatial subsidies: cross-ecosystem movement of energy, material, and organisms that links marine, intertidal, and terrestrial ecosystems Important consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem functions and processes Subsidies may involve abiotic or biotic movements (eg: dust-blown wind, the movement of animals) Migratory animals drive many spatial subsidies

What are the zones of an estuary?

Subtidal Channels -Impacts on amount of light that can penetrate into subtidal channels, allowing photosynthesis for phytoplankton and eelgrass Mudflats -Usually not vegetated -Intertidal part -Typically associated with mud, can also be sand -Sediment comes from estuary basin, not from land -Shellfish moving around in sediment cause turbation, allowing oxygenation Marsh -Upper part of zone, among most productive of estuary system, and all marine environments -Low marsh: Flooded regularly, dominates immature marsh -High marsh: Only flooded during spring tide, storm conditions, dominates high marsh

What is primary productivity?

Synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis Primary producers = autotrophs (produce own food) Almost all life on earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production

What's the Coriolis Effect?

The effect of the earth's rotation on air and water Deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere Deflects at 90° angle to direction of earth's rotation Equator is moving faster than the poles

What's a tidal prism?

The total amount of water flowing into and out of the estuary during a tidal cycle Tidal range x area = tidal prism Large prism -> rapid currents, deep channels Small prism -> sluggish tidal currents, few channels Useful for calculating amount of pollutants in estuary, their effect in ecosystems Large prism = toxins washed out and dispersed quickly Small prism = toxins stay in estuary environment

What's the difference between a tide dominated and a wave dominated estuary?

Tide dominated estuary: tides are dominant factor affecting width -Macro tidal area: funnel shaped -Tidal current -Particularly susceptible to storm tides Wave dominated estuary: waves dominant factor affecting width -Micro tidal area: estuary enclosed by sand pits, generated by sedimentary transport along the coast -Longshore current

What are tides? What are spring and neap tides? What are the 3 types of tidal patterns?

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon (more so the moon) Spring tides: sun, earth, moon in line; additive sun and moon gravitational pull; maximal tides Neap tides: 90° between moon and sun - pulling in opposite directions; gravitational forces minimized, minimal tides 2 spring and 2 neap tides per month Summer: high tide during day, Winter: high tide during night Tides work on 24 h 50 minutes, changes throughout year Regular (semi-diurnal) - one high, one low, obvious fluctuations Mixed tides (semi-diurnal) high-low, low-high, combinations Dodge tide - neither high nor low

What's ocean circulation? How is it affected? (5)

Transport of seawater, nutrients, heat, and organisms around world's oceans Influenced by: -planetary winds -Coriolis Effect/earth's rotation -temperature -salinity -climate change

What are 6 threats to eelgrass habitats? How can eelgrass be restored?

Turbid waters -Eg: oil spills, sewage, plankton blooms Sediment runoff, deforestation Eutrophication -Eg: fertilizers from agriculture, urban runoff Physical destruction -Eg: anchors Invasive, non-native eelgrass 1930s - global outbreak of eelgrass wasting disease, still haven't fully recovered from mass die-off Grow eelgrass for replanting Evidence to support return of sea otter in California improved health on seagrass

What's the continental shelf?

Underwater landmass extending from a continent, resulting in area of relatively shallow water known as shelf area Not uncommon for some area to have virtually no continental shelf, evident where forward edge of advancing oceanic plate dives underneath earth's crust (Chile, Mexico) Average width = 80 km Generally limited to water less than 150m deep Not a good way to define marine waters between countries

What's a hydrographic chart?

Use Lowest Normal Tide/Lower Low Water, Large Tide (LLWLT) Shows bathymetry, rocks, kelp patches, etc

What is a salt marsh? Why is it ecologically important?

Vegetated by herbaceous plants, primarily grasses, sedges, rushes Situated high up in intertidal zone, generally considered to be terrestrial At highest tides, will be inundated with saltwater Plants are highly tolerant to salinity, and terrestrial forces Typically made up of very few species of plants, but support very high diversity of other organisms Abundant around the world, majority salt marsh habitat has been destroyed, less salt marsh in disturbed habitat Habitat for numerous species (spawning and nursery grounds for fish, crabs, shrimp) Lots of primary production Stabilizes shoreline Blue Carbon ecosystem, salt marsh in disturbed habitat = less effective at taking up carbon

What is the Plankton Paradox (Hutchinson)?

Why do we have so many types of plankton that occur in close proximity in a seemingly uniform environment of the water column? Principle of competitive exclusion - similar species cannot coexist on a single limiting resource The water column is not 'uniform' - changing physical and biochemical features create stochastic environment. The community never reaches equilibrium, meaning competitive exclusion will never run its course

What are upwelling and downwelling zones? What is pycnocline?

Wind, current, the Coriolis Effect, Ekman transport (plus other factors) can combine to cause upwelling or downwelling Pycnocline: layer of water where density gradient is the greatest -Temperature + salinity -Greatest density gradient (density difference) = location of pycnocline Welling influenced with how water comes to shore and interacts w/ pycnocline Downwelling: pushing towards shore Upwelling: pushing away from shore Example: California current = upwelling, Alaska = downwelling In open water, convergence and divergence zones - Where up and downwelling come together (visible trough in ocean?) Extremely important for marine, coastal ecosystems

What are clam gardens?

coast salish technique to enhance environment clams thrive in Build up rock walls, changes slope of beach to create flat, sandy environment