Goepel Test #3

Second Amendment

"A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." Americans, steeped in English tradition, feared that "large, standing armies in peacetime" would be used to threaten basic citizen liberties and rights. Also, 18th century citizens did not support the heavy taxes needed to build and maintain a formidable military force. Congress therefore fell back on the traditional colonial American ideal of the "citizen-soldier." The "civic responsibility" of each male citizen was paramount in the 18th century By law all male citizens then were expected to own and maintain a gun, and actively participate in the local militia unit. Gun ownership, in other words, was not viewed as a personal choice or individual right, but rather as a duty of citizenship.

Fifth Amendment

One cannot be compelled to testify against him or herself And, that someone tried for a crime is innocent until proven guilty "beyond a reasonable doubt" This amendment also prohibits "double jeopardy" (you cannot be re-tried for a crime if found innocent in the original case). And bans depriving one of "life, liberty, or property without due process of law" It also guarantees just compensation in cases of "eminent domain" In which the government may seize your land for the greater public good but only after fair financial compensation is given to you

Bank of the United States

Predicated on the "3-6" lending formula ________'s obtain funds in part by offering investors a return on monies they "loan" to the ___________. Also provided a safe, secure and limited national currency (dollar) to help minimize inflation. The wealthy owned majority stock interests in the __________ through share purchases Thus linking their success to that of the new nation exactly as Hamilton envisioned it

Loyalists

Remaining loyal to Britain was a self-interested calculation for the many Americans who were deeply satisfied with their lives as British subjects•They saw no reason for radical political change. Were drawn from all ranks of colonial society, although many whites in their ranks were propertied •They were not the Novus Homo colonists: rather they strongly identified with British culture and institutions and believed strongly in monarchy as the best form of government. Were stripped of their property, farms, businesses, homes, and assets at the end of the War by the victorious rebels

Newspaper Wars

Both Federalists and Jeffersonians funded biased newspapers To publicize their views on the divisive issues of the day and savagely attack their opponents. Neither side's newspapers were objective in a modern journalistic sense, but instead were highly partisan.

Plan of Washington DC

The nation's new (southern) capital was just beginning to take shape in the District of Columbia along the Potomac River on the northern border of Virginia Southern leaders agreed to support Hamilton's Assumption bill in exchange for a new southern national capital city (quid pro quo). Hamilton then sought repayment of the full US national debt At full face value instead of the current market value of 10%. The "market value" of the bonds was so low because public confidence in the future of the American experiment in republican government had plummeted

Mount Vernon

The virtuous ancient Roman Cincinnatus as Washington's model

1785 Land Ordinance

This bill established a plan for the systematic survey and division of a key portion of the western lands •In a vast area known as the Ohio country (Old Northwest)

Commercial Farmers

Also, _____________, who depended on exporting their crops to make a living •Suffered as a result of the new republic's "pariah standing" in the Atlantic world•British and European leaders argued that the outcast Americans had "made their bed and now must sleep in it"

1778 French Alliance

Compounding the impressment and ship seizure problems for American leaders Was the 1778 ___________ that had proved so vital to the patriot victory. Jeffersonians argued that the Alliance was still valid because treaties were made between nations. The Jeffersonians argued that France had saved the Patriot cause in the War for Independence. And that their revolutionary republic embodied the principles for which the Americans had fought. Jeffersonians countered that the French republic significantly reduced the power of the Catholic Church And therefore deserved our support as they sought to "liberate Europe from the shackles of monarchy" by creating republics While also eliminating birth as the criterion for power and advancement.

Thomas Jefferson

Deist ___________ drafted his Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom in his home state of Virginia in 1777•His Enlightenment-based ideas found widespread support among other educated leading citizens who also treasured freedom of conscience•__________ also saw a preferred or favored religious sect as incompatible with a "virtuous republic"

Congress

At the end of the Revolutionary War __________ was forced to flee Philadelphia when confronted by a crowd action •Organized by angry Revolutionary War veterans •Who had not been paid for their military service after risking their lives to gain American independence. This embarrassing incident was an obvious blow to Congressional authority and prestige •During the next several years, ___________ under the Articles of Confederation shuffled from city to city•Causing one newspaper to label the national legislative body a "hot air balloon"

Thomas Jefferson

Believed that republican Virtue was best protected By remaining largely a nation of small, independent landowning farmers (yeomen). As a "strict constructionist" he also objected on the grounds that the new Constitution did not expressly allow the Bank's creation While out of power they favored a tight and narrow understanding of powers granted by the Constitution to the national government "Those who govern least govern best," said __________. Citing republican frugality, saw government debt as dangerous And instead sought to take advantage of the low market value of the government IOU'S To retire the national debt at 1/10 its actual face value. ___________, centered in the southern colonies, saw Hamilton's new tariff as unfair Because it increased prices on imported consumer goods, especially important to Southerners And appeared ominously close to the hated British taxes imposed before the War for Independence

William Paterson

Small state delegates, on the other hand, supported the competing unicameral New Jersey plan, put forward by _____________ •They were concerned that Randolph's Virginia Plan gave too much power to the larger states•And created an overly strong central government that would stifle the authority of the individual states, and threaten individual liberty.

Articles

Southern frontier tribes like the Cherokee and Creek resisted more successfully during the immediate postwar era•As Congress under the __________ had little ability to contest their refusal to give up their sacred hunting grounds•Such Indian resistance angered land speculators, farmers and war veterans

Seminoles

Southern slaveholders were also furious when their escaped slaves found refuge with Indian tribes like the ____________ of Florida •Stung by these desertions, they demanded a stronger national government •That would take action by crushing the tribes and returning their "lost property"

Paper

State and local taxes then rose in order to meet these debts, angering many citizens. As the perception among many Americans became widespread •That independence from Britain had been justified by unfair royal taxation•Angry citizens thus saw themselves as back in the same fix, as heavily indebted states raised taxes to meet these wartime loan debts. Ordinary citizens often sought to pay the new state taxes in all but worthless worthless __________ currency •Exacerbating the problem and adding to the frustrations felt by many ordinary citizens•That in turn triggered an anti-elite backlash in many states reminiscent of Bacon's Rebellion in 1675

lifetime

The Constitution granted federal judges ___________ appointments In the hope of securing independence for the judiciary from popular whims and "mob rule." Adams and his followers, genuinely alarmed as they left office in 1801, attempted to stem the Jeffersonian tide by installing ___________ Federalist judges at the last minute During the final weeks of his presidency John Adams filled many federal judgeships with staunch Federalists Who would presumably check for decades ahead "republican excesses" perpetrated by the "vile" Jeffersonians. "High crimes and misdemeanors," according the the 1787 Constitution, were needed to impeach and remove elected federal officials Jeffersonians insisted these judicial impeachments were not partisan revenge against their Federalist political opponents But were instead justified by the extreme ill conduct of those on trial

George Washington

was wealthy and widely respected, even revered by many of his fellow citizens•Caught in 1787 between a rock and a hard place in that he believed the existing weak central government placed the future of the nation in grave doubt •While realizing that significant constitutional change, if it failed, might well bring down the fledgling republic. His presence inspired much hope and confidence among Federalists and helped ease the concerns of Anti-federalists

1793 Genet Affair

Edmond Genet arrived in the US in 1793 as the official representative of the revolutionary government in France Tasked to win direct American aid and support against Britain. Enthusiastic American crowds greeted Genet wherever he traveled. Boisterous banquets were held in his honor Fooling him into believing Americans were willing to fight and die in Europe for the French republican cause. About forty "republican societies" surfaced around the nation in opposition to royalty And in vocal support of the French cause, much to the consternation of Federalists

The First Congress

Elected in late 1788 and composed largely of cosmopolitan Federalists (18-8 majority in the Senate and 20-6 in the House) They began their work in New York in April, 1789 with four immediate tasks: 1) establish a viable tax 2) pass a bill of rights 3) set up the executive departments 4) organize the federal judiciary

Pariah

European monarchies and empires viewed the US as a ________ state, treating the new republic as a cancer for two reasons•First, rebelling and establishing a republic was viewed by Europe's leaders •As a dangerous threat to monarchy, aristocracy, and national church. European royalists staunchly supported the Organic Theory of Thomas Hobbes•And feared that their own subjects might become "infected" with the virus of republicanism and rebel against their legitimate rulers•As occurred in France in 1789, bringing to life these worst nightmares. Secondly, European kingdoms could not allow US trade with their new world colonies •Because American commercial intrusion threatened the stranglehold on colonial commerce demanded by mercantilists. The sale of raw goods by local colonial merchants only to their mother country provided colonies the necessary credit to then purchase the manufactured goods of that same mother country, a core necessity of mercantilism

Anglophiles

Federalist _________ (particularly Hamilton) argued that a militarily weak United States had the best chance of surviving and thriving If tied to the British commercial and naval nexus. They sought not to actively join the European fighting, but rather to slant US actions in a pro-British direction. They further insisted that the British were fighting to save civilization from the "bloody excesses" of the French Revolution. They also deeply admired England's "mixed government" and stabilizing institutions of Monarchy, Parliament, and National Church. In direct contrast, they argued, to the rash and dangerous dictatorship of Robespierre and his bloody and destabilizing Reign of Terror

Election of 1800

Federalist split deeply impacted the _____________ as Hamiltonians were lukewarm in their support of the "disappointing" President Adams. Hamilton's refusal to enthusiastically endorse Adams widened the divide between the two men And contributed to the Jeffersonian's victory. Electors in that era, chosen by their state's legislature, each cast two votes, presumably for the two men they thought most deserved the presidency. Jeffersonian leaders had planned for each of their electors to cast one of their votes for Jefferson and the other for fellow Jeffersonian Colonel Burr of New York, except for one elector, thus electing Jefferson president 73-72. Jeffersonian electors, however, bungled their plan to avoid a Jefferson-Burr tie when somehow all of them cast their two votes for the same two men Jefferson and Aaron Burr of New York thereby tied with 73 electoral votes each. Contributing to Adams' third place finish was the three-fifths clause in the Constitution.

Alexander Hamilton

For ___________, arguably the key weakness of the Articles of Confederation Had been its inability to tax and thus provide funds needed to operate a strong federal government. Agreed with James Madison regarding the importance of a tariff But the new obligations of funding and assumption necessitated a push for new taxes beyond Madison's earlier 5% revenue tariff. _________ saw an increased tariff as the most important source of revenue for the new American republic. He therefore suggested hiking the tariff to 10% Alarming many Americans like Patrick Henry (right) Who feared tyranny emanating from the new taxes being created by a distant national government. _________'s neo-mercantilist method secondarily aimed to foster and help new and/or small US manufacturing companies Hard-pressed to compete with vastly superior British firms and products The higher tariff would encourage Americans to buy American-made products

General Washington

Formal, austere, aloof, and cold, he oozed superiority from every pore: ideal for a commander-in-chief. Failed to win any pitched battle of major strategic significance. Deserves enormous credit, however, for pursuing a conservative strategy that avoided a catastrophic defeat •Thus keeping the often precarious Continental Army intact and in the field as a powerful symbol of the Revolution•___________ understood that defeat of his army in one climactic battle could well have ended the American bid for independence.

Landed States

Four stormy and difficult years passed before the Articles of Confederation was ratified by all thirteen states•This delay largely resulted from unresolved disputes over western lands. Ratification was delayed in part because the seven "_____________" refused to relinquish their western territorial claims, needing the money to pay their Revolutionary War debts•The six land-locked states only agreed to ratify the Articles after the cession of the disputed western lands to the US government. This four year deadlock was finally resolved when the seven lucky ____________ agreed to abandon their claims and turn the land rights over to the national government•The Articles of Confederation then used the monies collected from the sale of these western lands to begin to pay off the nation's considerable war debts•Meanwhile, Indian land rights and claims were systematically ignored

Jeffersonians

Francophiles (France Admiring) Strict interpretation Agrarian economy (farmer) Elitist, but with more faith in the small farmer Supported paying off the national debt at market value, not face value National debt is unhealthy Deeply suspicious of banks, especially the BUS

James Wilson

From Pennsylvania, proposed the "3/5 Compromise"

Patrick Henry

From Virginia, an ardent Patriot, declared he "smelled a rat" in the proposed new document, speaking for many Anti-federalists•They saw in the new office of President, for example, strong potential for tyranny•Reversing the egalitarian, democratic, and state-centered gains won in the Revolutionary struggle

Township Grid

From the detailed land survey ______________s were created, each thirty-six square miles in size (six miles by six miles, right) •The townships were in turn subdivided into distinct 640 acre lots (right)•The grid system epitomized a rational, ordered, universal, mathematically quantifiable division, all precisely accomplished using surveyor's instruments. Notice that in every surveyed 36 square mile section Congress reserved several plots as property of the United States•America's new leaders were also keen students of ancient Greek and Roman history, and looked to those great civilizations for guideposts to living in the late 18th century. Congress also hoped to use the money raised from the sale of these western lands to reduce the national debt •Which had resulted from borrowing so much money to fight the War for Independence•The new nation's leaders did not take into account the claims of Native peoples who had long inhabited these lands. Squatters (settlers who moved into the area and simply established a farm without paying for the land or legally owning it) hindered the process of organizing and selling off these western lands•As did the remnants of the Indian groups like the Wyandot (right) and other tribes who had long inhabited these lands and considered them sacred

Elastic Clause

Further pleasing Hamilton an "_____________" was inserted by the nationalists•Granting Congress the power to "make all laws...necessary and proper"•Localist leaders were especially alarmed at these phrases that seemed to open the floodgates to central government power. (Also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause).

First Amendment

Gave explicit guarantees of five rights/freedoms: Religion ("Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof") Speech Press Assembly Petition

Native Americans

Had long employed inventive strategies to maintain their manpower and win trade concessions•Bluffing, leveraging European rivalries, sometimes fighting as proxies in the wars for empire •To maintain maximum advantage for themselves and their lands: their tactics in the War for Independence were no different. Tribes and bands were often divided among themselves as to the best strategy in the American Revolution•Whether to pursue active neutrality, side with the British, or, much less frequently, actually help the rebels •Indian sachems persuaded, they did not command, allowing all tribesmen freedom of choice in this crucial decisions for war or peace. While a Rebel victory would mean further westward expansion, at the expense of native peoples •Delivering a crippling blow for the indigenous cultures: another important step in their long-term defeat and conquest•Even the mighty Iroquois confederacy was defeated in the years following the War by a series of American military expeditions. Furthermore, the they lost large amounts of land to the rebels in the Treaty of Paris (Britain, ignoring Indian land claims, granted generous western borders all the way to the Mississippi River)

Thomas Jefferson

Himself believed that liberty and virtue Could only thrive in a society with broad social and economic equality among citizens: shop-owning artisans and small family farms. His followers favored both maximum personal freedom and minimal taxes. The independent rural yeoman farmer, self-reliant, free, and virtuous on his land, best embodied the "real American" (stake in society) Jefferson, based on his personal visits to bleak English factory towns Had long harbored a distrust of cities as breeding grounds for inequality, poverty, squalor, disease, crime, pollution, and general human misery. Also believed that because "elections have consequences" loyal supporters should be given any available federal jobs (Patronage) The president himself refused to sanction any across the board dismissal of Federalist employees. By 1808 virtually almost no Federalists occupied jobs in the federal bureaucracy and national government __________ saw patronage as "the will of the people" while Federalists spun it as "tyranny"

Edmund Randolph

His plan for a new constitution captured the hopes of the delegates from the larger, more populated states (Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania). ____________ and his supporters believed that the bulk of the proposed increases in the power of the national government should favor the most populous states (Creator of the Virginia Plan).

Slavery

How, some leaders in northern states asked, could slavery be reconciled with Jefferson's phrase "unalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness?" •Was _________ compatible with a virtuous republic, they wondered?•Manumissions increased in northern states (individual masters voluntarily choosing to free their slaves). How, some leaders in northern states asked, could slavery be reconciled with Jefferson's phrase "unalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness?" •Was _________ compatible with a virtuous republic, they wondered?•Manumissions increased in northern states (individual masters voluntarily choosing to free their slaves). The pre- Revolutionary War 1760s featured the largest importation of _________ of any single decade in the colonial period•But by 1790 only South Carolina and Georgia still legally allowed the practice•This reduction in the importation of Africans can be explained in part by the natural increase in the slave population brought about by encouraging extra-legal slave marriages and families ("from the womb"). This significant reduction in the external slave trade also resulted from the now deep-seated and justified white fears of rebellion throughout the new nation.

federalism

Implied placing most political power and decision-making in the hands of the individual states rather than the central government. The word implied a "states' rights" stance and strong support for the Tenth Amendment (Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions)

Supremacy Clause (Judicial Branch)

In a major concession to the cosmopolitan Nationalists language in Article 6 elevated national government authority over that of the states •Subject to ratification, the new Constitution and all laws passed under it were now the designated the "supreme law of the land." implied but did not explicitly authorize a national judicial veto of state laws•Article VI contained a long list of powers denied to the states (which presumably the new national Judiciary would enforce)

Federalists

In the election of 1800, __________ also lost their majorities in both houses of Congress, having been soundly defeated in the 1800 election. Their only remaining regional stronghold was New England, heavily dependent on shipping and commercially tied to Great Britain. They became the "loyal but isolated opposition" during the next generation of American politics Watching in horror as their political foes, first Jefferson and then James Madison (right), guided the nation They faded from the scene as a national force after the War of 1812 during the "Era of Good Feelings"

Annapolis Convention

In the wake of Shays' Rebellion the cosmopolitan nationalists convened a meeting•To address the problem, as they saw it, of a too feeble national government •And its inability to address, let alone solve, what they saw as the many grave problems facing the new nation. The Annapolis meeting failed, however, unable even to gain the attention of enough states and delegates •The frustrated attendees present agreed to organize and attend a second, subsequent meeting in Philadelphia scheduled for the following summer, 1787

Sixth Amendment

This amendment guarantees the right to "a speedy and public trial" By "an impartial jury" (of one's peers) European monarchs on a whim habitually imprisoned dissenters or those suspected of a crime with no hearing or trial, often for years. Anyone formally charged with a crime is entitled to a preliminary hearing (habeas corpus) So that an accused person does not have to sit in jail for years awaiting his/her day in court. At this hearing the government must present the evidence they have gathered to a judge who then determines if enough evidence exists to try the person for the crime. Also included is the right of the accused to have a defense counsel (an lawyer to protect your rights and present your side of the case)

Britain

________ and her allies, championing Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Church Battled revolutionary and later Napoleonic France (Liberte', Egalite', Fraternite') With each side locked in a titanic struggle for mastery of the Atlantic world, 1792-1815. Each side (________ and France) was convinced the other posed a grave threat to the future of mankind Both France and _________ treated the new and feeble US as a pawn to be bullied and used.

Spain

__________'s military purpose also blocked westward American territorial expansion•The helplessness of Congress in dealing with _________ was yet another burr under the saddle of "nationalist" leaders•Who were demanding a new, stronger central government

Third Amendment

To reassure the citizens that they would not be required to house military troops in their homes. Echoes of the resentment triggered among colonists over Quartering Act in the 1760s And the traditional English idea that "a man's home was his castle" and that even the king could not enter without his consent

Alexander Hamilton

had little faith in the bulk of ordinary citizens: "the people, sir, are a great beast", "if the people rule, who shall be ruled?" He argued that our best chance to succeed necessitated placing the very best men into decision-making positions. Hamilton envisioned the nation's business and political leaders as drawn from the ranks of the most accomplished men Whose deeds, not birth, determined their station in life ("natural aristocracy"). As a staunch Anglophile Hamilton also sought to model the new US. On the "tried and true" practices of England (the stability provided by monarchy, aristocracy, and the national Church of England). He also insisted the nascent American economy be linked to Great Britain. America's puny military and economic standing left it no choice but to steer along a pro-British course Infuriating Thomas Jefferson and his Anglophobe supporters

Separation of Powers

part of the executive branch; After some discussion Congress then agreed that the President could fire his cabinet officials without consent of Congress Deferring to the President's prerogatives and strengthening the Executive Branch. The Senate did have, however, the explicit power to approve those nominated by the President for cabinet posts

Mercantilist

Trade by new world colonies with the now independent USA jeopardized this traditional imperial-__________ symbiosis between mother country and "pawn" colony •By diverting raw goods and specie from that European colony to American merchants. Many jobs and occupations in the post-war era in the American seaports depended on vigorous and flourishing trade and shipping•The level of US commerce plunged because the new nation was no longer in the lucrative British ___________ trade orbit•Triggering US business decline and widespread under-employment.

State

Where locally elected men would pass __________ laws and levy _________ taxes•The very same men who set the taxes would also have to pay them, thus helping in insure fairness•Keep power localized within the individual __________ where it could best watched and curbed.

Francophiles

Jefferson and Madison further suggested that the British had long oppressed Americans And did not now deserve our loyalty or support (they bitterly remembered among many examples, Lord Dunmore's Proclamation). Hamilton disagreed with the ___________, countering that treaties were made between governments not nations Therefore rendering the 1778 Treaty null and void because the radical revolutionaries had executed King Louis XVI, The leader of the French government and the original signatory of the 1778 Alliance.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

Jefferson and Madison, outraged at these blatant threats to free speech and civil liberties (Alien and Sedition Acts), Offered written counter-attacks against the two new Federalist measures. Their resolutions were rooted in states rights and hinted that the proper and constitutional response to such "Federalist tyranny" was invalid. The Resolutions, citing the Tenth Amendment, argued that the elected leaders of individual states could void any federal law within their borders If that legislation, in the opinion of the state's elected representatives Exceeded the constitutional powers expressly granted to the national government under the 1787 Constitution

separation of church and state

Jefferson supported Roger Williams' 1630s call for separation of ____________•And had authored his own humanistic version of the Gospels and the life of Christ •He emphasized the human side of Jesus and the egalitarian and loving aspects of Christ's teachings

Sectionalism

Jefferson, with the second highest electoral vote (each elector cast two), was declared vice-president. Note the inclusion in the electoral voting of new western states Kentucky and Tennessee, as well as Vermont. Note also the _____________ nature of the balloting as the southern electors voted overwhelmingly for Jefferson while most northern votes went to Adams

Privateers

Misunderstanding the level of popular American support for France Genet then brazenly proceeded to commission US ___________ And boldly urged Congress to repudiate the president's Neutrality Proclamation. These actions infuriated Washington and alienated Jefferson, who saw such activity as a slap in the face to American sovereignty, honor, and neutrality

Yorktown

Nowhere was French aid more telling than at the siege of __________ in 1781•Marquis de Lafayette (right), General Rochambeau and Admiral de Grasse joined Washington's Continental army to bottle up the British at __________ in 1781•Hastening the end the Revolutionary War, and American independence.

Spanish

The ___________ closed the Mississippi River to the transport of US agricultural goods (PARIAH STATUS)•Angering settlers dependent on this route for their commercial farming livelihood •And gentlemen-leaders whose "honor" was offended by the weakness of the US government under the weak Articles of Confederation. Southern American leaders were also upset that ________ encouraged slaves were to escape and seek refuge in Spanish Florida•A weak US government could do little to block ___________ actions or the return of these runaways•Prominent southern planters demanded action from a feeble federal government

Tenth Amendment

"Powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States, or to the people" Another 18th century attempt to reassure Anti-federalists that the new central government would not become abusive. Much used by pre-Civil War southern slave holders. Also a favorite amendment for post-1932 Republicans, anxious to limit the reach of government (especially when a Democrat occupied the White House). Now, ironically, the amendment is cited by Democrats and marijuana advocates in individual states who are alarmed at what they perceive as Trump's overreach into state affairs

Supreme Court

"The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in a ____________" •Whose reach would extend to "all cases in law and equity, arising under this Constitution (paving the way for the notion of "judicial review")•A ____________ was created with only appellate jurisdiction (their cases only involved appeals from lower court rulings and decisions). Controversy surrounded the Framers' decision to give federal judges lifetime appointments proved a conundrum•Serving "for life" distanced judges from the masses and insured they would decide cases on the law rather than pressures from the majority•Only impeachment could remedy "judicial tyranny" or malfeasance that might surface in the wake of lifetime appointments

Preamble

"We the People" was the ingenious phrase coined by Gouverneur Morris, a Pennsylvania delegate in yet another ingenious compromise•An idea that rhetorically placed the fulcrum with the citizenry and not the separate states•Thus helping mitigate the divisions between "slave and free" and "small and large" states. Deciding on the phrase "we the People" also served to place a strong emphasis on "united" over "states" in the new nation's post-revolutionary name•No mention of God ANYWHERE in the document reiterates the notion that the framers were Deists, not Providentialists•Who invoked "God" as a guaranteed rallying cry more than a heartfelt belief. The final document featured a decisive shift in political power toward the national government

Charles Beard

A historian who found that most of the men writing the new Constitution had a significant personal financial stake in a much stronger national government and stood to benefit significantly from the process. They held the nearly worthless bonds (IOUs) issued by the Articles government during the War for Independence•And believed the sanctity of contracts clause (slides 203-204), the "supremacy" clause (#181), and "full faith and credit" clause (#202) •Would do much to protect their property and assets from stay laws being drafted in the individual states. And, most importantly, allow for the new, stronger US government to pay the full face value of the now vastly underpriced Revolutionary War bonds that they held•Many Framers had either lent money to the Patriot Cause, or purchased the all but useless bonds from War veterans and other holders. Consensus Historians categorically rejected __________'s earlier insistence that the Framers were self-interested men who acted out of a desire for financial gain

President

A new office that frightened many localists(soon known as Anti-federalists)•The delegates distanced the __________ from the general public (who had only a very indirect voice in his selection)•Commander-in-chief of the army and navy frightened many of those opposed to the new constitution. Only the ___________ could ask Congress to declare war•For posterity, they mandated that he must be born a US citizen and have resided in the US for fourteen years•The ____________'s executive branch was given sole power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations, thus placing control of diplomacy with the Executive Branch. The ___________ also had the sole power to appoint ambassadors and, federal judges, and Supreme Court judges (with the "advise and consent" of the Senate)•The Constitution also mandated that a "state of the union" message must be communicated to the Congress by the ___________ "from time to time"

Abigail Adams

A remarkable woman, married to John Adams•She chided her husband with the famous remark, "Remember the Ladies"•Upbraiding John and all Patriot husbands for demanding rights and independence from England while not extending them to their own wives (property ownership while married). Women in the era who married forfeited all their property to the control and ownership of their husbands•Thus, _________ asserted that as American men condemned the "tyranny" of King George III they themselves were tyrants in the home.

Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays were authored by Alexander Hamilton (51), James Madison (26), and John Jay (5),•They presented a series of cogent arguments in support of ratification of the Constitution•The three anonymous writers used the pseudonym "Publius" (Latin for "the people"). In the single most famous essay Madison argued that a large republic would militate against the very factionalism that many opponents believed was bound to surface•In opposition to the critics of the Constitution who argued that history indicated that republics only succeeded in small geographic areas. The Constitution was approved by narrow majorities in several key states

Federalists

Adams-Hamilton split fatally weakened the dominant ______________ And opened the door to Jefferson's victory in the presidential election of 1800. Many ordinary citizens were now offended by the perception of an arrogant power grab by Anglophile _____________. Had held total US government power for twelve stormy years But had much to answer for according to their Jeffersonian critics. Many leading citizens believed it was time for a change. Their snobbish reputation and disdain for ordinary citizens Was now cemented in the minds of many American citizens, damaging their reputation with voters. This arrogance also contributed to Jefferson's presidential victory in 1800. Review: support was strongest among merchants, manufacturers, and commercial farmers near the Atlantic coast. ____________ were also divided into two factions: Adams' "peace and patience" group vied against Hamilton's "war against France to please Britain" partisans

Thomas Paine

Adding to President Washington's great disappointment with the bitter partisan battles being waged around him, Came a stinging rebuke from, of all people, __________, who had recently departed to France to stir up the inhabitants against the "tyranny" of King Louis XVI. When the French Revolution later turned much more radical _________ ran afoul of the new government and faced possible execution. Washington, in _________'s opinion, did not do enough to intervene with the radical French revolutionary government to save his jeopardized life. After eventually winning his freedom ________ published a vitriolic attack in a number of US Jeffersonian-leaning opposition newspapers Impugning the character and integrity of his old comrade, George Washington. His words deeply wounded President Washington and added to his sense of frustration after eight long years of bitter partisan wrangling

excise taxes

After Congressional passage of funding, assumption, and the Bank, Hamilton then proposed _________ as a new source of income for the federal government. From the Latin to "cut from" in today's language it would be akin to a sale's tax. That is, a tax added to the price of a product by a city, county, state, or the national government in order to raise money to operate Hamilton sought Congressional passage of __________ to supplement the tariff. As a Federalist Hamilton believed that the power to tax and spend Was closely tied to the power to govern effectively. He saw _____________ as yet another tool to advance the revenue collecting power of the national government.

Articles of Confederation

After much discussion and compromise in the midst of a war with Britain •The delegates to the Second Continental Congress drew up a "plan of perpetual union," known as the __________. Were sent out by Congress to the separate states in 1777•All thirteen states had ratified it by 1781. During those years it provided a solid if flawed framework from which to govern while fighting the War for Independence. The clear intent of the "rebel generation" was to place most of what little national government power they allowed in the hands of the unicameral legislative branch •In line with the English Whig tradition •That strongly mistrusted royal power (with authority largely vested in the legislative branch of the national government). Could only be amended by a unanimous vote (with each state getting one vote)•Thus making changes extremely difficult, thereby reigning in the central government•No chief executive was included, a natural outgrowth of the belief among many of the drafters that King George III was a "corrupt tyrant." Many Patriot leaders and ordinary citizens believed governmental and taxation power should rest primarily at the individual state level

Congress (cont.)

After much dissension and debate following the move to the Virginia Plan •The delegates finally agreed that Senate members would serve six (6) year terms in ____________ and be elected by the legislature of the state• While House of Representatives members would serve two (2) year terms and be elected directly by the citizens. _____________ was empowered to Levy and collect taxes (tariffs were the primary federal tax)•And borrow money if needed, to fund the federal government•As well as provide the funding for the "common defense" and the "general welfare"•And given the the sole power to declare war. Regulate commerce with foreign nations and between the states ("interstate commerce" clause)•Create all laws regarding naturalization of incoming new citizens from abroad•Organize, arm, and discipline the militia, as well as call it into service. Administer national patents and copyrights•__________ alone could declare war, print money, and approve agreements with foreign powers

Luther Martin

An ardent anti-Federalist delegate from Maryland, opposed any measure that threatened state sovereignty or that appeared elitist and aristocratic•He and Hamilton vehemently disagreed•At the convention ___________ became increasingly isolated, buffeted by the strong nationalistic and centralizing winds blowing.He left Philadelphia and returned home to "spread the alarm" •That the delegates were creating a new document that placed too much power into too few hands in a distant national capital •Thus creating, he suggested, the opportunity for tyranny, corruption and the usurpation of citizens' individual liberties

Hamiltonians

Anglophiles (Britain admiring) Loose interpretation Mixed economy Unabashed support of the wealthier Americans Supported "funding at par" Public Debt as the glue tying the rich to the nation Supported the BUS Nationalists

Shay's Rebellion

Angry Massachusetts farmers and war veterans took direct action•They opposed the "hard money" (Specie) policies •As well as the increasing state taxes imposed by Massachusetts leaders. They sought "stay laws" designed to delay or suspend the repayment of the private debts •That plagued many ordinary citizens in the wake of the Massachusetts postwar financial meltdown•When many ordinary citizens had been forced to borrow money to keep their heads above water. The pleas of these ordinary Massachusetts men fell on deaf ears •As the state legislature defiantly levied a new round of taxes that were designed to pay the state's wartime debts. Many of the disgruntled 500 Revolutionary War veterans who marched had been given neither their government-promised backpay nor their agreed upon bonuses for for service in the Patriot Cause. were Revolutionary War veterans whose motto was "we don't sue you, we sack you." Were met in Springfield by a force of militiamen called out by state leaders to "stop anarchy and restore order"•They dispersed after a militia musket volley killed four of their number. Massachusetts leaders were willing to forgive and forget this uprising by patriotic but angry Revolutionary War veterans•Formal pardons were issued, eventually even Shays himself and other top leaders were forgiven

Debt

Another major challenge facing the US Congress was the nation's $35 million __________ (both principle and interest) •Borrowed to procure military supplies during the Revolutionary War •A great deal of this ________ was owed to Dutch and French bankers. Congress, unable to tax under the Articles of Confederation could only ask the skeptical separate states for money•Congress was forced to borrow even more money just to meet the ________'s interest payments •Further increasing the overall national ___________ in a vicious downward cycle. Saddled with both principle and interest payments both state and national government __________ continued to mount•State and local taxes then rose in order to meet these __________, angering many citizens. As the perception among many Americans became widespread •That independence from Britain had been justified by unfair royal taxation•Angry citizens thus saw themselves as back in the same fix, as heavily _________ states raised taxes to meet these wartime loans _________

John Adams

Ardent champion of the patriot cause in the War for Independence. 1780s first US ambassador to Great Britain and then Vice-President under Washington Dubbed by opponents "His Rotundity" for his short and stout stature and, occasional contrarian arrogance, and belief that Washington should have served for life. An unrepentant elitist, A committed Federalist who believed in a vigorous national government to curb the "passions" of the unwashed masses and the "excesses and corruptions" of the states (stay laws, for example) and __________ was appalled as well by the French Revolution. President ___________ wisely refused the demands of the Hamiltonian hawks for an outright declaration of war against France Knowing this no war stance might well cost him the 1800 presidential election. __________ epitomized Virtue in this instance by placing the needs of his country well above his own political gain

Republican Motherhood

As a republic, the new nation depended for its success on "virtuous citizens." Mothers in the home were thus vested with a new and critical task of educating their sons•Molding their sons into virtuous citizens •Who placed the good of the nation above their private needs, thus ensuring the success of the young republic

Framers

As one historian noted, "the well bred, the well-fed, the well-read and the well-wed"•More than 1/3 owned slaves•Many of the delegates had been officers in the Continental Army or occupied important government positions during the War. Not saints but human beings with all their faults, flaws, foibles ,and paradoxes•55 prominent men (average age, early 40s), many of whom held the debts, IOUs and securities of the weak national government, •The face value of these notes had plummeted in value. Most of the delegates shared with returning former Loyalists a strong belief in the "rule of law" and social stability based on deference•And embraced key elements of the Organic View of society articulated by Hobbes in the 17th century•Most viewed the masses with distrust while expecting them to pay their debts in full. They suggested that the inept leaders of the individual states abounded in corruption, licentiousness, and mismanagement.

Slave trade

At the insistence of southern delegates the convention agreed that discussion about ending the __________ could not occur until 1808 (twenty years down the road)•And that slavery would only be referenced in the new constitution by euphemisms ("such persons," for example). Delegates, employing euphemistic language at the insistence of Southerners present, •Pledged that the federal government would aid in the capture and return of runaway slaves•And the new Constitution promised the aid of the national government to put down "domestic violence" (a phrase the delegates used meaning slave revolts). The delegates also agreed to add language prohibiting sheltering fugitive slaves even in northern states •This was in part a continuation of a recent compromise reached when southern states had agreed in Congress to a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory. By burying slavery at the 1787 Convention the Framers essentially "kicked the can down the road," sowing the seeds eighty years later for a Civil War in which 700,000 died•Keeping the original thirteen states together trumped all other concerns in 1787, however, and pushed northern delegates time and again to cave in to southern demands to protect slavery

The Great Compromise

At this juncture the supporters of the New Jersey plan agreed to abandon their small state favoring goal of a one-house (unicameral) national legislature •And accept the bi-cameral (two-house) approach of the Virginia plan that featured more clout for the most populated states. But only after insisting that the upper house (Senate) would favor the small states•The delegates agreed to give all thirteen states two (2) seats in this upper chamber, regardless of size and population•And they agreed to base the lower branch (House of Representatives) on population, thus favoring the larger states. How would the delegates "sell" a new and stronger constitution to the skeptical states?

1787 Northwest Ordinance

Became a second major legislative accomplishment of the Articles Congress•This law provided for the rational political organization of the same western lands that had already been dealt with in the 1785 Land Ordinance.When the mapped out and surveyed areas within the Ohio country attained 5,000 inhabitants •They could apply to Congress for designation as a territory•The territory's leaders could then ask Congress for statehood when the population reached 60,000. This landmark bill thus allowed for the admission new states on an equal footing with the original thirteen

Impressment

British practice of taking American sailors and forcing them into military service; Numerous factors triggered conscript desertions from the British Navy: low pay, poor food/water, long sea voyages, floggings, and being fired upon by French warships. Furthermore, US merchant ship captains, anxious to employ experienced sailors Often given fake US citizenship papers to deserters from the Royal Navy. These US vessels were then stopped by British warships at sea and forced to turn over the fugitives. Further insulting American honor, British warships also seized with impunity neutral American merchant ships bound for any French port On the grounds that commercial aid to Britain's enemy constituted an act of war.

British Defeat/Patriot Victory

British tactical and strategic caution alternated with arrogance: both were ongoing impediments to success throughout the war•Other important British global concerns eventually overrode the will to do what was necessary to retain the thirteen North American colonies. Contributing to Britain's tactical challenges was the inability to consistently supply their inland troops operating beyond the coastal seaport belt•The contempt with which British military units in the field treated many colonists also added to their wartime predicament:•Food and fuel were often arrogantly seized, often without payment, from local residents. All of these factors contributed to a gradual ebbing of the English national commitment to retain the American colonies •Especially in light of the ongoing, stubborn, and tenacious Patriot resistance, which also played a key role in winning American independence. An important factor in the long-term patriot success was the ability of local rebel militia units •To gradually induce or cajole local, neutral men into their ranks and thus into the rebellion. Another critical element in the eventual Patriot victory was the decision of many southern planters to side with the rebellion•Slave-owning planters did so in part because many owed large debts to British creditors •And saw independence as a way to escape these obligations (crucial role of self-interest alongside principle). Another factor driving southern slave-owners to Patriot side was their anger over the implications of Dunmore's Proclamation. Also critical to the American victory was the Patriot's ability to bring many of the "disinterested" neutral 50% of the male population actively into the rebellion

Election of 1800

Burr, ever ambitious, remained in New York after the electoral tie was announced But refused to step aside in the wake of the unintended electoral college deadlock This decision infuriated Jeffersonian leaders, all of whom strongly preferred the very accomplished Virginian as chief executive. Burr coyly insisted that the new 1787 Constitution's mandate that electoral ties be decided in the House of Representatives, with each state granted one vote, must be followed. Not for his sake, he said, but rather to foster a collective sense of the "rule of law" and respect for the new Constitution In the House tie-breaking process each state was granted a single vote, giving an edge to the smaller states. With sixteen total states, and each given one vote either Jefferson or Burr needed nine to win the presidency. Further complicating the situation, many Jefferson-hating Federalists in the House had lost their seats in the __________ and were only serving out the last "lame duck" months of their tenure (Burr counting on this to win).

Black Church

Churches in northern towns like Philadelphia were often largely segregated•These churches helped fashion a new and distinctive black urban culture in the decades after the Revolution •That provided free blacks a buffer against the suspicions and stereotypes of surrounding whites

Cabinet

Congress authorized the continued operation of three Departments from the Articles of Confederation days Now at the disposal of President Washington and his Executive Branch: War, State, and Treasury Congress then added two new _________ posts: Attorney General and Postmaster General

Old Northwest

Congress deemed slaves currently in the Northwest Territory as legitimate property of their owners •But barred masters from bringing other slaves into the area •Thus making the region much more attractive to white small farmers who did not want "unfair" competition from plantation slave labor. New white settlers in the _____________ also supported this clause because it reduced the threat of slave revolts•Eventually many of the newly formed states in the ______________ voted to outlaw slavery within their boundaries•Not out of a concern for the plight of slaves, but rather out the self-interest just described above, as well as inherent racism

Land Speculation Companies

Congress, frustrated, washed its hands of the problem by selling some areas of the Ohio country to _____________. Whose responsibility it then became to market individual farm plots to pioneers and settlers, presumably at a profit

1783 Newburgh Conspiracy

Demobilizing the Continental Army posed a major challenge for Congress •Many troops refused to go home until their arrears in pay had been addressed by Congress•A body that had no direct way to raise the funds to pay them. Even General Washington's own top officers muttered about taking direct action •If pay matters weren't put right by the Articles of Confederation Congress•The ____________ was so named because that was the New York town where the army was camped in 1783 when the incident occurred. This incipient revolt was overcome only by the direct intervention of General Washington•Who brokered a compromise between the angry and frustrated army officers and Congress•Washington shamed his querulous officers in a meeting he called to discuss their pay grievances. Washington began the meeting by putting on a pair of glasses and saying, "I have grown grey and almost blind in the service of my country"•These simple but profound words shamed and embarrassed his officers •By reminding them that virtue (patriotic unselfishness and humble service) remained the key to the new nation's success

1794 Whiskey Rebellion

Hamilton placed an excise tax on the jugs of whiskey produced in western Pennsylvania. But the whiskey jugs were often used as currency in specie-starved frontier areas. Hamilton insisted that every time a jug of whiskey changed hands it was subject to the tax Thereby infuriating western Pennsylvanians (tyranny). Republican purists saw ominous echoes of the 1765 stamp tax. They responded to the whiskey tax in 1794 with armed crowd actions and a military show of force Leading President Washington to call out a federal army To suppress such "defiance against the authority of the national government," Thus turning the crisis into a test of the Washington administration's ability to govern, exactly as Hamilton wanted. A 13,000 man force, raised by Washington and led by Hamilton, then marched into western Pennsylvania But the battle Hamilton had desired (to demonstrate the authority of the US government and the rule of law) never occurred

Assumption Plan

Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, proposed that the federal government take over responsibility for the re-payment of individual states' unpaid debts That had been incurred fighting the War for Independence. Thus tying the individual states more closely to the success of the Union by taking on responsibility for repaying their obligations Hamilton's supporters saw this as a brilliant plan to emphasize "united" over "states," and Congress passed the needed legislation. Congress passed a bill transferring remaining state revolutionary war debts ($21.5 million) to the federal government Enthusiastically supported by Federalists As a measure that would more closely tether the states to the new central government. Hamilton's Jeffersonian political enemies saw ____________ as a rash and foolhardy overreach by the Federalist-controlled central government That risked bankrupting the fragile new nation and cause further division among the states

Twelfth Amendment

Hamilton, as the week of electoral gridlock dragged on and the crisis deepened, pragmatically came to see that the Virginian was in fact the actual lesser of two evils Jefferson, Hamilton argued, may have bad principles, but Burr had none at all! A few key Federalist House leaders, probably urged by Hamilton, finally switched their states' votes to Jefferson to save the Union. And thus the deadlock was broken on the thirty-sixth ballot, making the Virginian president and perhaps literally saving the new republic. The more reactionary Federalists, however, believed that a deal with the devil had been made by electing the "Anti-Christ" from Virginia. Congress rectified this electoral college deadlock mistake a few years later with the passage of the ______________ Which mandated that each elector designate one of their votes for a specific presidential choice and the other for a different vice-presidential candidate. Jeffersonians were now ascendant and the majority in the states from Maryland southward, having won a clear majority in the House and Senate Governing power was then peacefully transferred from the outgoing Federalists to the Jeffersonian-Republicans

Iroquois

Interior tribes such as the once mighty _____________ confederacy, weakened and divided by the Revolutionary War,•Had their worst fears realized during the ensuing decades •As the victorious American republic succeeded in militarily pushing them out of their historic lands. Native peoples along the western frontier were now forced to reckon with an aggressive and expansionistic American government •Bent on removing them from their historic lands by any means necessary •To pave the way for westward moving settlers. US troops overcame initial defeats along the frontier•By adopting the old colonial era policy of burning the crops (food supply) of disease-weakened Indians and destroying their towns•Pushing many of the war-weary and depleted Iroquois survivors north into British Canada

Localists

Lived mostly in isolated, independent communities that stressed the egalitarianism of the moral economy•Many lived inland well away from the coast and far from trade and commercial routes•Many were indebted farmers and small property owners, many of whom had been militia soldiers or officers during the War. They favored reducing the size and expense of government and resented paying taxes•Most had minimal formal schooling and opposed taxes to fund public schools•Most had little contact or understanding of the wider outside world. Squeezed by the burden of increased taxes many __________ supported debtor relief (stay laws) in their respective states •They also backed inflationary monetary policies: print paper money to make the repayment of their loans easier. feared banks and urban merchants who could win court judgements to seize their assets for non-payment of debts •They viewed both as creditors who threatened their modest stake in society•Few held wartime IOUs (bonds) from either the federal or state governments

Cosmopolitans

Localists leaders clashed with the elite "______________" •Who later favored government by a "natural aristocracy" of rational, educated disinterested men •Men with a deep knowledge of history, politics, and the law should lead the republic, said _____________. Dismissed the masses as a licentious mob of irresponsible provincial bumpkins •While Localists saw the so-called "natural aristocracy" as arrogant, self-interested snobs•Who, if they seized power, would create a new form of tyranny and corruption to oppress ordinary citizens. Were concerned with the lack of a stronger central government, especially in light of the embarrassment of Shays Rebellion•They provided the impetus for a meeting to revise the "weak" Articles of Confederation •In the direction of much more central government power (that could be used to suppress the "anarchy" and "mob rule" within the individual states)

Slaves

Lord Dunmore's 1775 Proclamation in Virginia brought hope, courage, tragedy to the __________ population•In a wartime letter to a friend the rebel Governor of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, lamented hearing reports of up to 30,000 escapes in his state alone. The free black population rose to almost 60,000 in the generations following the War for Independence. Black and Quaker spokesmen cited Jefferson's Declaration of Independence in their post-war arguments for abolition of ________ •"All men are created equal" they asserted (even though Jefferson only meant "white")•The Great Paradox of American independence: freedom and _________ co-existing in the new nation.

Slavery in the early Republic

Many Northern congressmen came to embrace the southern view that the Constitution protected property as the very foundation of liberty. And therefore Congress had no authority to tamper with the "peculiar institution" (right) where it already existed. Thus leaving the matter solely to the individual states as to the legality of slavery within their borders (Tenth Amendment). The vast bulk of ordinary northern whites also embraced the racist conclusion of black inferiority. This blind bigotry led whites to conclude that freeing "inferiors" was an injustice Because they could not succeed as free men in America's commercial and political environment Factor in as well the northern racist phobia that free blacks leaving the South would live on my street, take my job, and "date my daughter"

Deist

Many of the Founding Fathers were __________ steeped in Enlightenment beliefs•Who seldom attended church, largely REJECTED PROVIDENTIALISM, and DID NOT believe in an afterlife•They did publicly invoke God, primarily to win the support of more providentialist citizens or to image the United States as special. Independence from Great Britain and its Anglican church spurred the movement among ________ American leaders to sever all ties between church and state •With the argument that liberty of conscience was the dearest of all rights

Delegates

Many resided along the Atlantic coast of their home state or major navigable rivers that abutted long-established counties •Most, unlike the localists, were merchants, lawyers, and important commercial farmers who were comfortable dealing with the cosmopolitan nature of the wider Atlantic world. Most agreed that a more unified nation under a stronger and more centralized government •That could rise above the petty disagreements of the separate states •Was vitally needed to avoid both economic and national decline. Some urged a revision of the Articles while others called for scrapping this decentralized framework and drafting a stronger constitution•The most alarmed among them believed that under the Articles of Confederation framework •The nation was teetering on the verge of atomization into thirteen separate republics. Most were convinced that stronger federal government powers and involvement were needed to "promote the general welfare."

Localists

Many state leaders were quite comfortable with most governmental power•Especially taxation, vested in the elected legislatures of the individual thirteen states•If locally elected men "overtax" they can be voted out of office, ____________ reasoned. Further, as kingpins in their respective states men such as Sam Adams (right) jealously guarded their powers, perks, and domains•And resisted any talk of shifting power and authority •Toward a distant and strong national government (later they were known as the "anti-federalists"). They feared that the President would soon come to resemble King George III (especially his new role as commander in chief of the armed forces)•"Too much power, in too few hands, in a distant national capital"

Founding Fathers

Many supported payment in full (face value) of all outstanding government debt (bonds and IOUs) •And a national stabilization of the then feeble American dollar•Most opposed state debtor relief and stay laws and locally printed paper money. Most were very affluent or men of comfortable financial means (holding substantially more personal assets than owed debts)•They convened in Philadelphia in mid-May of 1787 and proceeded without authority over the next two months to create an entirely new constitution. Virtually all of the ____________ who arrived in Philadelphia agreed that a more powerful central government was needed•Some believed the way forward was to retain the Articles of Confederation but give Congress more authority. They specifically sought new, added direct taxation power for Congress•As well as more authority for that same body to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. During their first few weeks of discussion and debate they fell into two camps: supporters of large state interests and advocates of small state concerns

Marbury v. Madison

Marbury, yet another of the midnight appointees by the outgoing Adams administration Did not receive his judgeship papers: drafted at the last minute, they sat undelivered on the desk of the outgoing Secretary of State. Madison, the new Secretary of State, arrived the next morning for his first day on the job And refused to deliver Marbury's judicial commission, on orders from President Jefferson, effectively denying Marbury his position as a new judge. Marbury then sued, asking the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus ("we order") to compel the Jefferson administration to deliver his judicial commission. Chief Justice John Marshall, by the sheer force of his iron will and personality Persuaded the other Supreme Court justices to rule that the law cited by Marbury's attorneys in their lawsuit, the Judiciary Act of 1789 Had granted powers to the Court that exceeded what the Constitution itself had permitted to it. Section 13 of the 1789 Judiciary Act (that set up the federal court system) had given the Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus ("we command"). This mandamus power, Marshall decided, was in direct violation of the power granted to the Supreme Court under Article III of the 1787 Constitution

Inflation

Meanwhile ___________ (rising prices) became a serious and nagging problem for the new nation •Price hikes were triggered by excess paper money unsupported by specie •And by widespread diminishing confidence in the future of the new nation and its ability to pay its debts. ________ galloped ahead as public confidence in the new nation fell,•Further driving down the value of the dollar and increasing prices. Lack of specie plagued the new US just as it had the thirteen colonies •Weakening the value of US paper money, both at the state and national currency levels•The government had no choice but to print even more paper money, further eroding its value. __________ and scarcity of imported European consumer goods deepened tensions between merchants, A group that had long embraced a commercial economy rooted in supply and demand and fluctuating prices

George Washington

Meanwhile ___________, had hoped that gathering the best and wisest Americans For reasoned and civil debates and deliberations on the important questions of the day Would lead to correct policies rooted in harmony and consensus. During the eight years of ____________'s presidency two bitterly divided political groups orbited the aloof, austere, and increasingly disappointed President. He preferred to remain above the growing factionalism and partisan fray around him. Both factions (federalists/Jeffersonians) circling Washington deeply mistrusted the motives and goals of the other. The aloof and dignified ____________ grew bitterly disappointed as political bias became the norm. The bitter divisiveness that surfaced was most fueled by intense divisions over the European struggle between conservative royalists and radical revolutionaries.

Hurdles of Abolition

Meanwhile, southern leaders in particular, who depended on slave labor•Continued to argue that personal liberty could only be secured •If one's individual private property was safeguarded by law. Thus linking the ownership of slaves to private property rights and the sacred preservation of "liberty"•Such white arguments only tightened the grip of America's great paradox •That, tragically, white freedom dependent on black enslavement. Further, most white Americans embraced a firm belief in black inferiority•Making the mass release of slaves a problematic conundrum •And strengthening the hand of those who opposed abolishing slavery, arguing that "inferior" blacks could not succeed as free men. How could these "lesser people," enslaved by God's will as found in Scripture•Possibly hold their own economically or politically in a nation of free white men? •Race-blinded whites, North and South voiced these views

National Bank (Hamilton's idea)

Modeled on what was then the most rock-solid financial institution in the Atlantic world: the _________ of England Its creation relied upon a "loose" interpretation of the Constitution That emphasized the "necessary and proper" clause. Jeffersonians opposed a ____________, viewing it as an "engines of tyranny" understanding the power of _______ to seize the assets of Americans who could not repay their loans (tyranny). Capitalization: 20% of the _______'s needed operating capital would come from US government money (raised by tariff revenues) While the remaining 80% would be provided by rich private investors. Would serve as a source of loan capital: providing entrepreneurs with investment monies to begin new businesses Thereby generating profits and jobs, thus triggering demand for goods and services While playing a key role, Hamilton envisioned, in energizing the nation's moribund economy.

Contracts Clause

Nationalists notched another victory in the "_____________" clause in Article 1 which bars citizens of any state from canceling a binding agreement" (contract) they legally entered into with parties in another state •This phrase became the foundation of commerce, trade, business, and banking throughout the US, then and now. The ___________ clause, coupled with the supremacy clause, also helped overcome the state level "stay laws" that postponed debt payments and asset seizures •Cosmopolitan nationalists found such state measures frustrating and annoying•Typically the prosperous lent money or extended credit while the ordinary and the poor owed money and incurred debts

Anti-Federalists

Opposition to the proposed Constitution.•Most feared too much power in too few hands in a distant national capital. They saw in the new office of President, for example, strong potential for tyranny•Reversing the egalitarian, democratic, and state-centered gains won in the Revolutionary struggle. Most ordinary and self-reliant farmers outside the market economy also opposed ratification•As did numerous important leaders in the states •Who feared a transfer of power from their hands into a national government. They saw power as best fixed in a small and local circle, where elected officials could be closely scrutinized by the citizens and the press•They feared, despite James Madison's persuasive arguments to the contrary, the factionalism that must inevitably infect a large republic. Opposition to ratification was weakened in part by the belief that the new Congress would pass a "bill of rights"

John Marshall

Outgoing President Adams also appointed Virginian ____________ as Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court His younger cousin and fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson was reputedly in awe of ____________'s "steel trap mind." Jefferson stopped short of impeaching ___________ (also a fellow slave owner), although extremists around him backed such a move. Jefferson's refusal to target ____________ narrowly preserved judicial independence at a crucial early juncture in the nation's history. ___________, a Federalist, did not share Jefferson's faith in ordinary citizens And believed the nation needed a strong central government and decisively important Supreme Court. Marshall began to fulfill this goal in the 1803 Marbury v. Madison ruling, his most famous early case.

1789 Judiciary Act

Part of the executive branch; Established: 1) a six-member Supreme Court 2) thirteen federal district courts 3) three federal circuit courts of appeal (appellate jurisdiction)

Supremacy Clause

Part of the executive branch; Section 25 of the bill, citing the "______________" in Article VI, allowed appeals of state court decisions to federal courts When disagreements over jurisdiction occurred US courts were able to overturn state court decisions Early on the Supreme Court handled few cases and enjoyed little prestige

New Jersey Plan

Paterson's counter-proposal captured the arguments of the nationalist delegates from the smaller states •Who wanted a stronger central government, but feared they would lose out by granting too much authority to the larger and more populated states. After weeks of disagreement and contentious discussion the delegates, voting as states rather than individuals (in the same manner as did the Congress under the Articles)•Adopted the Virginia plan as the basis of further discussion by a vote of 7 to 3. Thus making it clear among themselves after weeks of pronounced if civil discussion •That the delegates from a majority of the states had decided that a much stronger national government than the Articles of Confederation could provide must be created

Pinckney's Treaty

President Washington had simultaneously sent Charles Pinckney of South Carolina to negotiate with Spain In the hope of opening the Mississippi River and New Orleans to US goods So that American agricultural produce could reach the Caribbean (in turn energizing the moribund US economy). ________ granted American vessels the right to traverse the Mississippi for three years, A feat the Articles of Confederation Congress had been unable to accomplish Convincing many that the new Constitution was effective. Concerns about what the US and Spain were up to in this negotiation May well have helped induce the British to formally sign the Jay Treaty (thus granting the upstart Americans some respect) Even though most important issues between the British superpower and the militarily third-rate US were left unresolved

1793 Neutrality Proclamation

President Washington, although sympathetic with the Anglophiles who favored societal stability and deference over bloody revolutionary excesses Issued the 1793 _____________, asking the citizens to take no side in the Anglo-French war

Eigth Amendment

Prohibits "excessive bail", "excessive fines", and "cruel and unusual punishment". Opponents of capital punishment have also used this phrase in attempting to end its use. California officials are using these phrases to drastically lower bail for those accused of crimes

Fourth Amendment

Prohibits "unreasonable searches and seizures" What constitutes "reasonable" has been debated throughout American history And has taken on new meaning in the 21st century in the wake of the Patriot Act. Today "probable cause" must be demonstrated by the government to a judge Before a warrant can be issued by that same judge to search private property (car, house, etc.) Courts also sometimes allow "exigent circumstances" to override the necessity of a court order If police officers strongly believe a crime is being committed or lives are directly threatened

Seventh Amendment

Right "of trial by jury" in civil cases (lawsuits) held in federal court. Forbids double jeopardy in civil (non criminal) cases

Election of 1800

The Federalist lame duck majority delegations in seven states refused to vote for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ" and their main opponent since 1789) And instead threw their support behind Burr as the lesser of two evils, Meanwhile all the eight Jeffersonian states backed their man and refused to budge in the direction of Burr. The Vermont delegation could not decide on either man, leaving each finalist short of the needed nine votes, adding to the mess. The House remained deadlocked for thirty-five hand-wringing ballots spread over a week-long period, At which point it appeared that the widespread predictions of a quick demise for the new American republic were about to come true. Hamilton often disagreed with Jefferson's political positions But regarded Burr as dangerously ambitious and duplicitous Because of their many battles and personal disagreements in New York state politics dating back twenty years

XYZ Affair

The French Revolutionary government felt betrayed by the American refusal to back them in the ongoing European war As well as by the US decision to sign a treaty with their enemy Great Britain. A pragmatic President Adams therefore dispatched three diplomats to Paris to negotiate a settlement with the French foreign minister, Talleyrand. Months dragged by with Talleyrand's agents demanding a $250,000 "up-front fee" to begin negotiations with the upstart and feeble Americans (who were refusing to honor their alliance commitment). Congressional Jeffersonians were convinced that Adams was intentionally torpedoing the negotiations in a bid to curry favor with Britain In a contest with the Executive Branch they demanded to see the dispatches being sent back home to the president from France. Adams complied but blacked out the names of the French agents, referring to them instead as "____________." It left the Federalists and, to a lesser degree, the Jeffersonian opposition, internally divided

Sedition Act

The Jeffersonian majority in Congress also allowed the infamous ____________ to lapse in 1802 While Jefferson himself issued executive pardons those still serving prison time. Congress also restored the five year waiting period for citizenship (continued influx of emigres from Europe)

Nationalists

The Newburgh affair, although successfully defused by General Washington, strengthened the hand of America's "_____________" •Who were already claiming that the central government under the Articles of Confederation was far too feeble •And would soon lead to the dissolution of the union unless a new and much stronger Constitution was created

Bill of Rights

The ___________, promised by Federalists in many states as a concession to help win ratification of the 1787 Constitution. Was closely modeled on the Virginia state bill of rights, authored by Patriot leader George Mason in 1776 And created to explicitly safeguard the innate liberties of each citizen. Thus hopefully easing the concerns of Anti-federalist (localist) Americans Who feared that the vast new central government powers established under Constitution would be used To subvert individual liberties or deny basic freedoms to the citizenry. was added via the amendment process and fits an 18th century Atlantic world context The amendments were designed to reassure citizens that the new stronger national government would protect and honor a variety of rights and freedoms From being abused or usurped anywhere in the nation. Many of its provisions were designed to thwart a reoccurrence of the royal abuses that had been present in English and European history in previous centuries

French Revolution

The _____________ began in Europe's most populous and powerful kingdom, Particularly when an extreme faction seized power two years later And executed the king, Louis XVI (right), the queen, and notable aristocrats and royalists. It soon evolved in an even more radical direction Frightening the conservative monarchical states across Europe As the revolutionaries decided to invade and "liberate" the surrounding kingdoms of Europe from the chains of monarchy and clericalism, Severely threatening the conservative established order that had been in place for a millennium. Over a period of 25 years these conservative European kingdoms formed alliances and fought expansionistic France In a bid to save the Old Order and thwart the "radicalism" of the ___________.

Adams vs. Jefferson

The bitterly divisive partisan fights of the Washington years continued into the 1796 election despite the revered president's pleas. Jeffersonians, despite the bloodshed of the Reign of Terror, sympathetically viewed the French as extending the sacred guiding principles of the American Revolution. Jefferson and his supporters desired a virtuous republic with a limited central government Led by a meritocratic "natural aristocracy," who heeded the wisdom of ordinary citizens With church and state in separate spheres (freedom of conscience). Federalists in power were quite comfortable with their philosophy of a large and powerful central government. To best insure strength, stability, and deference (as long as they were in charge) As Washington left office they rallied behind John Adams. The narrow 71-68 Electoral College victory for Adams over opposition leader Thomas Jefferson Underscored the deeply divided state of the nation's elite. Four years later, the Jeffersonians reversed their course in the direction of a more central power when their leader (right) won the presidency

Senate

The delegates finally agreed that ____________ members would serve six (6) year terms and be elected by the legislature of the state. Fashioned along the lines of the ancient Roman ____________: a deliberative body of the wisest men, distanced from the public•They were selected NOT by the voters but by their state's legislature•A concession to the smaller states, as each would have two seats, equal to the larger and more populous states. This compromise was further designed to entice important individual state leaders to embrace the new constitution •Because each state's two __________ would be chosen by the state legislatures important state-oriented leaders would thereby gain a key voice in national affairs. __________ had the final say on all treaties negotiated by the Executive Branch (two-thirds vote needed for ___________ approval)•They also had final approval on the President's nominations for his cabinet or the Supreme Court (simple majority vote)•All impeachment proceedings were also tried exclusively in the ____________, where a two-thirds vote was needed for conviction

Separation of Powers (Checks and Balances)

The delegates, aware of the necessity of marketing the final product to the skeptical states, had the foresight to spread out the various powers •Between the two houses of Congress, and among the Executive branch, Legislative, and Judicial branches•As well as between the states and the national government. Only the House can impeach elected officials ("high crimes and misdemeanors") •While the impeachment trial is conducted only by the Senate•With the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding (Legislative + Judicial branches). Only the President can ask for a declaration of war, but only Congress, with both Houses voting separately, can grant the request (each by a simple majority vote)•For a bill to become law it must be passed by both houses of Congress and signed by the President •The Supreme Court may later strike down the law as "unconstitutional." The President can "veto" any bill passed by the Congress, but that body may override the veto with a two-thirds vote•Annual budget is proposed by the Executive branch but must be approved by Congress•Amendments to the Constitution only go into effect when ¾ of the separate states have ratified them•Senate can refuse to confirm presidential appointments

Quasi War

The dispatches revealed the contempt with which the Americans had been treated, triggering a wave of indignant patriotic fervor across the nation. Congress in retaliation abrogated the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France And authorized American warships and privateers to strike back and seize French vessels, thus beginning the ___________. France, convinced the traitorous and ungrateful US had chosen the side of Britain when signing the Jay Treaty Retaliated by ordering the seizure of American vessels carrying British goods. The Federalist-controlled Congress responded by ordering weapons and ammunition to be stockpiled. By the middle of Adams' term hundreds of US merchant ships were being seized by French warships, A clear violation of US neutral rights, according to the Adams administration. The French justification for these ship seizures: 1) you have rebuffed our ambassador, Edmond Genet, 2) you Americans have signed recent treaties with Britain and Spain, and 3) you have refused to honor your 1778 Alliance with France and help us in our hour of need.

Sedition Act

The enthusiastic support for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ") from European exiles (displaced ppl) infuriated the Federalists in the midst of the crisis triggered by the Quasi War. The angry Federalist majority in Congress then retaliated by passing the ___________ In an effort to curb Jeffersonian voting strength, and dissent against their policies. Made it unlawful to publicly criticize the policies and laws being enacted by the Federalists (censorship). Violations were punishable by a fine or imprisonment. Stunned Jeffersonians saw these measures as unconstitutional and an alarming throwback to British "tyranny," as well as a threat to republican liberties. And a dastardly partisan attempt to smother all political opposition to their Federalists opponents. Among the most divisive and bitter moments in American history

Alien Act

The enthusiastic support for Jefferson (the "anti-Christ") from European exiles (displaced ppl) infuriated the Federalists in the midst of the crisis triggered by the Quasi War. The angry Federalist majority in Congress then retaliated by passing the ___________ In an effort to curb Jeffersonian voting strength, and dissent against their policies. Self-interested Federalists passed the ___________ in the hope of weakening and demoralizing the Jeffersonian opposition by reducing the immigrant influx and vote. The new law drastically increased the amount of time an immigrant must wait before becoming a citizen (from five to fourteen years) And allowed President Adams to expel non-citizens deemed "dangerous to the peace and safety of the US"

Whiskey Rebellion (cont.)

The entire episode was an unequivocal triumph for Hamilton's philosophy of a strong central government Lesson: the new Constitution and Federalist control of the national government Made the U.S. an attractive place for investors, foreign or domestic, to risk their capital. The successful US government suppression of this "tax revolt" Also provided a major boost to the economy, thanks to the triumph of law and order and the confidence this gave merchants and businessmen Thus respect for order, stability, and private property was demonstrated and guaranteed by the new, stronger U.S. central government

1794 Jay Treaty

The final __________ draft negotiated by John Jay contained a number of vague British promises But was silent on several other important issues: most major points of disagreements remained unresolved. The __________, although ratified by the US Senate, failed to halt impressment or open the British West Indies to US trade goods. After much contentious disagreement from Jeffersonian members and strong support from President Washington The treaty was ratified by the Senate 20-10 (2/3 vote needed for ratification) Those Senators who voted for the treaty did so in the conviction that it was the best that could be obtained given the stark US-British power disparity. Jay's negotiations calmed tensions enough to head off a possible war with England. Hamilton argued that the treaty was a victory for the puny US and its interests under very difficult circumstances. The Federalist "spin" on the treaty focused on the mighty British Empire negotiating a treaty with their former colonists

Electoral College

The framers created an ____________ for choosing the President, with each state having as many votes as their total number of seats in Congress •The President was selected by these electors, who were chosen by their state's legislators, who themselves were elected by the voters in each state. Delegates saw the new chief executive they created as far too important to be chosen directly by the ordinary citizens•The ___________ system, by tying a state's ____________ vote to their total membership in Congress, advantaged both the small and large states. For example, a small state with only one House (1) seat received an extra two (2) electors because of their Senate seats, thus tripling their voice in the election of the president•While a large state, by virtue of its significantly greater population, would have far more presidential electors than the small states

"Carrying trade"

The geographically distant US was dragged into the European struggle not on land but at sea Because neutral American merchant ships made handsome profits carrying the goods and cargoes of the belligerents. In 1800 US vessels transported an astonishing 92% of all commerce between the US, the Caribbean, and Europe. This "___________" brought enormous economic benefits to America's seaport communities, maritime workers and export merchants. Neutral US vessels carrying French goods were seized by British warships While American ships with British cargoes were captured by French warships (Master and Commander) Leaving the US government "caught between a rock and a hard place." Exacerbating the American predicament, the massive British Navy, ever desperate for able-bodied sailors, pressed deserting sailors back into service And sometimes seized legitimate US citizens in the process

Free Blacks

The growing ranks of ___________, lived very circumscribed and straight-jacketed lives in the North•Often "ghettoized," and viewed with suspicion by most local whites, ___________ were not allowed to become citizens. And were restricted to a small number of low paying and low status jobs, and expected to behave in a servile manner around whites•Their low wage presence was also resented by nearby unskilled whites, with whom they competed for jobs •All while living in constant fear of slave-catchers serving warrants for the arrest of "runaways"

Federalists

The new proposed Constitution stipulated that it would go into effect when nine of the thirteen states had ratified it. The VIP delegates to the Constitutional Convention •Did not want their work put to a direct up or down vote of the individual citizens in each state •For fear it would not win ratification. Acceptance of the proposed Constitution was instead decided in the individual states by special conventions, a major tactical victory by the Nationalists, now termed "____________"•As these state conventions were often stacked with ______________. Were far better organized, determined, and unified than their opponents. Merchants and businessmen ardently supported the new Constitution, as did a good number of urban laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers•Supporters from the "lower orders" did so because of worry over the depressed economy of the post-Revolutionary War era. Southern planters (pro-slavery guarantees) and large commercial farmers (contracts clause) also largely supported ratification. Many of the major leaders of the Revolution also chose the ___________ side

3/5 Compromise

The thorny impasse over slavery was partially resolved •When James Wilson of Pennsylvania (right) proposed the "____________" •In order to reassure southern delegates that slavery would by protected under the new Constitution. Stated that representation in the lower house would be based on the total white population of each individual state •Plus 60% of every state's total number of slaves (delegates did not realize this would bring about the election of numerous southern presidents). Thereby allowing slaves to be counted in determining a state's overall population and, hence, its number of seats in the House of Representatives •Which in turn helped determine a states' number of presidential electors •Therefore, the Presidency was weighted toward the southern slave states. Neither northern nor southern delegates were completely pleased with this middle position•To obtain the extra House seats thanks to counting slaves, Southerners also agreed that direct taxes would be apportioned by this same formula

Localist leaders

They emphasized self-reliance and took care of their own needs •Most wanted to to be left alone without government interference in their lives or assets•___________ often saw returning Loyalists (left) as traitors and opposed the return of their seized property. Many leaders at the state level such as Patrick Henry of Virginia (right) approved the decentralized state of affairs enshrined in the Articles of Confederation•AND supported the "egalitarian republic" advocated by Thomas Paine •They favored a very centrifugal political structure with the emphasis in the nation's new name on "states" not "united." Their decentralized political worldview among ___________ •Was heavily influenced by their belief that (supposed) distant British tyranny and corruption had justified Revolution•Many of these same leaders also remembered decades of bitter struggles with royal governors (right) in their respective colonies. Adding to their fears of too much central government power•Hence they believed that most political power should remain at the state level•With frequent elections, minimal executive authority

Alexander Hamilton

Used the "necessary and proper" clause to justify strong central government action to benefit the new nation. Embraced competitive self-interest as the key to America's economic development (alarming supporters of the moral economy worldview) While tying the self-interest of the wealthy to the development of the new nation. also championed the idea of a "mixed economy" 1) manufacturing, 2) agriculture, and 3) vigorous foreign trade (the latter tied largely to the British orbit). He argued that US economic strength would increase if American entrepreneurs built factories (right) And sold manufactured goods to the nation's citizens Instead of relying on British imported goods. Convinced Washington, the first Realist president regarding foreign policy, that a treaty with Britain was the nation's most rational choice during the French Revolution.

Virginia Plan

Virginian Edmund Randolph's plan for a new constitution captured the hopes of the delegates from the larger, more populated states (Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania)•Randolph and his supporters believed that the bulk of the proposed increases in the power of the national government should favor the most populous states. His plan proposed a bi-cameral Congress with a lower house elected by the voters according to individual state's population (the more populous states would thereby have more seats) •And an upper house (presumably of wiser, more temperate men) selected by the members of the elected lower house. Randolph further proposed an Executive Branch headed by a strong Chief Executive chosen by Congress•With a national judiciary empowered to decide all legal cases that contained national implications •He also called for a "supremacy clause" (national statutes as the supreme law of the land, above mere state laws)

James Madison

Virginian, so influential at the Constitutional Convention, became a key leader in the first elected House of Representatives. He persuaded Congress to pass a 5% import tax (tariff), the money from which would flow to the US Treasury. To meet the financial obligations of the new government, and presumably winning it newfound respect and power. This tariff proved an effective, indirect national tax. That provided a strength the national government had never possessed under the Articles. For example, an item (stove?) imported from Britain, priced at $100, would be subject to a 5% tariff, raising the consumer's price to $105. Thus consumers actually paid the tax, albeit indirectly. In the form of slightly higher prices at the retail level __________'s initial tariff on imports was, ironically, similar to the British taxes imposed on the thirteen colonies that had triggered seaport protests and Real Whig indignation.

Concord

Was a small town only nine miles from that hotbed of protest and discontent, Boston•That gained fame as the community involved in the first military actions of the War for Independence. The greatest concern of the regular Concord town meetings was the internal division triggered by population growth, not "British tyranny." The resistance and protests against the new post-1763 British policies occurred largely in the seaport communities that were also experiencing a significant postwar economic downturn

Alexander Hamilton

Was born in Britain, wealthy patrons funded his education and his move from the Caribbean to New York. He served admirably and courageously as the chief aide to General Washington during the Revolutionary War (the son he never had)•He continued his rise in New York state business and commerce, practicing law and making numerous very profitable investments, •Aided by the members of the "natural aristocracy" to whom he was introduced. A committed nationalist he served as a delegate from New York at the 1787 Constitutional Convention •A staunch Anglophile (lover of all things British)•Who hoped to model an improved American political system on the British approach of "mixed government." He believed the vast bulk of political power should reside with the national government at the expense of the individual states•And that the new chief executive should serve for life and be addressed as "your majesty"

Congress

Was granted sole authority to: 1) manage foreign affairs and make treaties, 2) declare war, 3) mediate inter-state boundary disputes, 4) manage the post office, and 5) deal with Indians living inside and outside the thirteen states. Could not, however, raise troops or levy taxes•Such duties and tasks were left to the individual states to minimize corruption and tyranny•New laws could only be passed when a "super-majority" of nine of the thirteen states assented, with each state getting one vote.

Seized Indian Lands

Washington began the meeting by putting on a pair of glasses and saying, "I have grown grey and almost blind in the service of my country"•These simple but profound words shamed and embarrassed his officers •By reminding them that virtue (patriotic unselfishness and humble service) remained the key to the new nation's success. An agreement was then brokered that gave the officers five years of extra pay instead of the originally promised lifetime pension of half their army salary•Many of these officers wisely took western land as an alternative payment•In part because the American (paper) dollar was worth relatively little

John Jay

Washington dispatched the highly respected _________ to England. _______ was tasked with improving relations between the U.S. and Britain and hopefully winning some concessions on the thorny issues dividing the two nations. Jay was the Supreme Court chief justice and had co-authored the Federalist essays. Negotiations were held against the backdrop of 1) the Genet controversy, 2) the seizures of neutral US vessels by both English and French warships, 3) the continued British occupation of frontier forts on US soil, and 4) the humiliation of impressment. And continuing to occupy, in violation of the 1783 Paris Treaty, a series of frontier border forts on US soil in the Ohio country In an attempt to leverage concessions on the reimbursement of Loyalists and unpaid pre-war debts to British creditors. For geopolitical and imperial reasons Britain also hoped to thwart US expansion westward

Cincinnatus Ideal

Washington strongly identified with the restrained "____________" ___________ from the ancient Roman republic (right) •Washington refused to intimidate Congress with the threat of a military coup and personal seizure of power, despite his widespread popularity

Partisan Factionalism

Washington's goal of a "virtuous republic" guided by harmony and agreement among the nation's wisest and most esteemed citizens now seemed a distant memory Hamilton probably wrote much of the Washington's "Farewell Address." Its message further reflected Washington's REALIST sensibilities in foreign policy (as shaped by Hamilton). Washington did not deliver the Address in a formal speech: it was delivered to Congress only as a written document. The outgoing President warned against the dangers of partisan bickering and factionalism at home. The Farewell Address further cautioned Americans to avoid entangling alliances with foreign powers. However, Washington did not suggest an end to vigorous foreign trade and commerce. He deemed only political or military pacts with other nations inappropriate for the "virtuous republic" And believed the new nation should instead focus on westward expansion rather than Atlantic power building

Shay's Rebellion

Were met in Springfield by a force of militiamen called out by state leaders to "stop anarchy and restore order"•They dispersed after a militia musket volley killed four of their number. Massachusetts leaders were willing to forgive and forget this uprising by patriotic but angry Revolutionary War veterans•Formal pardons were issued, eventually even Shays himself and other top leaders were forgiven. The "rebellion" fizzled at this point. Massachusetts leaders were willing to forgive and forget this uprising by patriotic but angry Revolutionary War veterans•Formal pardons were issued,•Compare this leniency to the treatment of black slaves who rebelled and were captured in the Stono Rebellion. Frightened many prominent cosmopolitan leaders throughout the thirteen states •General Washington in response famously opined that the "fabrick was tottering"•This opinion was shared a growing number of "nationalist" cosmopolitan leaders in 1786

Thomas Jefferson

While president, he fought for equal and exact justice for all citizens (befitting an egalitarian republic), An end to unjust political arrests and censorship (repeal of the Sedition Act). Majority rule as opposed to elitist snobbery, Individual autonomy for all citizens (maximum personal freedom). Reduction of federal government spending (shrink the size of the military and reduce US government employees), also tasked his new Secretary of the Treasury, the Swiss financier Albert Gallatin To retire (pay in full) the national debt as soon as possible. ___________'s "containment policy" regarding government overreach or corruption centered on a free press, drawing on the First Amendment Freedom of the press ("I'd rather have newspapers without government than government without newspapers"). believed that journalists protected the citizens from government corruption and tyranny by alerting them to malfeasance in office. Impeachment or ouster by the voters in the next election would then solve the problem and serve as a stern warning to other office-holders tempted to corruption. __________ also oversaw a significant reduction in the size of the army as a frugality measure that would also, he believed, minimize a possible "engine of tyranny"

Ben Franklin

Without massive French assistance the Revolution and Patriot Cause would surely have collapsed•___________ brilliantly leveraged the rebel victory at Saratoga under General Gates in 1777 into a formal alliance with France. Persuaded the French that the Patriot victory at Saratoga by General Gates could lead to home rulefor the Americans, leaving the British nominally in charge of the thirteen colonies•France's position: if we can't have the region, neither can our British then rivals

Hamiltonian

____________ Federalists demanded war against France over the ship seizures and the insult to American honor of the XYZ Affair. They also insisted that the crisis should curtail domestic civil liberties Especially free speech rights enjoyed by their political enemies, the Jeffersonians. They also demanded the creation of a 10,000 man standing army to counter the French threat Jeffersonians were thrown on the defensive and could not support the French Because of the ship seizures and France's attempted extortion of $250,000 for opening negotiations with the US (quid pro quo). The Jeffersonians, however, soon regrouped and found renewed purpose by criticizing the Federalist-proposed standing army: Long a fear-inducing topic among many ordinary Americans As well as the "tyrannical" restrictions on civil liberties in peacetime as dire threats to virtuous republicanism and the Bill of Rights

Alexander Hamilton

____________ argued that private citizens and the US government would need to borrow in the future And that the time was ripe to set the precedent that the new stronger government under the 1787 Constitution would pay it debts and meet its financial obligations in full Thus insuring the new republic's credit worthiness to prospective bankers and wealthy individuals seeking investment opportunities. Speculators and wealthy financiers (some of them Framers of the Constitution), anticipated ____________ funding plan And scoured the nation, buying up these depreciated IOU-bonds at ten cents on the dollar. They now stood to reap fortunes if ___________ plan was enacted. the measure would tie the well-being of the rich to the success of the nation. ___________ further argued that a national debt is healthy, not something to fear. He thought if the rich owned the debt, They would do everything in their power safeguard the well-being Of the very government that would pay them back, with interest.

Ben Franklin

____________'s request for daily prayer at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was supported by only four other delegates!•The Framers barred religious tests as a requirement for holding any national office•Nor did their 1787 Constitution make any reference to God. The Shaysites failed to trouble _____________, however•Who attributed the event to "some disorderly people" •While suggesting "the rest of the states go on pretty well"•A curious view in light of subsequent events

House of Representatives

______________ members would serve two (2) year terms and be elected directly by the citizens•And granting the _______________ the power to initiate all taxation and money bills •Thus providing a democratic check against unfair taxation. After agreeing that each state would have a minimum of one elected ____________ member, they decided that for every 30,000 additional "inhabitants" a state would get an extra seat•For example, with 90,000 inhabitants a state would have three (3) seats in the ______________ •Without yet factoring in the "three-fifths" clause. And, as the more democratic legislative body, only the ___________ could draft articles of impeachment against elected officials•Impeachment meant formally charging an elected US government official and putting him on trial, reassuring the localists

John Adams

a conservative on cultural issues and a son of Congregationalist New England, strongly disagreed with these sentiments •argued that a shared religion among citizens would foster unity and help to safeguard liberty •He also saw religious freedom as the slippery slope to anarchy; Vice-President, a conservative Federalist, had proposed addressing the new chief executive as "His Most Benign Highness," provoking outrage from republican purists•"Mr. President" became the compromise title ( a clear nod to egalitarianism by the pragmatic Federalists)