GPHY 111: Introduction to Physical Geography #1 Test Prep
Threshold
"Tipping point"; the point at which an abrupt change forces system out of equilibrium
3 Types of Map Projections
1. Cylindrical: project a spherical surface onto a cylinder 2. Conical: project a spherical surface onto a cone 3. Planar/Azimuthal: project a spherical surface onto a plane
Map
A symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface Flat model of a spherical (oblate spheroid) Earth
Active Remote Sensing
A system that directs energy at a surface and analyzes the energy returned from the surface LIDAR
Equilibrium
A system that remains balanced over time and no energy or work is required to maintain that condition
Space
Something abstract, without any substantial meaning; no social connections location
Ways to express Latitude and Longitude
1. Degrees, Minutes, Seconds (DMS) Degrees Range: 0 - 180 . Minutes Range: 0 - 60 . Seconds Range: 0 - 60 . Use N and S for latitude, and E and W for longitude 2. Decimal Degrees . Latitude Range: -90 - +90 . Longitude Range: -180 - +180 . Do not use N,S,E,W; instead, use + or -
How does a space become a place?
1. Direct experience using your senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch) 2. Indirectly through art, symbols, stories
Time Zone Fun Facts!
1. Geography of time zones is more political than physical 2. China spans 5 time zones, but only uses 1 3. Russia spans 11 time zones, but only uses 8 (wider than 15°) 4. India and Iran use a different standard meridian (we use Prime Meridian) and therefore their time differs 30-90 minutes from neighboring countries
Three Components of being Geographically Literate
1. Interactions 2.Interconnections 3. Implications
MDCs vs. LDCs
1. MDCs: high per capita income, wealthy, advanced medicine and sanitation, economic stability; ex: United States, Canada, Western Europe Impacts to environment are higher in MDCs - burn more fossil fuels, use more resources 2. LDCs: low per capita income, poor, lack of healthcare, sanitation, and access to clean drinking water, economic instability; ex: Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Uganda, Afghanistan Impacts to environment are lower in LDCs BUT populations are growing at an unsustainable rate
Types of Systems
1. Open System: energy and matter flows in and out; not contained; ex: rivers, forests, beaches, mountains 2. Closed System: energy and matter remains within the system; contained; self-sufficient; RARE, but Earth is technically a closed system
Two Branches of Geography
1. Physical Geography: the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soils, streams, landforms, and oceans 2. Human Geography: the study of the distribution of networks of people and cultures on Earth's surface
2 Coordinate Systems
1. Spherical Coordinate System - Latitude and Longitude 2. Projected Coordinate System - Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Aerial Photography: Two Types:
1. Vertical: photos taken directly overhead, or perpendicular to the surface 2. Oblique: photos taken at an angle other than perpendicular to the surface
Two Types of Feedback
1.Negative Feedback: feedback information discourages change in the system; self-regulation Elk population grows, large population depletes food supply, elk population shrinks 2. Positive Feedback: feedback information encourages change in the system Temperatures drop, snow falls, snow reflects solar radiation, temperature drops even more
Human Population
7.6 Billion
Small Scale
= LARGER Area Geographic extent is large 1:400,000 1 inch on the map equals 400,000 inches on the ground
Great Circle
A line which follows an entire circumference of the earth Center of any great circle is the center of the earth
Antipode
A point on the exact opposite side of the world from a given location Antipode of Missoula - 46°S, 66°E
Scientific Method
A procedure of systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses
Landsat
A series of Earth-observing satellite missions managed by NASA and USGS First satellite launched in 1972 Records electromagnetic radiation emitted from objects on the earth's surface Different materials have different properties - emit different wavelengths Cloud cover blocks satellites from recording data
Process
A set of actions that operate in some special order
System
A set of ordered, interrelated components and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter, as distinct from the surrounding environment outside of the system Systems are composed of interconnected processes
GIS
A software system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical (spatial) data computer-based combines spatial data (where) with descriptive data (what) Organizes data in different layers: files containing different types of spatial data Uses: Mapping where things are Mapping quantities Mapping densities Finding what is nearby Mapping change Finding what is inside a specific region
Reference Grids
Allow for accurate distance measurements on the Earth's surface provides a framework for defining real world locations
Latitude
Angular distance in degrees (°) north or south of the equator Lines of latitude run east-west Parallel to equator - do NOT intersect Also called Parallels Units of measurement = Degrees (°) North and South (north or south of the equator) Range: 0 - 90
5 Earths Spheres
Atmosphere = air Hydrosphere = water Lithosphere = land Biosphere = life Cryosphere = Ice
Small Circle
Circle constructed by a plane crossing the earth NOT in its center All parallels (latitude) EXCEPT THE EQUATOR are small circles Again, small circles do not need to follow parallels and can be drawn at any angle
Are Most Americans Geographically Literate?
No 2006 Roper Report SurveySampled 510 Americans between the ages of 18-24 . Attitude and Skill questions . Results = the majority of Americans are geographically illiterate
Time Zones in the United States
Eastern Time Zone Central Time Zone Mountain Time Zone Pacific Time Zone Alaska Time Zone Hawaii-Aleutian Time Zone
Hypothesis
Educated guess
Goodes Homolosine
Equal area; least distortion when mapping the entire world
Great Circle(s)
Equator Meridians
Important Lines of Latitude
Equator: 0° Tropic of Cancer: 23.5°N Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5°S Arctic Circle: 66.5°N Antarctic Circle: 66.5°S Latitude of Missoula, MT: 47°N (46.878 °N)
Daylight Savings Time
Established during World War I Purpose: to extend evening daylight hours to reduce the use of electric light and energy costs Adopted by 70 countries worldwide "Spring Ahead" - lose an hour - Sunday, March 11, 2018 @ 2 AM "Fall Behind" - gain an hour Sunday, November 4, 2018 @ 2 AM Hawaii and Arizona do not use daylight savings time
Our Solar System
Formed about 4.5 billion years ago Sun is in the center, planets orbit around the sun 8 planets (sorry Pluto!), their moons, asteroids, comets Two Types of Planets: Terrestrial - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Gas Giant - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Solar system extends past the planets Kupier Belt: ring of icy bodies; new home to Pluto Oort Cloud: farthest extent of sun's gravitational influence
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS: device used to accurately determine locations on the Earth's surface Three Parts: 1. Ground Stations: emit radar to space 2. Satellites: reflect radar back to surface 3. Receivers: receives signals from satellites Ground stations and satellites are in known locations. Receiver is in unknown locations. Receivers calculate its distance from three or more satellites (triangulation)
Law
Generalized rule to explain a body of observations in the form of a verbal or mathematical statement Newton's Law of Gravity
Geoid
Geoid defines "zero" elevation The surface of the Earth's gravity field, approximates mean sea level, irregularly shaped Mass of earth varies spatially, therefore, magnitude of gravitational pull also varies Surface of earth is bumpy and irregular (mountains, rivers, valleys, canyons) Earth is wider at the equator than at the poles due to rotation
Geoscience Tools
Global Positioning System (GPS) Remote Sensing Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Map Scale: Graphic Scale
Graphic Scale: bar on the map that looks like a ruler
Global Time
Guiding Principle: The Earth rotates 360° every 24 hours 15° of rotation per hour (360°/24 = 15°) Time zones are approximately 15° wide A.M. = ante meridiem = before noon P.M. past meridiem = after noon
Types of Maps: Human Features
Human Features (political boundaries, populations, wealth, education)
Is the Earth perfectly round?
No, it's an Oblate Spheroid: slightly misshapen sphere that is flatter at the poles and wider around the middle
Feedback
Information produced within a system that influences some other component of that system
Geography is what?
Interdisciplinary - It incorporates science, arts, health, humanities, law, business, engineering, and technology
What is on a Map: Legend
Legend: lists meanings of symbols
Lidar
Light Detection and Ranging - uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure distances to the earth's surface More accurate than Landsat Active Remote Sensing LIDAR apparatus attached to planes or helicopters - Can map ground surface or lake bottoms
Lambert: equal area
Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles; meridians are equally spaced and parallels are closer together towards poles
Time in Missoula, MT
Missoula sits along the western border of the time zone Same time in Missoula as it is in Rapid City, SD (700 miles, 11 hour drive) Gets light out LATER in Missoula than it does in Rapid City Earth rotates to the EAST Eastern locations see the sun first
Applications of UAVs (Drones)
More efficient than planes and satellites Attach cameras for aerial photography or sensors to record emitted wavelengths of surface objects Collect high resolution imagery Fly at low altitudes - cloud cover is often not a problem
The Sun
Nearly a perfect sphere, not like the Earth (sun is not rotating) Volume = 1.4 x 1027 m3 1.3 million Earths can fit inside! Mass = 1.989 x 1030 kilograms 99.8% of the entire mass of the solar system Emits light, heat, and electrically charged particles
International Date Line
Opposite of the Prime Meridian at 180°, divides GMT+ and GMT- Does not follow 180th meridian perfectly (moves east/west to avoid going through countries) Travel West across IDL - gain a day Travel East across IDL - lose a day
Feedback Loops
Pathways that feedback information follows to return to some point in a system
Types of Maps: Physical Features
Physical Features (mountains, rivers, temperatures, snowpack, air pressure) Isolines: lines that connect all points of a given value Example: contour line (elevation); isobar (air pressure)
Important lines of Longitude
Prime Meridian: 0° International Date Line: 180° Longitude of Missoula, MT: 114°W (113.996°W)
Geographic Reasoning
Process of making informed, logical decisions based on an accurate understanding of the human and natural world around you
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Projected Coordinate System World is divided into 60 north-south zones, each 6° wide in longitude Zones are numbered 1-60 Units of measurement = meters, measured in the north and east directions Northings and eastings 10 zones span the United States
Equal Area
Projection that show true relative sizes but distort shape and direction Climate, population density
What is on a Map: Projection
Projection: how round Earth becomes flat map
Static Equilibrium
Properties of the system remain unchanged over time; does not occur in nature
Passive Remote Sensing
Recording energy emitted naturally from a surface Senses wavelengths in the Electromagnetic Spectrum (visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radiowaves) Could be satellite imagery or aerial photography
Map Scale: Representative Fraction
Representative Fraction: ratio or fraction without any units of measurement 1:24,000 OR 1/24,000
Auroras
Ribbon-like display of colors in the night sky that occurs when charged particles emitted from solar flares interact with Earth's magnetic field Aurora Borealis = Northern Lights - Aurora Australis = Southern Lights Occur towards the poles, where the magnetic field is strong - Occur 50-300 miles above the Earth's surface Colors form as molecules in the atmosphere become "excited" meaning they gain energy momentarily Oxygen = green, red - Nitrogen = blue, red
Large Scale
SMALLER Area Geographic extent is small 1:100 1 inch on the map equals 100 inches on the ground
What is on a Map: Scale
Scale: mathematical represention of map distance compared to ground distance
Map Scale
Scale: the ratio of the size of a map to that area in the real world
Solar Flares
Solar Flares: a brief eruption of high-energy radiation from the sun's surface, associated with sunspots and causing electromagnetic disturbances on Earth (interferes with radio communications and transmission of electricity through power lines) Occurs when magnetic energy is suddenly released Temperatures of solar flares can reach up to 100 million Kelvin (179,999,540 °F)
Spatial Variation
Some quantity that is measured at different locations exhibit different values
Reading Topographic Map
Spacing of contour lines tells you about terrain Close together = steep slope Far apart = gentle slope Hills are represented by a series of closed circles; elevation increases as you move towards center of circles Highest point of a hill is in the inside of the inner most circle Wherever rivers cross a contour line, the contour line bends and creates a "V" shape pointing UPHILL Rivers flow in the opposite direction from the way the contour line bends.
Dynamic Equilibrium
Steady-state system demonstrating a changing trend over time; repeatedly out of equilibrium then back to equilibrium then out again
Sunspots
Sunspot: cooler, darker region of the Sun caused by a solar magnetic disturbance - Sunspots range in size from Earth sized to 12x larger than Earth 11-year cycle
What is on a Map: Symbols
Symbols: represent features on the map
Longitude
The angular distance in degrees (°) east or west of a point on Earth's surface Lines of longitude run north-south Converge at the poles - NOT parallel to each other Distance between lines of longitude DECREASES as you move north or south Also called Meridians Intersect lines of latitude at 90° Units of measurement = Degrees (°) East and West (east or west of the prime meridian) Range: 0 - 180°
The Big Bang Theory
The beginning of the universe! 13.7 billion years ago Universe began as an infinitesimally small, hot, dense ball of matter - Massive expansion of matter that spread outward and began to cool Still expanding, galaxies move away from us at known speeds We are in the Milky Way Galaxy (composed of ~300 billion stars!)
Wavelength (λ)
The distance between two successive wave crests or troughs; unit of measurement = nanometers
Time Zone
The local time of a region or country All time zones are based on GMT you are either ahead of GMT (+GMT) or behind GMT (-GMT) East of the Prime Meridian: local time is ahead of GMT (GMT+) West of the Prime Meridian: local time is behind GMT (GMT-)
Frequency
The number of waves that passes a given point per second; unit of measurement = Hertz Relationship between wavelength and frequency: Shorter wavelength = higher frequency
Spatial Analysis
The process of examining the locations, attributes, and relationships of features in spatial data 1. Spatial: the nature and character of a physical space, its measurement, and the distribution of things within it 2. In Physical Geography, spatial analysis explains distributions and movement across Earth and how these processes interact with human activities 3. Maps display spatial relationships and variation 4. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software are used to create maps
Cartography
The science of mapmaking
Aerial Photography
The science of obtaining photographs from air using various platforms (airplanes, hot air balloons, helicopters, drones) to study the surface of the earth
Physical Geography
The spatial analysis of all the physical elements, processes, and systems that make up the environment 1. Energy, air, water, weather, climate, landforms, soils, humans, animals, plants, microorganisms 2. Geomorphology, hydrology, glaciology, biogeography, climatology, meteorology, pedology, paleogeography, coastal geography, oceanography, quaternary geography 3. How humans interact with Earth's systems 4. Earth Science
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum
The spectrum of all possible wavelengths of light Light waves are categorized based on their wavelength
Geography
The study of places and the relationship between people and their environment. 1. How human culture interacts with the natural environment 2. They way locations and places can have an impact on people
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
The time measured on the Prime Meridian (0°), which runs through Greenwich, England
Human Denominator
The totality of human impact on the Earth
Remote Sensing
collecting information about the surface of the earth from a distance
Geographic Literacy
The understanding of human and natural systems, geographic reasoning, and systematic decision making
What is on a Map: Title
Title: subject of what is displayed on map Reference Grid/North Arrow: orients the map in the proper direction
Types of Maps: Topographic Map
Topographic Map: detailed representation of the physical terrain on Earth's surface; use contour lines to depict different elevations
Map Scale: Translation
Translation: 1 unit on the map = 24,000 units on the ground 1 inch on the map = 24,000 inches on the ground
Mercator Projection
True-shape, meridians and parallels intersect at right angles; meridians are equally spaced and parallels are farther apart towards poles Less distortion at equator, distortion increases towards poles
Map Scale: Verbal Scale
Verbal Scale: sentence or phrase - 1 inch equals 2,000 feet 1 inch equals 1 mile
Place
When a space is given meaning by people
Biotic
living Biosphere
Abiotic
non-living Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, cryosphere
True Shape
projection that preserves angle and shape but distort size (also known as conformal projection) navigation
Theory
road explanation for events that is widely accepted as true; hypotheses are tested repeatedly and produce the same results Theory of Evolution
Map Projection
transferring information from the spherical surface of Earth onto a flat piece of paper The only accurate representation of the Earth is a globe (a spherical model of the Earth) Every map has some amount of distortion (representation that is twisted, mistaken, or false) Larger land area (small scale) = greater distortion Smaller land area (large scale) = less distortion
