Grammar

Use a Question Mark

"A question mark is placed inside the closing quotation mark only when it applies to the quoted material or when the same punctuation is required for both the quotation and the sentence as a whole.

Use a Semicolon

"Before transitional words and phrases (accordingly, as a result, besides, consequently, for example, furthermore, hence, however, moreover, namely, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, that is, then, therefore, thus, and yet) when connecting two complete but related thoughts and a coordinating conjunction is not used. Follow these words and phrases with a comma. Do not use a comma after hence, then, thus, so and yet unless a pause is needed. Our expenses have increased; however, we haven't raised our prices. Our expenses have increased, however, and we haven't raised our prices.

Use a hyphen

"To indicate two or more related compound words having a common base (suspended hyphen). It will be a 12- to 15-page document. The cruise line offers 2-, 3-, and 7-day cruises at special group rates.

Use a Semicolon

"To separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, and so), and in statements too closely related in meaning to be written as separate sentences.

Use parenthesis

"To set off nonessential elements when commas would be inappropriate or confusing and dashes would be too emphatic. Mr. Henry Anderson, Jr., is the general manager of the Montgomery (Alabama) branch. [Parentheses are clearer than commas when a city-state expression is used as an adjective.] All the classes will meet three days a week (Mondays, Tuesdays and Thursdays). [Parentheses are

Use a Question Mark

"Use a question mark before a closing parenthesis only when it applies solely to the parenthetical item and the sentence ends in a different punctuation mark. At our next meeting (it's on the 16th, isn't it?), we'll elect a new president. As the gun opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement ceased. [Question marks were used within parentheses because sentences require a period at the end.]

Modal Auxiliary

"Verbs that are used with a principal verb that are characteristically used with a verb of predication and that in English differs formally from other

Capitalize The First Word

"after a colon when the word is material preceding the colon is an introductory word (NOTE, CAUTION, WANTED, HINT, or REMEMBER).

Adjective clause

"dependent/subordinate clause that is used as an adjective *begins with relative pronouns or where or when modifies a noun or a pronoun; majority of these clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, and THAT; example: She lost the ring THAT YOU GAVE HER.

telegraphic stage

(about 28 months) when the child may omit syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram

autobiography

(form of nonfiction) a __________ is a story that the author writes about his/her own life

biography

(form of nonfiction) a ___________ is a story that the author writes about someone else's life

phoneme

(linguistics) one of a small set of speech sounds that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language

Reflexive pronouns

- myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.

USE AN APOSTROPHE

- to create possessive forms of certain words - to form contractions or to stand in for missing letters - to form plurals for certain letters and abbreviations - to mark a quote within a quote - in technical writing to indicate units of measurement

When to use a comma

1. In a series 2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless it includes a verb form being used as another form of speech: "When eating, Mary..." or "Having decided to leave, James...") 3. To separate sentences with two main ideas 4. To separate an introductory subordinate clause: "Whenever I can, I try to..." 5. To slow the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions, geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words and phrases, unusual word order) 6. With nonrestrictive elements 7. To set off direct quotations or contrasting elements. 8. In dates

evaluating theories

1. Parsimony: As simple as possible. 2. Breadth: How many different kinds of observations can your theory explain, how broad a theory is. 3. Generativity: How many people want to test your theory, it has to be usable, a theory that doesn't generate research is a bad theory., generate research questions about the relationship between variables that can be addressed by the correlational research design, *nature vs. nurture

the natural order hypothesis

1. second language learners produce single words 2. they strong words together based on meaning and not syntax 3. they begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences 4. they begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions

linking verb

1. shows state-of-being 2. does NOT show action 3. links the subject to a noun or ADJECTIVE

paragraph structure

1: topic sentence, 2-4: supporting details, 5: clincher, a framework that brings order and purpose to a group of sentences, intro-clincher, thesis statement body 1,2,3,4... topic sentence, supporting facts, transition, conclusion, All paragraphs that you write in this class must have an introduction-also known as a topic sentence. Your topic sentence is your promise to your reader, and you must keep your promise. A well-organized paragraph supports and develops a single controlling idea, and you topic sentence lets the reader know what you will write about. The topic sentence also previews the structure of the your paper. Keep your promise!

nominative, objective, and possessive.

3 Types of Cases of the noun

weak clause

A ____ ____ begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. _____ clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry...

Infinitive phrase

A clause containing an infinitive as its main or only verb form., phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers, consists of an infinitive and its related words, such as modifiers and complements

the wrong form for comparison

A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using. To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women."

Introductory clause

A dependent clause that introduces an independent clause., main clause + subordinating conjunction

Independent clause

A group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate that can stand alone., has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought

Dependent or subordinate clause

A group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but they cannot stand alone It depends on some more information that is not expressed

Phrase

A group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds, infinitives, and verbs.

When to use the articles: A and An

A is used with: a singular noun beginning with a consonant Ex: a car

Verb Phrase

A main verb and at least one helping verb.

Direct Address

A noun which interrupts like an interjection because it names the person being talked to: It can be mild or extreme and will be punctuated accordingly Ex. Chris, do your homework Chris! Do your homework!

Tone

A particular style or manner, as of writing or speech; mood., the quality of something (an act or a piece of writing) that reveals the attitudes and presuppositions of the author, the general atmosphere of a place or situation and the effect that it has on people

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, can have adjectives in the middle, and ends with a noun or pronoun Ex. (Polly-O lives) near Kevin's desk

Principal or Principle

A principal at a school is your pal, and a principle you believe is a rule"

Subject, Object, or Possessive

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: .

Proper Adjective

A proper adjective is an adjective formed by a noun, but act like adjectives and is always capitalized Ex. American, English, Red Sox

Declarative Sentence

A sentence stating a fact or argument without requiring response. It makes a statement and ends in a period.

-ly word

A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.

explanation

A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form. Act of telling and showing why., Discussion that helps clarify a topic or demonstrates how a process works

Expletive

A swear word OR a word considered as regularly filling the syntactic position of another., a word or phrase conveying no independent meaning but added to fill out a sentence or metrical line

Proper

A type of noun that is specific; a name. Must be capitalized. Ex. Charlie, Chicago, California

Action Verb

A verb that expresses either physical or mental activity. Expresses action done by the subject

Gerund

A verb that has been made into a noun by adding-ing Ex: I love working out as long as I have my music with me.

Intensifier

A word (especially an adverb) that indicates and usually increases the degree of emphasis or force to be given to the element it modifies., a class of words, generally adverbs, used to modify gradable adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or -ed participles, e.g. very, completely, quite.

Nonrestrictive elements

A word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to write.

Restrictive elements

A word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.

Noun

A word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

Compounding

A word that consists of two or more elements that are independent words Ex: Loud speaker, baby sit

Verb

A word that expresses action, state, or a relation between two things. Function as the main elements of sentences.

Article

A word that is linked to a noun and identifies it as such.

Collective Noun

A word that names a group. Is a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things. E.g. Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the collective noun furniture. Could be a Groups of people - army, audience, band, or a Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump., noun that represents a group of persons animals or things family flock furniture ect, names a group of people, places, or things.

Pronoun

A word used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns.

Adjective

A word used to describe, modify, or limit a noun or a pronoun; describes nouns; answers which one, what kind, and how many.

verb intransitive

ALWAYS a linking verb; is typically followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun; acts like an equals sign

verb transitive

ALWAYS an action verb; is typically followed by a direct object

Introductory Prepositional Phrase

ALWAYS modifies the verb!!, Throughout the house, an eerie light shone., one or more prepositional phrases at the beginning of a sentence. *things you can do to a box in terms of location

indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.

Abruptly, After, After a few days, After a long time, After a short time, After a while, After that, Afterward, All at once, All of the time, All the while, Always, As long as, As soon as, At first, At last, At length, At present, At that time, At the beginning, At the end, At that onset, At the same time, At this moment, At times, Before, Begin, By now, Just then, Last, Last of all, Lastly, Later, Later on, Later that day, Little by little, Commence, Commencing, Concurrently, Consequently, Continually, Currently, Cyclically, Directly, During, Earlier, Embark, Eventually, Every time, Final, Finally, First, Following, Following that, Former, Formerly, Frequently, From this point, Generally, Gradual, Henceforth, Hereafter, Heretofore, Immediately, In an instant, In awhile, In conclusion, In the end, In the first place, In the future, In the last place, In the meantime, In the past, In the second place, In turn, In frequently, Initial, Instantly, Instantaneously, Intermittent,Meanwhile, Momentarily, Never, Next, Not at all, Not long after, Not long ago, Now, Occasionally, Of late, Often, Often time, On the next occasion, Once, Once upon a time, Past, Periodically, Preceding, Present, Presently, Previously, Prior to, Promptly, Quick, Rarely, Recently, Repeatedly, Right after, Right away, Second, Seldom, Sequentially, Shorty, Simultaneously, Slow, So far, Some of the time, Some time, Soon, Soon after, Soon afterward, Sporadically, Starting with, Subsequently, Suddenly, Temporary, The latter, The next, The final, Then, Thereafter, This instant, Third, To begin with, To conclude, To finish, Today, Tomorrow, Twice, Uncommon, Ultimately, Until, Until now , Usually, When, While, Yesterday

Accept v. Except

Accept= verb meaning to receive or to agree. Ex: He accepted their praise.

Adverbs

Actively Aggressively Anxiously Ardently Articulately Assertively Avidly Boldly Competitively Compulsively Creatively Decisively Eagerly Energetically Enterprisingly Enthusiastically Expeditiously Exuberantly Feverishly Fiercely Forcefully Frantically Impulsively Incisively Interactively Intensely Powerfully Promptly Prosperously Provocatively Quickly Relentlessly Restlessly Spiritedly Spontaneously Swiftly Tenaciously Vigorously Vigilant

Use an apostrophe to create possessive forms of nouns and abbreviations used as nouns.

Add 's to singular or plural nouns that do not end with an s. Add 's to singular nouns that end with an s.

Three types of dependent clauses

Adjective clause Noun clause Adverbial clause

Use a Question Mark

After an independent question within a larger sentence. The question "Who will absorb the costs?" went unanswered. When will the reorganization take place? will surely be asked.

Appositive Clause

An appositive clause is a group of words that gives more information about the noun. When these clauses are separated and made to look like sentences you get sentence fragments. Fragment: Hilda nearly fainted when she opend the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes. The contest she had been entering faithfully for twenty years. Correct: Hilda nearly fainted when she opened the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes, the contest she'd been entering faithfully for twenty years.

Restrictive appositive

An appositive that cannot be omitted from a sentence without affecting the meaning.

Nonrestrictive appositive

An appositive that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.

Sentence fragment

An incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world today.

And

As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by ___?

Use an Exclamation mark

At the end of a sentence or elliptical expression (condensed sentence, key words left out) to express strong emotion (surprise, disbelief, irony, dissent, urgency, amusement, enthusiasm). Congratulations on your new son! I suppose you consider that another "first"! Fantastic show!

Sentence completeness

Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognize sentence elements necessary to make a complete though and proper use of punctuation.

Comparative and Superlative adjectives

BIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weather BIGGEST house, ROUNDEST shape, HOTTEST weather

Degrees of Adjectives

Base (1) Ex. High, Thick, Beautiful, Bad; Comparative (2) Ex. Higher, Thicker, More Beautiful, Worse; Superlative (3 or more) Ex. Highest, Thickest, Most Beautiful, Worst

Use a comma

Before for used as a conjunction. She didn't go to the party, for she cannot stand smoke-filled rooms.

Use an em Dash (—)

Before summarizing words such as these, they, and all when those words summarize a series of ideas or list of details. A tennis racket, swimsuit and shorts—these are all you'll need for the weekend. Faculty, staff and students—all are invited.

introductory phrase

Before the bell rings, students drink from the water fountain.

Use an En Dash (-)

Before the source of a quotation or credit line in typed material (use an en dash in printed material). The ornaments of a home are the friends who frequent it. - Anonymous

dialogue

Bob said, "Hi."

PERFORMING

By this stage, the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin performing—diagnosing and solving problems, and choosing and implementing changes. At last team members have discovered and accepted each other's strengths and weaknesses, and learned what their roles are. The team is now an effective, cohesive unit. You can tell when your team has reached this stage because you start getting a lot of work done—finally!

Common Modal Verbs:

Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Ought to, Shall, Should, Will, Would

Subordinate/Dependent Clause

Cannot stand alone as a sentence (fragment) not a complete thought Ex: Ireland is my favorite country, a place where I would love to live one day.

CLICHÉS

Clichés are expressions that have lost their impact because they have been overused. Strive for originality in your choice of words and phrases.

have to

Commonly substitutes for must. It is a stronger expression of necessity. <You have to have that done.>

Clear

Communicate with clarity and make each word count.

The -tion Family

Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection

Conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that behave like conjunctions but are punctuated differently Ex. however, therefore

Conjunction

Connects words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (FANBOYS).

Compound subject

Consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction and having the same verb., two or more subjects joined together usually by "and" or "or" that share a common verb, consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction and that have the same predicate/verb

Complex sentence

Contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.

Complex-compound sentence

Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.

Conjunctions:

Coordinating Correlating Subordinating and, but, nor, for, or either/or both/and neither/nor when since because

3 types of sentences

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative

adjective complement

Describes direct object, describing what it has become or been called.

Adverb

Describes, limits, or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. A form-class word (modifies any part of language other than a noun) describes a verb; Typically ends in ly; Tells how, when, where, why, how often, and how much.

8 types of adjectives

Descriptive Limiting Possessive Demonstrative Interrogative Articles Numerical Comparative and Superlative

NORMING

During this stage, members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the team, team ground rules (or "norms"), their roles in the team, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative. As team members begin to work out their differences, they now have more time and energy to spend on the project. Thus, they are able to at last start making significant strides.

Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.

Everyone / Every one?

Everyone is one word when it means everybody.

Everyone or Every one?

Determiners: Examples

Examples with determiner phrases in italics: a little dog, the little dogs (indefinite or definite article) this little dog, those little dogs (demonstrative) my little dogs, their little dog (possessive adjective) Sheila's little dog, the Queen of England's little dog (noun phrase + 's) every little dog, each little dog, some little dog, either dog (quantifying)

Intransitive Verb

Expresses action (or tells something about the subject) without the action passing to a receiver.

Past Perfect Tense

Expresses action which began in the past and was completed in the past.

Present Tense

Expresses action which is happening at the present time, or which happens continually, regularly.

Future Tense

Expresses action which will take place in the future.

must

Expresses necessity or obligation. It is somewhat stronger than should. <You must call the director's office immediately.> Must also expresses likelihood. <It must have rained last night.>

Sentence

Expresses one complete thought with one subject and one verb; either or both may be compound

Main Verb

Expresses the action or state of being.

Analyze Purpose and Audience

Focus and understand your audience knowledge

FOCUS Principles

Focused - Address the issue, the whole issue, andnothing but the issue

Subject+Verb+Pronoun (Prepositional Phrase) / s+v+pn (pp)

Follow Action Verbs and Receive the action of the verb She sent me a postcard, Follow action verbs and precede DO, s+v+pn (pp) / s+v+do "goats have cages that surround them."

Noun Groups (3)

Form (number, gender and case); Function (subject,object, complement, appositive, and modifier); Class (proper, common, concrete, abstract, and collective)

Case

Forms that nouns and pronouns take when they fit into different functions of the sentence. There are three: Nominative—for subjects, predicate nominatives and appositives. <I> Objective—for objects and their appositives. <me> Possessive—to show ownership, hence adjectival, functions. <my>

adverb; If it can have an -ly added to it, place "how" there.

Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.

Imperative sentence

Gives a command or makes a request.

Possessive adjective

HER jacket, THEIR house...

interruptions

He looked, well, a little dazed.

3rd person

He, him, his, she, her, hers, they, them, theirs, we, us, ours, it is, who whom

Contrasting elements

Her intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job. Your plan will take you a little further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination. It was a reasonable, THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.

What questions do adverbs ask?

How, when, where, to what extent

Conjugation of Verb: to be

I am You are He is She is it is We are You are They are One is

series

I like chicken, beef, and bacon.

join 2 independent clauses

I ran up the hill, but he fell down it.

common pronouns

I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, she, him, her, his, it, them, them, their, theirs, its

subject pronouns (list)

I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

Personal pronouns

I, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our, ours, us, their, theirs

Sentence Types: Complex

If the sentence has an independent clause and a dependent clause, it is complex.

To or For

If the words to or for actually appear before the noun, that noun cannot be an indirect object. In this case the noun is the object of the preposition. "I mailed to you a copy of the letter.", acknowledge, What 2 prepositions (in English) go before the noun in an indirect object?

nearest it

If two nouns are joined by or, nor, or but, the verb should agree in number with the subject

dangling modifier

If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous ___., A phrase or a clause, which says something different from what is meant, because words are left out. Place modifiers near the words they modify!

Use an En Dash (-)

In a compound adjective when one element has two words or a hyphenated word. New York-London flight Air Force-wide changes quasi-public-quasi-judicial body

like

In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than ____ as the conjunction.

Use an Exclamation mark

In parentheses within a sentence to emphasize a particular word. He lost 67(!) pounds in 6 months. She said what(!)?

Use an em Dash (—)

In place of a colon for a strong, but less formal, break in introducing explanatory words, phrases or clauses. Our arrangement with the Headquarters USAF is simple—we provide the camera-ready copy and they handle the printing and distribution.

Use an em Dash (—)

In place of commas to set off a nonessential element requiring special emphasis. There's an error in one paragraph—the second one. We will ensure all students—as well as faculty members—are informed of the Chief of Staff's visit.

a preposition

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "at"? Class starts at 8:00.

a noun

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light is on.

an adverb

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light pink color looks nice on you.

an adjective

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? This book is light, not heavy.

a verb

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? We light the fire with a match.

an interjection

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "well"? Well, I don't know the answer.

a conjunction

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "when"? When you graduate, you will get a job.

Voice

Indeicates wether the subject is acting or being acted upon.

be to

Indicates future events but hints at uncertainty. <He is to have that report to us tomorrow.>

Use an em Dash (—)

Instead of parentheses when a nonessential item requires strong emphasis (dashes emphasize; parentheses de-emphasize). Call Lieutenant Colonels Kessler, Sims, and Forbes—the real experts—and get their opinion.

emphasis

It may be those who do most, dream most. - Stephen Leacock

separate adjectives

It was a difficult, stubborn animal.

Its vs. It's

Its shows possession, but no apostrophe is needed because its is already a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is. Ex. Its own phone, it's a phone

set off dates

January 1, 1900, is when Excel begins to calculate dates.

Coordinating conjunction

Joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

Four-Level Analysis

Level 1: Parts of Speech Level 2: Parts of the Sentence Level 3: Phrases Level 4: Clauses

Preposition

Links a noun, pronoun, or gerund to other words (direction, time, place, etc.)

Compound sentence

Made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet) or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a semicolon.

Mild Interjections

Mild interjections show relatively low amounts of emotion and are punctuated with commas Ex. Hey, do your homework

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs behave very differently from normal verbs. A good way to remember them: You use "not" to make modal verbs negative. EXAMPLE: He should not be late.

Essential Adj. Clause

Modifies the noun, "cookies": that clause is essential to sentence Ex: The cookies that I made were put in the refrigerator by Dr. Jones.

Descriptive adjective

Names a quality of an object: BLUE notebook

Abstract Noun

Names an idea, a feeling, a quality, a condition, or a characteristic. you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. The opposite of this type of noun is a concrete noun. E.g. adoration, dexterity, sadness, wit. refer to intangible, nonphysical entities. They cannot be sensed through hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, or touching. Represents a feeling and is intangible. Names we have for ideas, emotions, qualities, processes, occasions and times. Invisible and tangible. e.g. 'joy', 'gentleness', 'wedding',

Common Nouns

Names generic persons, places, things, or ideas Are not capitalized Ex: pen

Concrete Noun

Names of an object that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. names things that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are are these types of nouns. E.g. Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns. The opposite of this type of noun is an abstract noun.

before or after

No space ___ __ ___ an em dash (—) or en dash (-) within a sentence.

Universal Grammar (UG)

Noam Chomsky/Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: belieft that language acquistion was innate--not acquired.

need

Not originally a modal auxiliary, need is now used to mean have to. <He need only fill out the top form. He need not get upset about the delay.> In the meaning "lack," need is always a regular verb. <He needs a little help with this project.>

8 Parts of speech

Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb Conjunction Preposition Interjection

Object

Noun or pronoun that is affected by the verb. <The man read the book>

The Noun Family

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective

Numerical adjectives

ONE ticket, SECOND half of the game

dare

Originally a modal only, it is now used primarily in negatives or questions. <He dare not submit the report in that form. Dare we submit the report like this?>

may

Originally meant "have the power" (compare the noun might). Now it means "permission." Also, used to indicate possibility or in wishes

ought

Originally the past tense of owe, but now it points to a present or future time. Ought expresses necessity or obligation, but with less force. See the difference. <We must go. We ought to go.> Ought is nearly the equivalent of should.

Verbals

Past and present participle forms of the verbs that act as nouns or adjectives. There are three: Gerund, Infinitive, Participle.

8 Types of Pronouns

Personal Relative Interrogative Demonstrative Indefinite Reciprocal Intensive Reflexive

near the words they modify.

Place modifiers

The Adjective Degrees

Positive- not modified Ex: hot, good, fun Comparative- used to compare two or more nouns and/or pronouns Uses either "-er" or "more", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, better, more fun Superlative- expresses the highest or a very high degree of the quality of what is being described Uses either "-est" or "most", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, best, most fun

compound predicate adjective

Predicate adjectives sometimes contain more than one adjective. These are called ____. example: The job applicant seems HONEST and RELIABLE.

compound predicate nominative

Predicate nominatives sometimes contain more than one noun. These are called ____. example: Mahatma Ghandi was a Hindu religious LEADER and a social REFORMER in India.

assumptions

Premises for which no proof or evidence is offered., opinions and beliefs, often unstated, that direct our choice of ideas, support, writing strategies and language, the taken-for-granted notions of how something should be

Compound Preposition

Preposition that consists of more than one word.

can

Primarily expresses ability; cannot is used to deny permission.

Person

Pronouns that denote the speaker (first person; I, we), the person spoken to (second person, you), or the person spoken of (third person; she, they).

Informative briefing

Purpose is to keep listener abreast of the current situation and supply specific information. • Designed to inform the listener and gain his understanding • Deals with: High priority facts and information requiring immediate action; Complex information on complicated plans, systems, statistics, or visuals; Controversial information requiring explanation • May have conclusions or recommendations

Decision briefing

Purpose is to produce an answer to a question or obtain a decision on a specific problem. • Briefer must be prepared to present - Assumptions - Facts - Alternative solutions - Reasons/rationale for recommended solutions(s) - Coordination involved - Visual information • Briefer states he/she is looking for a decision; asks for decision if one is not forthcoming at conclusion. • Advises appropriate staff elements of commander's decision after the briefing.

Conduct Research

Remember: information must be objective - Non-biased -Factual, The analysis of data collected from a homogeneous group of subjects who meet study inclusion and exclusion criteria for the purpose of answering specific research questions or testing specified hypotheses

Limiting adjective

Restricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.

Ambiguous Antecedent

Same as a vague pronoun. THe Antecedent for the promoun is not clear.

Compound-Complex

Sentence Types: If the sentence has two independent clauses and a dependent clause, it is compound and it is complex.

Compound

Sentence Types: One sentence contains a subject and verb, and the second sentence contains another subject and verb.

Simple

Sentence Types: Simple sentences are straightforward.

simple sentence

Sentence having only a subject and a verb construction , having few parts, without descriptive embellishment, a sentence having no coordinate clauses or subordinate clauses

Interrogative Sentences

Sentences that ask a direct question. Always ends with a question mark.

Exclamatory Sentences

Sentences that end with an exclamation point.

shall

Shall expresses futurity in the first person;

Tense

Shows the time of the action, condition or state of being expressed. The three tenses—past, present, future—can be expressed in the simple, perfect, or progressive.

Colon

Signals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this mark should be a complete sentence.

4 sentence structures

Simple, Compound, Complex, Complex-compound

Noun Number

Singular or Plural

might

Sometimes functions as simple past tense of may. <He said he might have time to talk to us.> Often it is used to express a more doubtful possibility than may does. <He might returned before then.> Might is also used after contrary-to-fact conditions. <If I were off today, I might go fishing.>

could

Sometimes the past tense of can. <We could see the Big Dipper last night.> Otherwise, could expresses possibility, doubt or something dependent on unreal conditions. <We could see the Big Dipper if it weren't overcast.>

Ignore them

Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. ____ what to these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb?

STORMING

Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. You may ask yourself, "What was I thinking?" The team members begin to realize the task is different and more difficult than they imagined, becoming testy, blameful, or overzealous. Impatient about the lack of progress, but still too inexperienced to know much about decision making or the scientific approach, members argue about just what actions the team should take. They try to rely solely on their personal and professional experience, resisting any need for collaborating with other team members. Their behavior means team members have little energy to spend on progressing towards the team's goal. Still, they are beginning to understand one another.

Noun Clause

Subordinate clause that functions as a noun and can be used in 4 ways: 1) Subject of a sentence Ex: What the Chairman proposed was not practical. 2) Direct object of a verb Ex: I hope that you will be promoted. 3) Predicate noun Ex: The rumor was that he had left the city. 4) Object of a preposition Ex: Give the message to whoever is in the office.

Organized

Systematically present your information and ideas

Compound predicate

Tells two or more things about the same subject without repeating the subject., two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.

introduces essential clauses

That

refer to groups or things

That and which

Help Clarify Meaning

The additional comma specified in closed punctuation may?

Parts of Speech

The basic building blocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, interjections, and conjunctions

parenthetical elements

The boy, as slow as ever, marched into class.

Superlative Adjective

The extreme degree of comparison of adjectives. Used when comparing three or more things. Usually using the suffix -est, or the word 'most'. i.e. most beautiful, or highest

addresses

The house was located on 342 Ameswood St., Kaneohe, Hawaii 96796.

Proper Noun

The name of a particular person, place, thing or idea. Proper nouns are always capitalized, e.g. the Civil War, Monday, or Potter.

Antecedent

The noun, phrase, or clause which the pronoun refers to or replaces. Each pronoun must agree with the antecedent in number, person, and gender. e.g.: Joe worked in the post office and he enjoyed it. (Joe is the antecedent.)

how?

The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question ____, so focus on these.

Controlling topic

The point the writer makes about the topic., what the author wants you to know or understand about the topic, clarifies the author's focus

Stem

The root or main part of a word to which inflections or formative elements are added

nonrestrictive phrase

The students, trying to pass the test, studied long into the night.

Diction

The style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words., the articulation of speech regarded from the point of view of its intelligibility to the audience, clearness of speech

Apostrophe

The superscript sign ( ' ) used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, contractions, and abbreviations.

Predicate

The verb that expresses the action being performed by the subject; what the noun in the sentence modifies.

Good vs. Well

The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb., good is an adjective use good before nouns and after linking verbs to modify the subject use well as an adverb when modifying a verb use the advery well well is used tas an adjective only when describing someone's health

Adverbial Clause

These clauses tell how, when, where, and to what extent an action is performed These clauses also modify: 1) verbs 2) adjectives 3) other adverbs

Articles

Three adjectives are articles: "a", "an", and "the". The two indefinite articles are "a" and "an", because when you use them, you are describing a noun or pronoun that is "indefinite", or one of many. When you use "the", you are describing a specific noun or a "definite" one.

dangling participle

To correct a ____, place the participial closer to the word it modifies; example: (incorrect: PLAYING SOLITAIRE, at the table sat a bored young man. / correct: At the table sat a bored young man PLAYING SOLITAIRE.)

Use an em Dash (—)

To emphasize or restate a previous thought. One day last week—Monday, I think—Congress finally voted on the amendment.

Use an em Dash (—)

To emphasize single words. Girls—that's all he ever thinks about! They're interested in one thing only—profit—nothing else matters.

Use parenthesis

To enclose a nickname or a descriptive expression when it falls between a person's first and last names. However, when it precedes or replaces a person's first name, simply capitalize it. George Herman (Babe) Ruth Stonewall Jackson Major William F. (Clark) Kent the Iron Duke

Use parenthesis

To enclose enumerating letters or numerals within a sentence. Our goals are to (1) reduce the number of curriculum hours, (2) eliminate the 90-minute lunch period, and (3) reduce the number of personnel needed to accomplish the mission. Also, include the following when you file your medical costs: (a) hotel charges, (b) meal costs (including gratuities), and (c) transportation costs.

Use parenthesis

To enclose explanatory material (a single word, a phrase or an entire sentence) that is independent of the main thought of the sentence. The ACSC students (542 of them) will begin classes the second week of June. The results (see figure 3) were surprising.

Use a period

To end an indirect question or a question intended as a suggestion or otherwise not requiring an answer. She wanted to know how to do it. He asked what the job would entail. Tell me how they did it.

Use a period

To end declarative and imperative sentences. His work is minimally satisfactory. Don't be late.

Use a Question Mark

To express doubt. They plan to purchase three(?) new Pentium computers with individual scanners for us. Jackie Baltzell and Gayle Magill have been associated with her since 1990(?).

Use a hyphen

To form compound words and phrases. Some compound words are written as two words (post office, air brake, Mother Nature, fellow traveler), some as one (manpower, masterpiece, aircraft), some as a combination of words and joined by hyphens (father-in-law, great-uncle, secretary-treasurer, governor-general, men-of-war, grant-in-aid, mother-of-pearl), and some multiple-word compounds that include a preposition and a description (jack-of-all-trades, but flash in a pan and master of none). There's a growing trend to spell compound words as one word once widely accepted and used. However, sometimes the way you use a compound word or phrase will dictate how you write it—as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate words. When in doubt, consult an up-to-date dictionary or treat as two words if the guidelines on the

Use an em Dash (—)

To give special emphasis to the second independent clause in a compound sentence. Our new, but used, pickup truck is great—it's economical too! You'll double your money with this plan—and I'll prove it!

Use an em Dash (—)

To indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in thought. He is going—no, he's turning back. Our new building should be—will be—completed by June 2004.

Use an En Dash (-)

To indicate inclusive numbers (dates, page numbers, time) when not introduced by the word from or between. Some instructions are on pages 15-30 of this article and from pages 3 to 10 in the attached brochure. My appointment is 0800-0900. I will be there between 0745 and 0800. She worked in the Pentagon from 1979 to 1996 and she said the 1990-1996 period went by quickly.

Use a comma

To indicate omission of words in repeating a construction. We had a tactical reserve; now, nothing. [The comma replaces we have.]

Use a Question Mark

To indicate the end of a direct question. Did he go with you? Will you be able to attend?

Use a hyphen

To join capital letter(s) and numbers in system designators and numerical identifiers. F-117 B-1B F-16 KC-10 Su-24TK T-38

Use a hyphen

To join single capital letters to nouns or participles. U-boat H-bomb X-height U-turn T-shirt T-bone D-mark E-mail

Use a hyphen

To join unit modifiers. When you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen. 4-hour sortie, 4 hr sortie long-term loan rust-resistant cover 24-gallon tank, 24 gal. tank

Use a Semicolon

To precede words or abbreviations that introduce a summary or explanation of what has gone before in the sentence. We visited several countries on that trip; i.e., England, Ireland, France, Germany, and Finland. There are many things you must arrange before leaving on vacation; for example, mail pickup, pet care, yard care.

Use a comma

To prevent confusion or misreading. No space before. One space after, unless a closing quotation mark immediately follows the comma. No space after within a number.

USE A COLON

To separate an introductory statement from explanatory or summarizing material that follows when there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression. (Capitalize the first word of the expression that follows the colon if it is the dominant element and is a complete sentence. For additional details, see the "Capitalization" section.) Living in base housing has many advantages: People can walk to work, shopping is convenient, and there are organized activities for the children. The board consists of three officials: a director, an executive director, and a recording secretary.

Use a Semicolon

To separate items in a series that contain commas (when confusion would otherwise result). If you want your writing to be worthwhile, organize it; if you want it to be easy to read, use simple words and phrases; and, if you want it to be interesting, vary your sentence and paragraph lengths. Those who attended the meeting were Colonels Jim Forsyth, Dean of Education; Michael Harris, Dean of Distance Learning; Mark Zimmerman, Chairman of Leadership and Communications Studies; and Phil Tripper, Chairman of Joint Warfare Studies.

Use a comma

To separate repeated words. That was a long, long time ago. Well, well, look who's here.

Use an em Dash (—)

To set off a nonessential element when the nonessential element contains internal commas. Certain subjects—American government, calculus and chemistry—are required courses.

Use a Comma

To set off explanatory dates, addresses and place names; use a what? The change of command, 1 October 1996, was the turning point.

Use a comma

To set off names and titles used in direct address.

Use a comma

To set off statements such as he said, she replied, they answered, and she announced. NOTE: If a quotation functions as an integral part of a sentence, commas are unnecessary. e.g. They even considered "No guts, no glory!" as their slogan.

after

Two spaces ___ the em dash at the end of a sentence that breaks off abruptly (rule 10)— unless manuscript format and using right justified, then one space after.

Understanding

Understand your audience and its expectations

Then

Use ____ to answer the question when.

Than

Use ____ to show comparison.

Use a hyphen

Use a hyphen when two or more proper names are combined to form a one-thought modifier and when two adjectives are joined by the word and or or. essays, lectures, sermons, legal cases, and reports.

Use a hyphen

Use a hyphen with words and phrases that are combined to form a unit modifier immediately preceding the word modified (except with an adverb ending in ly). Do not an up-to-date report; this report is up to date; a $500-a-week salary; a salary of $500 a week decision-making process; the process of decision making; red-faced man; the man with the red face X-rated movies; movies that are X rated; the X-ray equipment; the X-ray showed a well-known author; the author is well known a first-come, first-served basis; on the basis of first come, first served a highly organized group; a completely balanced meal

Use a comma

Use a what, After introductory words such as yes, no, or oh?

Supported

Use logic and support to make your point.

parallel construction

Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called ____? successive sentences or phrases follow the same pattern of wording in order to emphasize and idea, repetition of a grammatical pattern.

Semicolons

Use this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction 2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3. Separate items in a series with internal commas

Object Pronouns

Used as objects Can be direct objects Can be indirect objects Can be the objects of prepositions Are said to be in the object case Ex: me, us, you (singular), you (plural), him, her, it, them

be able to

Used instead of can or could to indicate the ability as a fact rather than a mere potentiality. It is used also to avoid the ambiguity that may result from using can to express permission. <He is able to support his mother.>

Use of a semicolon

Used to indicate a major division in a sentence where a more distinct separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than is indicated by a comma.

Plagiarism

Using someone else's writing as if it were your own. This serious offense can lead to severe professional and legal consequences. If using another person's material, identify the borrowed passage and credit the author.

Parallel structure

Using three or more alike elements, separated with commas, in a sentence., structure in which similar forms of nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts. Maintains balance. e.g. "Lilly likes reading, writing, and skiing" instead of "Lilly likes to read, write, and go skiing"

Use more or most in front of the words.

Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use ___.

The Verb Family

Verb, Adverb

Fragments Caused by Verbals

Verbals are verb forms that act as other parts of speech. They can easily trick a writer into mistaking a phrase for a sentence b/c they like verbs, but do not act as verbs. Rember: An-ing word by itself can never act as the verb of a sentence. To qualify as a verb, it must have an auxiliary word such as have, is, or were. An infinitive, such as to run, to go, and so on can never act as the verb of a sentence. Fragment: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office. That was one possible response. Correct: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office was one possible response.

explanatory words

We worked, standing in the hot field, all day.

What questions do adjectives ask?

What kind? Which one? How many?

Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement

When a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender (boy/girl) and amount (singular/plural). Ex. Jack did his homework. "Jack" is singular and masculine, and so is "his". If there is not pronoun/ antecedent agreement, the sentence is incorrect

Use a Question Mark

When a question within a sentence is set off by dashes, place the question mark before the closing dash. The new class—isn't it called Super Seminar?—begins tomorrow.

WHEN To USE A COLON

When a sentence contains an expression such as following or as follows or is followed by a list or enumerated items. [Notice the capitalization and punctuation.] The new directive achieved the following results: better morale and improved relations. Results were as follows: better morale, less work, and more pay. Consider these advantages when making your decision: 1. You won't have to be somewhere at 0800 every day. 2. You can get more involved in community activities. 3. You can pursue hobbies you haven't had time for in the last year.

FORMING:

When a team is forming, members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual to member status, and of testing the leader's guidance both formally and informally. Because there is so much going on to distract the members' attention in the beginning, the team accomplishes little, if anything, that concerns its project goals. Don't despair and flush your project down the toilet! This is perfectly normal!

Use a hyphen

When dividing a word at the end of a line. When in doubt about the proper place to divide a word, consult a dictionary and apply the guidelines

Use a hyphen

When expressing the numbers 21 through 99 in words and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element. Twenty-one people attended. Twenty-one people attended with at least 2 that failed to show up. Eighty-nine or ninety miles from here there's an outlet mall. I kept their 3-year-old child while they were away. There will be a 10-minute delay.

Use a comma

When names are reversed. Adams, Angie Middleton, Mary Baldwin, Sherwood, Jr. Parks, James, III Brown, Carolyn Price, William, Esq

refers to people

Who

Use an em Dash (—)

With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence abruptly breaks off before the end of a question or exclamation, put the end punctuation mark immediately following the dash. Shall I do it or —? Look out for the —!

Use an em Dash (—)

With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence contains a question or exclamation that is set off by dashes, put the appropriate punctuation mark before the closing dash. I'll attend Friday's meeting—is it being held at the same place?—but I'll have to leave early for another appointment. He's busy now, sir—wait, don't go in there!—I'll call you when he's free.

Use a comma

With afterthoughts (words, phrases or clauses added to the end of a sentence). It isn't too late to get tickets, is it? Send them as soon as possible, please. NOTE: The word too does not require a comma if located at the end of a sentence

Use a period

With certain abbreviations. Most abbreviations today are written without punctuation Ms. Miss [not an Sr. no. [number; could be confused abbreviation] with the word no] Mr. Dr. e.g. in. [inch; could be confused with the word in] Mrs. Jr. i.e. etc.

Use a Question Mark

With elliptical (shortened) questions and to express more than one question within a sentence. You rang? For what purpose? Was the speaker interesting? Convincing? Well versed? Who approved the sale? When? To whom? For what amount?

Use an em Dash (—)

With quotation marks. Place the dash outside the closing quotation mark when the sentence breaks off after the quotation and inside the closing quotation mark to indicate the speaker's words have broken off abruptly. If I hear one more person say, "See what I'm saying!?"— Thomas Hardy said, "When I get to 25 Barberry Street, I'll —"

USE A COMMA

With the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, or nor when joining two or more independent clauses

Use a comma

With titles following personal names. (Jr. and Sr. are set off by commas; 2d, 3d, II, and III are not.) NOTE: When you must show possession drop the comma following Jr. and Sr. Lee Walker, Sr.'s car is ...

modifiers

Words that describe a noun that can include adjectives, verbs and nouns themselves, adjectives and adverbs are also known as

Interjection

Words used to express emotion or surprise (ah, alas, great, hooray, help, etc.) Strong interjections are punctuated with an exclamation point. (Wow! That's profound.) Milder interjections are often set off by commas, usually at the beginning of a sentence. <Oh, I guess it wasn't. Ouch, that hurts.>

Subordination

Words, phrases, or clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on another., the dependence of one syntactical element on another in a sentence

would

Would still indicates past time in expressing determination. <You thought you would finish by 4 p.m.> Would expresses customary action in past time. <Our last supervisor would bring us doughnuts every Friday morning.> Would points to future time, but adding doubt or uncertainty. Notice the difference in meaning. <I will if I can. I would if I could.> Would replaces will in indirect discourse. <He said that he would call.>

2nd person

You, Your, & Yours

external conflict

a character struggles against some outside force. This outside force may be another character or society as a whole.

grammatical feature

a characteristic of a subclass of words that determines how it may be used

mass noun

a common noun that cannot be easily separated into countable units; examples: water, sand, gold, cement, air

logical consistency

a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretical statements, a measure of how well data features represent real-world features, in particular with respect to topology, Theories should make sense, be clear, and not contradict.

Determiners: Quantifier:

a determiner that expresses a number or amount - functions as a modifier of a noun or pronoun. Examples: All (All are welcome; All these people) Five, Many, Some

Determiners: Demonstrative:

a determiner used to indicate spatial, temporal, or discourse location. It functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun. Examples: These Those, This, That

regional dialects

a form of speech associated with a geographic area or region

social dialects

a form of speech used by a group within a society characterized especially by the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and/or gender of the speakers

clause

a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb, a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

subjunctive

a mood that represent an act or state (not as a fact but) as contingent or possible, uses different form of the past and present to express matters of urgency, formality, possibility, or speculation, ie. "If I WERE...", setting up a hypothetical situation

direct object

a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb; they tell or what receives the action; example: I inherited a pet DEER from the former residents of my house. (tells what) or The surgical team asked DR. HABIB to explain the procedure. (tells who)

count noun

a noun that can be preceded by a number

Appositive

a noun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun it follows; usually set off by commas; example: Robert Miller, the JUDGE, sentenced the criminal to prison.

Appositive phrase

a noun that renames or clarifies another noun; are offset with commas, further describe nouns eg: Mr. Dobbs, our teacher, is here. That car, a brand new Toyota, is what I want.

Noun in Apposition

a noun that renames, identifies, or explains the noun it follows. It is set off by commas when it renames a proper noun. Assumes or takes the case of the noun it renames., A noun in apposition is a mini definition - added information in the sentence sometimes set off by commas - 2 kinds of appositions: restricitve (needed; no commas) and nonrestrictive (not really needed; has commas)

Noun of Direct Address

a noun used to speak directly to some person or object. ALWAYS separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. Often found in imperative sentences where the subject (you) is understood., the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to ex. Mary, do you..., person being spoken to in a sentence Charlie, don't bite my finger. (Charlie = NDA)

Absolute phrase

a noun+participle combination grammatically isolated from the sentence

meter

a poem or song's rhythmical pattern. The pattern is determined by the number and types of stresses, or beats, in each line

Adjective Phrase

a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun (begins with a preposition) ex. No one in our class has seen the movie yet. A - in our class

indefinite pronoun

a pronoun that does not refer to a specific, person, place, thing, or idea; examples: everyone, everything, everybody, anybody, many, most, few, each, some, someone, all, nothing, nobody, and no one

fiction

a prose account that is made up rather than true

Topic sentence

a sentence that states the topic of its paragraph, A sentence, most often appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's idea and often unites it with the work's thesis. The controlling sentence in the paragraph.

frame sentence

a sentence with an empty slot in the position typically occupied by a member of a particular form class

Linguistic Competence

a speaker's knowledge of the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of a particular language

informal style

a speech used in casual settings, among friends, etc.

mythology

a story that explains something about the world and typically involves gods or other super human beings

1st person

a story told by one of the characters. The character uses the first person pronoun I, Me, My, Mine

conflict

a struggle or clash between opposing characters or opposing forces

dialect

a subdivision of a language that are related to regional differences and/or social class; may differ in sound (phonology), in vocabulary, and in grammar from the orignal language

Standard American English (SAE)

a variety of American English that is widely shared by middle class, urban, educated speakers and most closely resembles the written form of language taught in schools

grammar

a way of thinking about language

figure of speech

a word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of something else and is not literally true

common articles

a, and, the

common prepositions

about, behind, above, across, as, after, between, beyond, beside, despite, during, for, inside, in, near, off, outside, onto, opposite, around, against, along, at, before, below, beneath, but, by, down, except, from, into, like, out, over, of, opposite, past, toward, under, upon within, since, through, until, underneath, with

Conjunctive adverbs

accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, still, therefore...

types of verbs

action, linking, helping, phrases

expanded

adding details to sentences to make them more clear and more interesting

should

adds a slight coloring of doubt that the action will take place. In indirect discourse should replaces the shall of direct discourse. Should is used to express likelihood. Should expresses obligation.

positive adjective

adjective used when no comparison being made; example: This is a HOT day.

Possessive Case of the Noun

adjective.

Comparative Adjective

adjectives used to compare two things. Usually using the suffix -er and the word 'than'. i.e. faster than or slower than

comparative adverb

adverbs such as lower, nearer, more slowly; faster, more seriously

Do Not Capitalize

after a colon if the material cannot stand alone as a sentence. I must countersign all cash advances, with one exception: when the amount is less than $50. Three subjects were discussed: fund raising, membership, and bylaws.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is a proper noun or the pronoun I. Two courses are required: English and Economics.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is each line in a poem.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is expression after the colon is a complete sentence that is the dominant or more general element. A key principle: Nonessential elements are set off by commas; essential elements are not set off.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is material following the colon consists of two or more sentences. There are several drawbacks to this: First, it ties up our capital for three years. Second, the likelihood of a great return on our investment is questionable.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is material following the colon starts on a new line. They gave us two reasons: 1. They received the order too late. 2. It was Friday and nothing could be done until Monday.

Capitalize The First Word

after a colon when the word is word is the first word of a quoted sentence.

Capitalize The First Word

after a hyphen when the hyphenated word is followed by a proper noun or adjective. Non-English speaking people

common adverbs (non -ly)

afterward, already, quick, hard, never, today, even, low, rather, tomorrow, how, now, then, yesterday, late, often, almost, back, long, soon, when, here, next, still, where, far, more, slow, too, fast, near, so

A linking verb

agrees with its subject, not with its complement.

qualifier

aka - intensifier, a structure-class word

noncount noun

aka - mass noun, a noun that ordinarily can not be preceded by a number or the determiner a/an

omniscient

all knowing point of view. A narrator who can tell the reader everything about all the characters, even their most private thoughts.

Capitalize

all proper names (the official name of a person, place or thing). Anglo-Saxon; Cliff Brow; Rio Grande River; Maine

complete predicate

all the words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING A SECRET.

complete subject

all the words in a subject; example: MY TWO OLDER BROTHERS stared at me silently.

in

already inside

Subordinating conjunctions

although, as, as if, after, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, though, unless, when, whenever, while

Participial phrase

an -ing or -ed verb form used as an adjective

gradable adjective

an adjective that can occur with qualifiers

Predicate Adjective

an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject., an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.

proper adjective

an adjective that is formed from a proper noun; example: Africa --> African; Scotland --> Scottish

linguistic insecurity

an anxious desire to be correct sometimes felt by speakers who believe their language does not always conform to SAE

hypercorrection

an attempt to be overly "correct" resulting in the production of language different from the standard ("between Harlan and I" instead of "between Harlan and me")

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events, a belief that can guide behavior, a tentative theory about the natural world, , a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations,

Nouns of Multitude

another name for Collective Nouns

scientific approach

another name for the classical theory of formal curiosity, skeptical, objective, and critical thinking of organizations , A testable hypothesis, a reproducible experiment that can be replicated by other scientists, an operationalized definition (observable and measureable) of the concept under study, Observations, Hypothesis, Experiment, Model (Theory), Further Experimentation

most indefinite pronouns

another, anybody, anything, each, everyone, everybody, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, one, no one, someone, somebody and something.

types of indefinite articles

another, each, neither, many, all, more, other, both, either, few, several, any, most, some

Simple Predicate

answers the question: what is the subject doing? And it must be a verb.

signal

any incitement to action, anything that serves to direct, guide, or warn, a sound or action that sends a message.

types of indefinite pronouns

anything, no one, all, some, several

Subject pronouns

are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.

When this, that, these, and those

are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.

These and those

are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there."

This and that

are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. This points to something nearby while that points to something "over there."

the input hypothesis

argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order

common linking verbs

be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become, am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been

Use a

before consonant sounds

Use an

before vowel sounds

Noun clause as Predicate Nominative

begins with "what" follows "is" (linking verb) Ex: Running on pavement is what my doctors told me not to do.

summary

belonging to or characteristic of or occurring in summer

TO CONTRAST IDEAS

but, yet, nevertheless, however, still, conversely, on the one hand, instead of, neither of these, (to) (on) the contrary, rather than, no matter what, much less as, in contrast, otherwise, on the other hand, in the (first) (second) place, nor, according to

Determiners: Article:

class of determiners that identify a noun's status. (The, A, An)

types of adjectives

common, proper, compound, articles, indefinite articles

types of nouns

common, proper, compound, collective

a, the, an

commonly used articles

expressive language

communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures, that is, selecting words, formulating them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing (encoding or the process of expressive language). Expressive language involves word retrieval, rules of grammar (syntax), word and sentence structure (morphology), and word meaning (semantics).

simile

comparison of two unlike objects using like or as

metaphor

comparison of two unlike objects without using the words like or as

Prescriptive Grammar:

concerned with correct usage

clincher

concluding sentence; restates the paragraphs main idea. It may also summarize the paragraph's main points, reveal and insight the writer has gained or suggest a course of action., a point or fact or remark that settles something conclusively, Wrap Up Entire Paragraph

subordinating conjunction

connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however

examine

consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning, question closely, put to the test, as for its quality, or give experimental use to, Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue, Consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning.

Compound Noun

consists of two or more words used together as a single noun that can be separate words, one word, or a hyphenated word.

four kinds of sentences

declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory

Common Gender Nouns

denotes nouns of either male or female sex.

Feminine Gender Nouns

denotes nouns of the female sex., includes most words that refer to females. Examples: actress, she, miss

Masculine Gender Nouns

denotes nouns of the male sex., All nouns naming individual male persons., Refers to persons or animals that are male. (He, him, his)

Neuter Gender Nouns

denotes nouns with no sex., refers to things, places, ideas, or qualities that are neither male nor female

form

denotes the part of speech of a word or the makeup of a grammatical structure

Descriptive Grammar:

describes a language - the way that people use it - w/out judging whether the utterance is correct or incorrect

the affective filter hypothesis

describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquistion, such as motivation level, self-confidence level, and anxiety

Objective Case of the Noun

direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition.

Phrases between the subject and verb

do not change the requirement that the verb must agree in number with its subject.

types of helping verbs

do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must

irregular verb

does not end with -ed to form the past participle; examples; (is, are, am / was / were) ; (has, have / had / had) ; (do, does / did / done) ; ate, grown, bought, sold, spent, taken, etc.

fragment

does not express a complete thought; example: Tells an interesting story.

positive

don't use two negatives to make a

Reciprocal pronouns

each other, one another

correlative conjunctions

either and or, neither and nor, not only and but also

semantic feature

elements of meaning (like human/non-human, animate/non-animate) that affect how words can be combined

intensive pronoun

emphasizes its antecedent; adds emphasis to pronoun or named noun; examples: I MYSELF will go.

Present Participles

end in-ing used with BE to indicate continuing action or state Ex: I am going. They were laughing.

transfer errors

errors made when acquiring a second language in which a speaker substitutes features of the native language in the new language (ex. an Italian speaker saying "he has cold" for the English "he is cold"

developmental errors

errors made when learning a language based on the speaker's incorrect inference of grammatical rules, for example in acquiring English a learner may say "he goed" instead of "he went"

open punctuation

excludes the comma before the final and, or, or nor.

adult stage

final stage of language acquistion

TO ADD IDEAS

first, second, next, last, etc., in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, another, besides, clear, too, is, the answer does not only lie, to all that, more than anything else, here are some...facts, now, of course, there are, now however

two-word stage

follows the holophrastic stage

intermediate development stage

follows the telegraphic stage

Use a singular verb

for a compound subject that is preceded by each or every.

Use a singular verb

for a compound subject whose parts are considered a single unit

coordinating conjunctions

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

learned system

formal instruction in which students engage in forma study to acquire knowledge about the target language

clarity

free from obscurity and easy to understand, clearness in thought or expression, clearness or lucidity as to perception or understanding; freedom from indistinctness or ambiguity. written with precision.

personification

giving human characteristics to inanimate objects

Singular

grammatical number category referring to a single item or unit. Ex. person, dog, bone

Plural

grammatical number category referring to two or more items or units. Ex. people, dogs, bones

complete sentence

group of words that expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and a verb, contains a subject and a predicate

whoever

him + he =

whomever

him + him =

Adverbial phrase

if the prepositional phrase answers when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions., A phrase that functions as an adverb, a linguistic term for a group of two or more words operating adverbially, when viewed in terms of their syntactic function; a phrase that collectively modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a prepositional phrase; a group of words that act like an adverb; is a group of words telling us where, when, how or with whom an action is done

No comma is needed

if the sentence has one subject with a compound predicate connected with a coordinating conjunction because the second half of the sentence is not an independent clause.

monitor hypothesis

illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system: when second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammaer to edit, plan, and initiate their communication

TO SHOW TIME

immediately, presently, nearly a ... later, meantime, meanwhile, afterword, next, as of today, this year, however, a little later, then last year, next week, tomorrow, as of now, finally

Internal transitions

improve the flow of sentences, within a paragraph are one or more related words that show the relationship between ideas within a paragraph. Woven skillfully into your writing, internal transitions help your reader follow your line of thought. "First go home and then clean your room." repetition of key words at the beginning of individual sentences.

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Capitalize The First Word

in the salutation and complimentary closing of a letter.

Determiners: Definite determiners

include the definite article the, demonstratives (this, those, etc.), possessives (his, John's), question words (which), and quantifiers (all, etc.)

Determiners: Indefinite determiners

include: a(n) and numerals like two, and many.

Definite Pronouns

includes I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and all of their forms.

closed punctuation

includes the comma before the final and, or or nor.

gerund phrase

includes the gerund, its object, and its object's modifiers; WRITING A BEST SELLER is the goal of every novelist.

TO RELATE THOUGHTS

indeed, anyway, anyhow, elsewhere, nearby, above all, even these, beyond, in other words, for instance, of course, in sort, in sum, yet, in reality, that is, by consequence, notwithstanding, nonetheless, as a general rule, understandably, traditionally, the reason of course, the lesson here is, from all information, at best, naturally, in the broader sense, to this end, in fact

indirect object

is a noun or a pronoun that follows an action verb; example: The vet sent ME a reminder to bring my dogs in for their shots.

adverb clause

is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb

subject complement

is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject., the name of a grammatical unit that is comprised of predicate moninatives and predicate adjectives, The word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes the subject or the sentence by either renaming it or describing it

nonrestrictive clause

is descriptive or explanatory and can be omitted without changing the essential meaning; example: My father, WHO WAS COACHING THE BASEBALL TEAM, met us at the ballpark.

helping verb

is not the main verb in a phrase; are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer; includes any forms of TO BE

will

is the common future auxiliary used in the second and third persons. In addition it is used with special emphasis to express determination. <You will finish by 4 p.m.>

simple subject

is the main word or words in a subject; example: My two older BROTHERS stared at me silently.

Indefinite Article

is the most commonly used adjective and is used before a noun that names a nonspecific person,place, thing, or idea.

Definite Article

is the most commonly used adjective and points to a specific person, place,thing, or idea.

object of the preposition

is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition; example: The sands of the BEACH were white.

The Subjunctive

is used after the following expressions: It is best (that), It is crucial (that), It is desirable (that), It is essential (that), It is imperative (that), It is important (that), It is recommended (that), It is urgent (that), It is vital (that), It is a good idea (that), It is a bad idea (that)

Among

is used for three or more.

An

is used when: a singular noun begins with a vowel Ex: an elephant

receptive language

language that is spoken or written by others and recieved by an individual, that is listening or reading (decoding or getting meaning from spoken words or written symbols)

synthetic language

language that uses large numbers of bound morphemes and often compbines strings of them to form a single word.

analytic language

language that uses very few bound morphemes--prefixes and suffixes and inflections or grammatical endings of nouns

cognitive language

language which is received, processed into memory, integrated with knowledge already integrated, and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated. It is part of the creative process that shapes the thought of each person

Principal Verb

last verb in a verb phrase.

The overview

like a good roadmap—it clearly presents your main points, previews your paragraph sequence and ties your main points to your purpose.

informal writing

like may be used as a preposition and in what kind of writing, as a conjunction.

TO COMPARE IDEAS

like, just as, similar, this

external transitions

link separate paragraphs together within the body of your communication.

relative pronoun

linked group of words preceding noun or pronoun; examples: who, which, that

coherence

logical and orderly and consistent relation of parts, quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle, a principle demanding that the parts of any composition be so arranged that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible, easy to understand

Gender of Nouns

masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common

object pronouns (list)

me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

Non-essential Adj. Clause

modifies noun, "Bobert" set apart from sentence by commas who not essential to meaning of sentence Ex: Bobert, who is nice but a short guy, would like to take Tonie out sometime.

Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...

modify a noun

Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...

modify a verb

body

must be an effective sequence of ideas that flow logically in a series of paragraphs. It includes your main ideas about your subject and supporting details under each main idea. The total number of paragraphs (and overall length of the body) will depend on your purpose and subject. As a general rule, write a separate paragraph for each main idea. You may find it necessary to use more than one paragraph to cover one main point or idea.

introduction

must capture your audience's attention, establish rapport and announce your purpose. sets the stage and tone for your message. The introduction should, at a minimum, clearly state your purpose ("bottom line") and the direction you plan to take the audience.

conclusion

must summarize the main points stated in the body and close smoothly. It is your last chance to summarize your communication and give your audience a sense of closure. It should effectively summarize the overall theme and main points discussed in the body.

Intensive pronouns

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

plural noun

names more than one person, place, or thing; example: principals, switches, communities, toys, leaves, roofs, radios, potatoes, feet, sheep

Transition

needed for coherence

Nonun clause as Indirect Object

noun clause "whatever" "whatever I want" = noun + verb Ex: I'd like to order whatever I want tonight.

predicate nominative

noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Susan B. Anthony was an early FEMINIST. (noun) / It was SHE who led the woman's suffrage movement to victory. (pronoun)

possessive noun

noun that shows ownership or possession

advice

noun, counsel given, an opinion

Understood Subjects

occur in imperative sentences, and (you) is the implied subject.

Capitalize The First Word

of direct questions and quotations placed within a sentence even if quotation marks are not used. The commander asked this question: How many of you are volunteers? The order read "Attack at dawn."

Capitalize The First Word

of every sentence fragment treated as a complete sentence. Really? No! So much for that. More discussion. No agreement. Another hour wasted.

Capitalize The First Word

of every sentence.

Capitalize The First Word

of items shown in a list (using numbers, letters, or display dots) when a complete sentence introduces them.

Your purpose statement

one sentence that captures your bottom line

Holophrastic stage

one word communication

Correlative Conjunction

pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups of words.

sentence constructions

parallelism

Do Not Capitalize

part of a quotation slogan or motto if it is not capitalized in the original quotation. General MacArthur said that old soldiers "just fade away."

adjectives, adverbs, verbs

parts of speech that adverbs modify

four levels of traditional grammar

parts of speech, parts of a sentence, phrases, clauses

main clause

past/imperfect subjunctive, perfect subjunctive

logical order

pattern of organization used for an expository essay

Chronological

pattern used for a narrative essay - This commonly used pattern is used in writing histories, tracing the evolution of processes, recording problem conditions, and documenting situations that evolve over time.

compare/contrast

pattern used for an essay about the beliefs of one program versus the beliefs of another

spatial

pattern used for an essay about the structure of a cell

participle phrase

phrase that includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects; example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.

present / present participle

play / (is, are, am) playing --> adding -ing used with form be

past / past participle

played / (have, has, had) played --> adding -ed or -d with form have

Demonstrative pronoun

points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea Ex. THAT car is the one I want. This, that, these, those,

three degrees of adjectives

positive, comparative, superlative

adverb phrase

prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; examples: The porpoises performed WITH EASE. (tells how) or Shows begin ON THE HOUR. (tells when)

interrogative pronoun

pronoun that asks a question; examples: who, whom, whose, what, which

indefinite

pronoun that may or may not be already named

possessive

pronoun that shows ownership

Nonstandard (American English)

pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar that differs from what is in dictionaries and prescriptive handbooks

nonfiction

prose writing that deals with real people, events, and places without changing any facts

comma

punctuation mark used to set off introductory material, connect independent clauses, separate items in a series, connect dependent clause to independent clauses, and separate city and state in an address

Reflexive Pronoun

refers back to the person to whom the pronoun refers, usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves

Singular Noun

refers to one person, place, object, or idea., shows ownership by one person or thing

Between

refers to two.

end rhyme

rhymes at the end of a line

internal rhyme

rhymes within lines

Grammar Rules

rules about correct spoken or written language

complex

s-lv

Subject-Adjective-Verb

s-ly-v; Subject-Adjective-Verb;she also needs, S strongly recommend, linking verbs link the subject with a word that compliments th subject, if the word is a noun it is called a predicate noun (if adjective, a predicate adjective)

Subject-Verb-Object /s-v-o

s-v-o; subject does the action, verb transfers it to object, and object receives it, E.g. I like rice., in this type of sentence the subject does the action to someone or something, which is the direct object,Verb will be a transitive verb in the active voice. I bought a coat. She invited him.

imperative

sentence gives a command; uses a period; example: Think about all the uses for artwork.

interrogative

sentence that asks a questions; uses a ? mark; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene?

command

sentence that does not need a subject because the subject is understood to be you - the person being commanded

direct object

sentence with an indirect object has a...

Stage-setting remarks

set the tone of the communication, capture the audience's attention and encourage them to read further. Stage setting remarks are optional, so you can omit them in very short messages or in messages where you don't want to waste words.

Of

should never be used in place of have.

Extreme Interjections

show relatively large amounts of emotion and are punctuated with an exclamation mark Ex. Hey! Do your homework

plural possessive noun

shows ownership by more than one person or thing; example: my friends' parents

singular possessive noun

shows ownership by one person or thing; example: my aunt's house

Possesive Case Noun

shows ownership of another noun. MUST have an apostrophe. It is diagramed as an adjective.

possessive pronoun

shows ownership or possession of something; example: Jerome is learning about HIS ancestors.

Prelinguistic stage

silent period with only crying and later cooing and babbline

parallelism

similarity by virtue of correspondence, the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form

Infinitive

simple verb form used as a noun, adjective, or adverb and usually preceded by to. <to go, to type>

Number of Collective Nouns

singular in the number if the group is considered a single unit.

a

singular noun with a consonant sound Ex: a unicorn

run-on sentence

strings together two or more sentences without clearly separating them; example: This picture is his it is not yours.

Include a ____ and a predicate in every sentence.

subject

Nominative Case of the Noun

subject, predicate noun, noun of direct address., noun in apposition.

s-v

subject/verb agreement, subject/verb agreement s+v+do

substantiated

supported or established by evidence or proof, verified, to give substance or form to; proved true with evidence, verified, , Backed up

hypothetical situation

supposed for the sake of argument, an example., tells what would happen if something else were to happen first, uses past subjunctive: if clause (si + past subjunctive) result clause (conditional) What if....

Do not capitalize

systems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or seasons

How do you find the Predicate Noun?

take the subject and the verb and ask who or what. The answer to the who or what is the predicate noun if its verb is a linking verb.

personal pronoun

takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender; example: singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its / plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs

into

tell about the movement from the outside to the inside

demonstrative adjective

tells which one; examples: this, that, these, and those

present perfect

tense with the past participle and helping verb HAVE and HAS

Determiners, Determiner

term for an element preceding a noun in a noun phrase. EXAMPLE: the, that, two, a, many, all, etc.

Communicative Competence

the ability to use a language appropriately for a variety of social and cultural circumstances

Textual Competence

the ability to use language for a variety of purposes, such as stories, conversations, and letters

pragmatic competence

the ability to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance between speakers and an indirectness required in a given situation

development

the act of improving a prototype outlined paragraph by expanding, enlarging, and refining the state in which facts and thoughts are defined, organized, and communicated to the audience.

Passive Voice

the action is performed by an unknown agent. Shows the subject as receiver of the action Ex. The papers were carried to the desk.

definite article

the adjective "the"

Sentence patterns

the arrangement of independent and dependent clauses into known sentence constructions-such as simple,compound.complex,or compound-complex, s-v, s-v-o, s-lv- adjective complement, s-lv - subject complement

gender

the classification of English nouns and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter based on the sex of the person or thing referred to or on the conventional alignment of sex to inanimate objects

decision making

the cognitive process of reaching a decision, evaluating alternatives and making choices among them, The process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats by analyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.

lexicon

the complete stock of words known by any speaker

internal logic

the cultural beliefs that give a context to a behavior, custom, or artifact, What happens in the story makes sense in the story, the rules which will govern the film in question-- usually established at the beginning of the movie

Standard Written English

the edited variety of language appropriate for use in writing; also known as Standard Edited English

Do Not Capitalize

the first word of a sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence unless the first word is a proper noun, the pronoun I, the first word of a quoted sentence, or begins a complete parenthetical sentence standing alone. The company finally moved (they were to have vacated 2 months ago) to another location.

Do Not Capitalize

the first word of an independent clause after a colon if the clause explains, illustrates or amplifies the thought expressed in the first part of the sentence. Essential and nonessential elements require altogether different punctuation: the latter should be set off by commas, whereas the former should not.

theme

the idea about life revealed in a work of literature

interlanguage

the language form produced by speakers acquiring a second language that combines linguistic features from both their native and their new languages

formal style

the language used in public speech, such as lectures, sermons, writing, and political addresses

resolution

the last part of a story when the character's problems are solved and the story ends

climax

the most emotional or suspenseful moment in the story

3rd person limited

the narrator zooms in on the thoughts and feelings of just one character in the story

The purpose statement

the one sentence you'd keep if you had only one. It specifically states your purpose, thesis or main point.

characterization

the process of revealing the personality of a character in a story

rhyme

the repetition of accented vowel sounds and all sounds following them in words close together in a poem

alliteration

the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words

function

the role a word or phrase plays in a sentence

pragmatics

the rules for social language - 1. using language appropriately for different social situations 2. changing one's language according to the listener's needs (volume, change in vocabulary) 3. following rules for conversing with others, such a taking turns, staying on topic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary

plot

the series of related events that make up a story

form class

the set of words capable of changing form through the addition of inflectional and derivational morphemes

number

the singular or plural state of nouns and pronouns

Active Voice

the subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective. The subject performs the action denoted by the verb. Means the subject is performing the verb.Ex. John carried the papers to the desk or John is a thoughtful boy.

foreshadowing

the use of clues to hint at events that will happen later in the story

onomatopoeia

the use of words with sound that echo their sense

Predicate Noun

the who or What... follows a linking verb. Identifies or renames the subject. It is in the predicate part of the sentence and completes the meaning of the verb. It renames, or defines, the subject., a noun that follows a linking verb. It defines the subject by telling what it is.

Avoid overusing

there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.

TO SHOW RESULTS

therefore, as a result, thus, consequently, hence

internal conflict

this takes place within a character's mind. It is a struggle between opposing needs, desires, or emotions

types of demonstrative pronouns

this, that, these, those

Parse

to describe a word by stating its part of speech, form, and syntactical relationship in a sentence. To examine closely or subject to detailed analysis, especially by breaking up into components., analyze syntactically by assigning a constituent structure to (a sentence), to separate (a sentence) into parts and describe the funciton of each

Your purpose

to direct, inform, persuade or inspire

Use a hyphen

to indicate the continuation of a word divided at the end of a line.

Use a comma

to separate three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

different from

to tell about differences

organization

trait concerned with the order in which you present your ideas

word choice

trait concerned with using specific nouns and vivid verbs

sentence fluency

trait has to do with sentence length and varied beginnings

ideas

trait of good writing that is concerned with the topic and the information you will include

coordinate clauses

two clauses that have equal importance. ex. the ice melted. the sun came out. "the ice melted and the sun came out." occur in sentences where there are two or more independant clauses. They're joined together by words like 'and' 'or' 'but' s-v-con-s-v / s-v-do

The acquistion-learning hypothesis

two systems of language acquistion that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system

acquired system

unconscious aspect of language acquistion; speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communication meaning

split infinitive

use an adverb to avoid these; example: (incorrect: I wanted to SLOWLY SEE the city. / correct: I wanted TO SEE the city SLOWLY.)

who

use as a subject pronoun; example: _____ is not going?

whom

use as an object pronoun; example: To _____ am I speaking?

A pronoun as a predicated noun

use verb to-be ("is") can be reversed "The person who prank called us is she." uses subjunctive case ("she") Ex: She is the person who pranked called us.

When referring to health

use well rather than good.

Participle

used as an adjective and acts as a modifier in present (-ing), past (-ed, lost), and perfect (having lost) forms

indirect characterization

used when a writer depends on the reader to draw conclusions about the character's traits

direct characterization

used when a writer simply states the character's traits, or characteristics

point of view

vantage point from which a story is told

style

variation in language use based on the formality or informality of the social setting

except

verb or preposition, omitting or leaving out

Present Perfect Tense

verb tense that describes an action that began in the past but continues til the present. Ex. Have heard, Has played, Has run

Past Perfect

verb tense that describes an event completed in the past prior to another event. Ex. Had heard, Had played, Had run

Simple Present Tense

verb tense that describes present action or condition. Ex. Hear, Play Run

Present Progressive Tense

verb tense that shows action in progress. Ex. Am hearing, Is playing, Are running

Simple Past Tense

verb tense that shows completed action Ex. Heard, played, ran

Past Progressive Tense

verb tense that shows past action that took place over a period of time. Ex. Was hearing, Were playing, Was running

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

verb tense to describe an action that began in the past, continues to the present and may continue into the future. Ex. Has been hearing, Have been playing, Has been running

Future Perfect Tense

verb tense to express an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future. Ex. Will have heard, Will have played, Will have run.

past tense

verb that tells something that happened in the past; example: Dena LAUGHED at the jokes.

verb tense

verb that tells the time of the action or being

transitive verb

verb that transfers the action of the subject to a word in the predicate

Auxiliary or Helping Verb

verb used with another verb to form voice or perfect and progressive tenses. <We have eaten there before.>

to describe one thing

we would say poor, as in, "She is poor."

adjective questions

what kind, which one, how much, how many

direct object questions

what, whom

Close Apposition

when a noun in apposition is closely related to the word it follows. It is not set off by commas.

style shifting

when the speaker adapts language use to the formality or informality of the situation ("goodbye" as opposed to "see ya!"

Never drop the -ly from an adverb

when using the comparison form.

adverb questions

when, where, how, to what degree

introduces nonessential clauses.

which

subject

who or what is doing the action in a sentence; always a noun

Relative pronouns

who, whom, whose, what, which, that

Use on

with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence

Use singular verbs

with most indefinite pronouns

Use a singular verb

with sums of money or periods of time.

complement

word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb

prefix

word part added to the beginning of a word

suffix

word part added to the end of a word

Prepositions and conjuctions

words that connect.

Adjectives and adverbs

words that describe or modify. Adjectives describe things (nouns and pronouns) and adverbs describe action (verbs).

negatives

words that mean no; common negatives: no, not, never, nowhere, nothing, nobody, no one, neither, scarcely, barely; use only one in a sentence

Nouns and Pronouns

words that name., A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectives or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like "he", "which", "none", and "you" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.