Geography of North American TAMU
Cultural Landscape:
the visible human imprint on the land
Host culture
the dominant, majority cultural group within a country or society, which usually occupies a dominant socio-economic position
Colonialism:
the practice of taking over the human and natural resources of often distant places to produce wealth for mother countries ○ Commercial exploitation of new lands and peoples
Chain migration:
the tendency of people to migrate along channels, over a period of time, from specific source areas to specific destinations Better chance of achieving prosperity Less 'shock' ● Source areas: Northern and Western Europe England, Ireland, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Scotland, Wales ● Destination in North America: New York (<2/3), New Orleans, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore
Anglo Culture Hearths: Cultural Hearth
where a distinctive set of cultural traits develop/from and is diffused
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:
"national security purposes" upheld national origins quota system (1/6 of 1% of each nationality's population in the US in 1920) = 85% of the 154,277 visas available annualy went to individuals of N&W European lineage ● Ended Asian exclusion (except the Japanese) ○ But based on race vs nationality ○ =individual with one or > Asian parent, born anywhere in the world and possessing the citizenship of any nation, would be counted under the national quota of the Asian nation of his or her ethnicity or against a generic quota ■ Ex: if a Chinese person was born in Europe, they still counted toward the Asian quota ○ =low quota numbers and a uniquely racial construction for how to apply them ensured that total Asian immigration after 1952 would remain very limited Preference system (still used today ) based on Skillset ○ Family reunification Criticism: racist restrictions
Challenges to New Orleans' dominance
1. Railroad transformed Chicago from a small settlement into bustling commercial and transportation center 2. 1850: city contained not one mile of track but within 5 years, 2,200 miles of track serving 150,000 square miles, terminated in Chicago
Quota acts of 1921 and 1924 (National Origins Act)
1921: the first numerical limits on the number of immigrants who could enter the United States 1924 (National Origins Act): made the quotas stricter and permanent ○ Visa system we still use today ○ Groups affected: Asians, Africans, Southern and Eastern Europeans
Source areas:
2/3 from South & Eastern Europe, Austria- Hungry, other areas
Myth #8
All undocumetned immigrants sneak across the mexican border Undocumented : they all sneak across the mexicn border ● Reality: between 1⁄3 and 1⁄2 of all undocumented immigrants in the US have overstayed their visitor, students, or work visas ● =they entered the US lawfully only later to become undocumented
US and Canada Border:
Along the border from Maine to Washington, 446 of the 1,586 (unauthorized) crosses were Mexican, or 28% up from 20 of 558, or just 3.6% in 2016 ○ Numbers also increased for Romanians — many identified as ethnic Roma — and other nationalities, such as Haitians and Indians. ○ tallies don't include apprehensions for reasons other than illegal crossings, such as overstaying visa
Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986):
Amend, revise, and reform/re-assess the status of unauthorized immigrants ○ Did not curb undocumented immigrants (5 million in 1986 to 11.1 million in 2013) Illegal to hire undocumented immigrants (knowlingly) ○ Some: discriminatory profiling; stopped hiring those who looked like immigrants (Hispanics, Latinos, Asians) to avoid any penalties Gave amnesty to people already working in the US (give citizenship) ○ About 3 million undocumented participated ○ But: did not deal with all undocumented immigrants living in the country; arrived prior to 1982 cutoff date = tens of thousands not covered; thousands of others unaware of the law
Turner's frontier hypothesis (1893):
Conditions of frontier life have been fundamental in forming the economic, political, and social characteristics of the American people There is an encounter with the frontier that makes American culture different ○ Mobility US Census Bureau: no more frontier
Policy: Naturalization Act of 1795 (renewed in 1802)
Available only to "free white persons" ○ No limit on immigration but residency requirement and give notice ○ Oath of allegiance, proof of character and behavior
Immigration bust (1931-1960)
Black migration (2nd wave of Great Migration 1940-1970): ● >5 million African Americans from the South-> Northeast, Midwest, and West ● Larger and different than 1s t ○ West, skilled jobs in defense industry ○ Urban laborers from Southern Cities ○ Discrimination
New York: the core area
Characteristics: ● Socially, economically, and politically dominant area in the country ● 72% of country's manufacturing jobs ● Port cities are powerful: immigrants ○ NY, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore ● 1825 Erie Canal: 1st to connect western waterways with the Atlantic Ocean ■ Primate city: at least twice as large as the next largest city and more twice as significant ● Nearly 20% urban by 1860
Impacts of immigration restrictions
Decrease in population: drop-in birthdate (industrialization) ● Increase in migrants from Western hemisphere Exempt from 1924 Act Why? Agricultural lobby, better labor immigrants, perceived as temporary migrants, <1⁄3 of overall migrant flow to the US Actively encouraged Mexican immigration ● 1st 1⁄2 of 20th century ● 10% of Mexico's population comes to the US After 1950: Latin America became the largest % of immigrants in the US.
What doesn't DACA DO?
Deferred action does not grant permanent resident status to approved applicants, nor does it provide a path to citizenship. It also does not convey lawful status to an individual, which is a governmental classification required to be eligible to apply for some other forms of immigration status. Submitting a request for deferred action does not necessarily protect applicants from deportation.DHS also retains the right to terminate someone's deferred action at any time. • DHS must follow 2012 guidelines that prevent DACA recipients' information from being used for enforcement purposes. (sharing DACA recipient's information with ICE for deportation)
European Colonial Powers: British Colonization
Distinguishing characteristics (four examples) 1. Entered late 2. Britain made North American a priority 3. Foundation for American culture and society 4. Less homogenous than French or Spanish 13 very distinct areas of settlements
Immigration from Central America: Honduras
Honduras, meanwhile, was initially one of the most peaceful countries in Central America, but the country suffered after being used as a "staging area" for American intervention in neighboring Nicaragua during the 1980s. ● Scholar Philip Shepard wrote in the World Policy Journal at the time that "the lowest priority for current U.S. policy toward Honduras is Honduras."
The Great Migration (1916-1940)
Every US Census prior to 1910: >90% of the African American population lived in the American South ● About 1.6 million people move: from mostly Immigration bust (1931-1960) Southern rural areas to Northern industrial cities ■ Why? Jim Crow South, Black Codes, Need for industrials workers in the North.
American Slave Trade
Extensive use of mass labor in specialized agriculture or mineral production for export ● The exploitation of such laborers as a commodity to be used up and replaced by purchased ● Extensive system to supply large numbers for sale annually at a reasonable price ● Heavy male bias in such use and trade, inhibiting the comprehensiveness formation of families ● Formalized debasement in custom, and in part in law of such people as unworthy of acculturation and incorporation into the general community ● Linkage of status with color, by which blacks but not whites were subject to slavery
Township and range system (rectangular survey)
Geometric system of land division based on lines of latitude and longitude; used in majority of American states➔ Wheat, corn, and livestock production ● Erie Canal and railroads
Myth #6
Immigrants are bringing diseases into the US Claim: undocumented immigrantd bring measles hepatitis C, TB, and ebola ● Research: no evidence that immigrants have been the source of any modern outbreaks in the US ● WHO: 113 countries (many in latin america) have higher vaccination rates for 1 year olds ● Mexico: 99% vaccination rate for measles; Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador around 93% ● Vaccination rate in the US: 92% ● Vast majority of immigrants in the US have been screened for health issues
Myth #4
Immigrants are coming to the US to obtain welfare and other benefits ● Most come to this country to work hard, take care of family and themselves ● On average: immigrants pay more in taxes than they receive in benefits taxes they pay more than cover cost of education and healthcare ● Undocumented immigrnats (exception: medical care for victims of human trafficking) are not eligible for federal public benefits -> social security, medicaid, medicare, food stamps ● Most immigrants with lawful status are not eligible until they have been here for five years or longer
Myth #1
Immigrants are overrunning our country, and most are here legally ● There are more immigrants living in the US than ever before ● BUT: % of immigrants in the overall population is not much different than other times in our history ○ today 13.5% ○ 1900 to 1930 between 12%-15% ○ Similar spikes in 1850s ○ = successful: helped to build and diverse country-
Myth #2
Immigrants bring crime and violence to our cities and towns Labeled as "killers" and "rapist" ● BUT: less likely than native born citizens to commit crimes or become incarcerated ● 1990-2010: immigrants (authorized and undocumented ) increased significantly BUT during same time period violen crime rate in the US dropped 45% and properry crime dropped 42% ● Other findings: ○ Crime rates lowest in states with highest immigration growth rates ○ States with larger shares of undocumented immigrants tend to have lower crime rates than states with smaller shares
Myth #3
Immigrants hurt our country financially by taking jobs and services without paying taxes Jobs ○ Immigrants help create new jobs ○ Immigrants are twice as likely to start business compared to native born ○ State with large numbers of immigrants report lover unemployment for everyone ● Immigrants tend to cluster in a limited set of occupations at the top and bottom of income distribution ● Taxes: ○ Immigrants together pay: 90$-140$ billion each year ○ Undocumented alone: $11.64 billion each year ○ Sales tax on goods; property taxes ○ >1⁄2 of all undocumented immigrant households file income tax return using inidivudla tax identification numbers Undocumented immigrants are paying taxes today, too
Immigration Reform
Immigration Act of 1965: ● No more quota system ● Family reunification and skilled labor; refugees of violence or unrest ● Caps on per country and total immigration ○ A worldwide ceiling of 290k immigrants was implemented ● Sources: African, Latin America, Asia Vs Europe
The "Great Deluge" (3rd Wave), 1881-1921 ("flood about 30 million)
Impacts: ● Slowing of the assimilation process ● Formation of ghettos ● Restrictive immigration policies
Immigration from Central America: Guatemala
In 1954, the U.S. government contributed to turbulence in Guatemala by pursuing a coup against its democratically-elected president, Jacobo Arbenz, after he attempted to seize certain areas of land from the U.S.-owned United Fruit Company for distribution to Guatemalan farmers. The coup, led by the CIA, was almost certainly motivated by American economic interests. Arbenz's overthrow greatly augmented instability in Guatemala, promoting violence and the rise of new military dictatorships.
Selected Immigration Laws in the US 1990s+
Increased number of visas for legal immigrants coming for family and employment ○ family-based preferences, employment-based preferences Characteristics: ● Category of visas for "diversity immigrants" ○ Visas: specifically for immigrants of countries from where <50,000 immigrants came to the US over the previous 5 years ○ Lottery system: register, pool applicants randomly selected to apply for a visa ○ "Temporary protected status": Countries undergoing armed conflict, environmental or health disasters, or other extraordinary temporary conditions
Shift to Asian Immigrants:
India (6.5%) and China (4.7%) now account for the largest share among Asian immigrants ● Latin America: Mexico (decreasing), El Salvador, Cuba, the Northern Triangle
Arguments for immigration restriction:
Job competition, religious and political differences, racism, native movements
European Colonial Powers: Spanish colonization
Largest settlements ● Presence of language, architecture, Catholic Religion ● Control Local Populations: ○ Missions: religious conquest ○ Presidios: military control ● Land grants: depended on the size ● Sugar plantations, gold mines, cattle ranching Geopolitical decisions: ● Us annexation TX- 1845 ● Mexico cession:1848 ● Gadsden Purchase:1953 =100,000 Mexicans became citizens of the US
Immigration boom (1961-recent) - "New Immigration"
Latin America and Asia: ● "Preference systems" have contributed to the "brain drain": ○ Admitting individual that are educated, highly skilled, allowing them to come into the US
Middle Colonies (Midland) culture hearth
Location: PA sub-region, NY sub-region Major characteristics: Late 17th century: William Penn Philadelphia: major port city Agriculture and Industries ○ Polyglot: more of an ethnic mosaic vs melting pot ○ In the middle colonies: People from different ethnic groups reside group ( like a toss salad) " ethnic mosaic" compared to New England which is 90% British" melting pot" whcih they share social organization, same language and religion * ■ Staging area for western migration
Chesapeake Bay culture hearth
Location: Tidewater areas of Maryland and Virginia ○ Major characteristics: Adopted natural crops: tobacco vs olives Tobacco: discovered by the Native Americans and difficult to grow Slave labor-> forced Africans Hierarchical system: wealth elite and landless worker Rural, dispersed settlements
New England ("Yankee) culture hearth
Location: Northwest corner of the US; older southeaster segment and northern area ■ Dominant region during expansion ○ Major characteristics: Boston is the chief hub: shared leadership with lower CT Valley and Narragansett bay Region* Connecticut, maine, massachusetts, rhode island , vermont * Homogenous: 90% population was British so all had the Same Religion language, social organization. 1620 Pilgrims ( came in search of religious freedoms) but Puritans (more influential; better education , high social class, more numerous and was able do dominate this culture) 1659-> exception to the 1st effective settlement
European Immigrants in the US:
Long-time bulk of migration to the US ● End of Communism 1990: slightly increase ● 2016: about 4.8 million Europeans in the US ○ =11% of roughly 44 million immigrants in the US Down from 75% in 1960! ● Significantly older than overall foreign and native-born ○ > than twice as likely to be seniors
Frontier settlement, 1865-1931
Lumbering frontiers ○ Locations: The logging frontier industry was rough, dangerous, and difficult Where? Midwest and Pacific Northwest
Who are Today's Immigrants in the US?
Major destination country ○ 20% of all international migrants reside in the US ● Immigrants today: differ in ethnicity, education, and occupation from those who came during the Age of Mass Migration (1850-1914/1920) Immigration system: highly regulated -> money, education, skills, migrants from Asian and Latin America. ➢ Authorized Immigration: legal permanent residents, also known as green-card holders ○ Most immigrants are here legally
Bracero program: (1942-1964)
Mexican Farm Labor Agreement: US & Mexico ○ Bracero: manual labor ○ Guest worker: a person with temporary permission to work in another country ○ 4.6 million Mexican Citizens Mainly: Texas, California, Pacific Northwest ● Racial/ wage discrimination ● Poor working/living conditions
Consolidation of port cities' power
Mid-Atlantic region why: ports, Hudson-Mohawk Route, better climate, longer growing seasons and better soils, PA coal
Gentleman's Agreement (1907):
Policy to calm growing tension between the US and Japan over the immigration of Japanese workers.
Assimilation
the complete blending of an ethnic group into the host culture, resulting in a loss of all distinctive ethnic traits ■ Slowed by social networks
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882):
Suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared Chinese immigrant's ineligible for naturalization
Myths #7
Terrorist are infiltrating the US by coming across the border with Mexico Research: no credible evidence that terrorist are entering the US through the border of Mexico ● Vast majority of US residents linked to terror since 2002 are US citizens.
End of the colonial system
The 1760s: British claimed New France (Quebec) ○ Quebec Act of 1774: French culture is okay but DO NOT interfere with politics 1783: U.S. Independence: ○ Land to the Mississippi River: people began to migrate here US Territorial Acquisitions: ○ 1803: Louisiana Purchase ○ 1819: Florida ○ 1845: Annexation of Texas ○ 1846: Oregon Country ○ 1848: Treaty of Guadalupe ○ 1867: Alaska purchased from Russia ○ 1898: Hawaii
Characteristics of US foreign-born population:
Naturalized: born to undocumented parents parents but have lawfully become a citizen of the U.S under the U.S consitution and laws
Semi-arid plains/prairies
Open-range cattle ranching: a method of raising cattle on natural vegetation in an area without fences ■ Overgrazing, eventually big corporations (after 1880), fencing
Western settlement frontiers, 1841-1865
Oregon Country ○ In 1846, 49th parallel established as the U.S.-Canadian border ○ Willamette Valley Utah (Mormons) ○ Irrigated agriculture "Wavelike" expansion stopped near 98th meridian ● BUT: California Gold Rush 1849 ■ Attracted new settlers
Columbian Exchange:
Process of transferring plants, animals, microbes, and people across the Atlantic in both directions ● not just trading these goods, but transplanting them from Europe and Africa into the Americas and the other way round
Canadian expansion
Slower than in the U.S. ○ Great Lakes were a barrier ● Focused on better agricultural land ○ Great Lakes, St. Lawrence River ● Minor settlements in west by late 1860s ○ Where and why? Port cities Mining towns ● Potash: group of minerals and chemicals containing potassium (K) ● Basic nutrients for plants ● Important element of fertilizer
Myth #9
We can stop undocumented immigrants coming to the US by building a wall along the border with Mexico ● Wall: impractical and ineffective ● Border: almost 2,000 miles long; different terrain, rivers, private property (government would have to purchase) logistics make it difficult ○ Technology ● Great wall of China to Berlin Wall: people will find ways to cross; coyotes would dig tunnels and create breaches, prince increase and further exploitation of migrants ● Violence , poverty, and persecution = people will continue coming to the US for a better life
What is canada's immigration policy:
Welcomes immigrants and values multiculturalism ● foreign-born : about 1⁄5 of the population ○ One of the highest ratios for industrialized western countries ● Immigrants counter: ○ Ageing demographics; fuel economic growth ● Attractive because of current US immigration policies: ○ Refugees, asylum seekers, temporary workers ● Significantly shaped canadas society and culture ● Similar history to the US of not always welcoming immigrants ○ 19th and early 20th century policies -> non europeans, non christian backgrounds, poor, ill, disabled.
Expansion of Plantation system
Tobacco and hemp plantations (Upland South) ● Cotton production ○ Served by ports of New Orleans, Mobile, and New York ○ Cotton gin ○ Expansion of slave labor effect on economic development of the South
Settlement of the Old Northwest (Midwest)
Treaties opened new areas to settlement
Ethnic Diversity and Ethnic Regions:
U.S. has more 'visible' ethnic diversity than Canada ➢ Ethnic groups are associated with distinct geographical region ➢ Ancestry groups further contribute to ethnic diversity ➢ High growth rates for Asians and Hispanics; slower growth rates for whites and black
Shortgrass prairie settled last
Unpredictable rainfall and isolation from markets and supplies discouraged settlement ○ High wheat prices encouraged expansion Dust Bowl: The Great Plains region devastated by drought in the 1930s, including Oklahoma and Texas panhandles and neighboring sections of Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico ○ Dry conditions ○ Exodusters 1934-1937: 60% of population leaves Buffalo Commons: depopulated counties of the plains should become open range for bison, with at least a portion under the management of Native Americans ○ "empty quarter""settlement and agriculture in the great plains was a mistake"-Poppers 1987
Destination North America:
Urban areas for work (factories)
Anglo culture group
WASP, White Anglo- Saxon Protestants (dominated northwestern European core ○ About 75% British, 8% German, rest Dutch, French, or Spain
European Colonial Powers: Dutch colonization
Where? New Amsterdam-today's Manhattan Island (around New York) ● Successful: Fur and coastal trades; those areas are expanded ● Not successful: encouraging agriculture settlement and development ○ Labor shortages ○ Patron system: Feudal system; land given to investors and then rent the land to farmers (tenant farmers) ■ Solution: let anybody come in ○ Entrepot: a place where goods are shipped and distributed to other places
European Colonial Powers: French Colonization
Where? Shores of the St. Lawrence River, Newfoundland, and Acadia (Nova Scotia) but gradually expanding to include much of the Great Lakes region, parts of the trans-Appalachian West, MS River ● Fishing, fur trade, agricultural settlements ■ Trade and exploitation of resources ○ Long lots: ribbons like pieces of land that run perpendicular to each other ● North America wasn't a priority for France
Doctrine of First Effective Settlement:
Who? Cultural geographer: Wilbur Zelinsky What? When a "new" society is settled, the cultural characteristics of the initial settlement group will have a lasting and outsized effect on the future trajectory of that society-even if their numbers were very small and those of later immigrants of different origins were very large Example: Dutch: the settled area around New York City still has obvious and distinct characteristics inherited from Golden Age Amsterdam New Amsterdam-> New York
European Colonialism
Why did they come into the Americas? ○ Religious/political reasons ○ An alternative route to the East ○ Political/economic desires of feudal leaders for power and financial stability ○ Gold, Gold, and Glory !! (3 G's)
Preadaptation:
adaptive skills and traits possessed by a group prior to migration, giving them survival ability and a competitive advantage in occupying their new environment
Unauthorized Immigration:
all foreign-born non-citizens who are not legal residents Can become unauthorized in three ways. Entering the country unauthorized Staying beyond authorized period Violating terms of legal entry ● Range from 10.5 million to 12 million or approximately 3.2 to 3.6% of US population ○ There are more legal residents VS unauthorized immigrants in the US
Urbanization and industrialization of the Northeast: Economic Core
central area of the economic organization for the entire American economy; from here, manufactured goods were sent to the periphery in exchange for raw materials and farm products
Pull factors:
conditions in the receiving country that encourage immigration
Push factors:
conditions in the source country that encourage outmigration ○ Examples: land, employment, wages
Black rice: The African origins of rice cultivation in the Americas • "Exploring crops, landscapes and agricultural practices in Africa and America,
demonstrates the critical role Africans played in Carolina's the creation of the system of rice production that provided the foundation of wealth... This detailed study of historical botany, technological adaptation, and agricultural diffusion adds depth to our understanding of slavery and makes a compelling case for 'the agency of slaves' in the creation of the South's economy and culture."—Drew Gilpin Faust ● "describes how the South Carolina rice industry was built not only on slave labor but on the agricultural and technological knowledge brought over by the Africans... [It] changes our understanding of the black contribution to American life."— BARRY
Atlantic Slave trade: depopulating slave trade
forced migration of Africans to the Americans ● Began 1492+; height: 1700-1800 ● Why was there a need??? Fueled by high demand for labor on plantations in the Americas ● Severely depopulated large areas in Africa after the forced migration ● How many enslaved Americans? ○ Estimated 12-15 million -> double ○ We will never know the real numbers
Assimilation(melting pot):
gradual loss of the cultural traits, beliefs, practices that distinguish immigrant ethnic groups & their members
MYTH #5
immigrants are coming to the US with the express purpose having babies 14th amendment : all people born here or naturalized are citizens of the US ● Claim: undocumented immigrants come to the uS to take advantage of "birthright citizenship" ● Research: vast majority come for economic opportunity or to flee violence or poverty ● Research: immigration increases when the US economy is doing fine and decreases when is it not = supports finding that people come here for economic opportunity ● Us citizens cannot petition for a green card for a foreign parent until they are 21 ○ Have to live undocumented , difficult conditions ● Come to the US : other reasons vs having a babY
Push factors
industrialization, persecution of the Jews
Vernacular culture
native or unique to a particular place, concerned with the domestic and functional
distinction between legal &undocumented/unauthorized immigrants:
people become unauthorized immigrant s in three ways. ■ 1. The first way is by entering the country unauthorized; they enter without inspection and at some place other than a lawful point of entry, usually across a land border. 2. The second way is by staying beyond the authorized period after their legal entry, as some foreign students do. 3. And the third way is by violating the terms of their legal entry; tourists become unauthorized immigrants by taking jobs here.
Cultural simplification (cultural devolution):
relocate to another place-> drop some of the traits/cultural characteristics you previously had
Cultural borrowing:
borrowing from another group ○ Ex: Swedes are credited
Pull factor
demand for unskilled or semi-skilled labor
Pluralism(tossed salad)
premise that members of ethnic group resist pressures to assimilate or retain those traits, beliefs, practices that make them distinctive
Westward Expansion: Manifest Destiny
the 19t h-century doctrine or belief that expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable
Material Culture:
the visible aspect of culture; the physical, tangible objects made and used by members of a cultural group
Cultural sensitivity
what traits are selected to be put into the new society/ place
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) 2012:
● 800,000 young adults brought to the US as children ● Have grown up as Americans, identify themselves as Americans and many speak only English and have no memory of or connection with the country where they were born ● An alternative to (DREAMERS) Development, Relief and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act- did not pass Congress ❏ Current Administration orders end to DACA: 2017 ❏ Supreme Court blocked the administration's attempt to end DACA: June 18, 2020
The Crisis in the Northern Triangle: Central American Migration
● About 265,000 poeple on average have left the Northern Triangle region of Central America in each of the past five years (2019 back) ○ Total US apprehensions of unauthorized migrants had been at historic lows-but strained US immigration system ● Root causes: mixed migration ● Push and Pull factors: economic opportunity, seeking refugee from violence and insecurity or both ○ Socio Economic and security conditions, natural disasters, poor governance.
Canada:
● About 340,000 new residents in 2019 (highest number in a century ) ● Where from? ○ Greatest share: India, skilled professionals ○ About 800,000 temporary workers and international students in 2019 ● Where to? ○ Ontario: home yo 45% of new permanent residents in 2019, majority settled in Toronto (Canada's largest city)
Why the Canadian/US border?
● Easier than trying the southern border ● Trusted friend, no risk of being cheater ● 2016: Canada lifted its requirement that Mexican Citizens apply for visas to enter the country (wanted to strengthen ties with Mexico)
Immigration from Central America: El Salvador
● Three decades later, the U.S. government allocated roughly $4 billion of funding to support the Salvadoran military in fighting left-wing revolutionaries during a brutal civil war in El Salvador. • ● Roughly 1200 civilians were killed by the Salvadoran military in the El Mozote Massacre of 1981, including 100 children. • ● Shortly before the massacre, members of the battalion responsible for the violence had undergone "counterinsurgency training" in the United States. ● Those civilians were some of more than 75,000 who died during the war, most of them at the hands of the Salvadoran military.
British versus New World environments
● Change in landscape ● New crops ● Adjust agriculture ● Christianize values (what is right)