GRE 20 Social Psychology- Final (integration of theory 2 and gre 21)

Deaux and Major Model

believe the tendency to stereotype depends on the perceiver, the target and the situation. Some perceivers are geneder schematic and will tend to have stereotypical perceptions of women and men. Other percievers are gender aschematic and will have balanced, nonstereotypic perception tendencies. Targeting persons by their appearance may trigger a given gender stereotype and given situations and settings can trigger stereotypes as well

Kinesics (Ekman)

concentrated on the possibility of universal facial expressions and has spent much time studying the smile in various cultures. He concludes that the smile is a universal expression- a general communicator across all the cultures he has studied.

Attribution theory

concerned with how and why ordinary people explain events as they do. includes internal and external attribution. answers the question how do we attach meaning to others behavior or our own. i.e.is someone angry because they are bad tempered or because something bad happened.

Need Press theory (Murray)

measured within his TAT, this approach theorizes several needs and motives that are activated by the pressure of environmental stimuli (people and settings, i.e.). __ postulates an elaborate list of needs including abasement, achievement, aggression, play, dominance, understanding, and so forth.

third person media effects (Klapper)

predicts that people tend to perceive that mass media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves, based on personal biases. because of this perception, people tend to take action to counteract the messages influence. The ___ manifests itself through an individuals overestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on the generalized other, or an underestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on themselves

sympathetic nervous system

prepares body for emergency, fight or flight. i.e. dilates pupils, accelerates heart rate, inhibits digestion and releases glucose

centralization

process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands. All the important decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the approval of the top management The important and key decisions are taken by top management and other levels are into implementations as per the direction of the top level

Moderating factors- Humor (Dixon)

produces a cognitive-affective shift or a restructuring of the situation so that it is less threatening, with a concomitant release of emotion associated with the perceived threat -suggested that ___ evolved in humans as a cognitive alternative to stress, allowing the individual to take a more playful perspective on a stressful event and thereby reduce the often deleterious emotional consequences

Measurements of emotion

prominent in the areas of: 1- lie detector- breathing, heart rate, galvanic skin response (GSR) 2- Pupil size- increase in pupil size signifying increased interest, pleasant stimulus, heightened mental activity

terror management theory

proposes a basic psychological conflict that results from having a desire to live but realizing that death is inevitable. this conflict produces terror, and this terror is then managed by embracing cultural values or symbolic systems that act to provide life with meaning and value when reminded of out inevitable death, we tend to ENHANCE our self-esteem to counteract our fear of mortality we view our lives as being more meaningful.

information integration theory (Anderson)

proposes that our impressions of others are formed by a combination of 1- our personal disposition (the perceiver) and 2- a weighted average of the target persons characteristics proposed to describe and model how a person integrates information from a number of sources in order to make an overall judgement. -combination of perceiver disposition and weighted average of target persons characteristics

Perceptual defence (Mcginnies)

proposes that there are times when a person actually does not perceive specific sensory input such as a swear word or vulgar image, presumably because s/he has a filtering mechanism or perceptual wall preventing the sensory data to be processed found that people have resistance in recognizing emotionally charged words and is associated with physiological changes

Two-step communication flow (Klapper)

refers to the media communication pattern of step 1- first reaching the opinion makers in a given group or community step 2- so that they will then influence their respective constituencies (-the body of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislateive body). The opinion makers need not be the pillars of the community, but they are those persons within any given group who have the basic opinion reference function in that group

Media elite (Klapper)

refers to the pattern of influence associated with specific persons in a given communication medium. i.e., in TV news there are certain commentators toward whom the rest of the TV commentator community turn in developing their own approaches to news events. This term, therefore refers to an influence within the medium itself.

Mehrabian study

subjects listened to nine recorded words, three conveying liking (honey, dear and thanks) three conveying neutrality (maybe, really, oh) and three conveying disliking (dont, brute and terrible) The words were spoken with different tonalities and subjects were asked to guess the emotions behind the words spoken. The experiment finding was that tone carried more meaning than the individual words themselves

Proxemics Elaborated (Hall)

suggested four territorial zones 1- intimate 2-personal 3-social 4-public the first of these zones is believed to extend to appx. 18 inchess from the body, and other zones become increasingly distance. Implications for urban crowding may be a future outgrowth of work in this area

Lewis and Saarni theory of emotions

suggested there are 5 basic elements to emotions 1- elicitors- triggering events 2- receptors- brain mechanisms 3- states- physiological changes 4- Expression- visible changes 5- experience- our interpretation

Behavior control (Thibaut and Kelly)

the ability people have to change anothers behavior through variations of their own. It doesnt necessarily generate high outcomes, its simply the power to move the other person around the matrix. The ability to cause anothers behavior to change by changing ones own behavior

fate control (Thibaut and Kelly)

the ability to affect anothers outcomes regardless of what he or she does . The ability to affect a partners outcomes.

Quintamensional filtration (Gallup)

1. free answer knowledge- ask open questions to filter knowledge 2- free answer attitude- ask what they should do about something 3-objective attitude- read statement and give opinion of approve/disapprove 4- free answer reasoning- why do you feel this way? 5-objective intensity- how strongly do you feel about this? -a method which permitted the pollster to exclude respondents who were not informed on the topic by using filter questions. -concludes that polls have in fact been manipulated by media conglomerates for the purpose of making news rather than for scientific determination of public opinion

Attribution theory findings

1. when men and women perform equally well on a given task, women are seen as trying harder (Taylor and Kiesler) 2- people tend to perceive their own behavior as situationally controlled and that of other people as internally caused (Jones and Nisbett) 3. people with unusual histories (handicap, psychiatric hospitalization, etc) will have any nonnormative actions attributed to their background (Hastorf) 4- in "Lennie B" experiments concerning the severity of accidents, it was found that there is a tendency to attribute more responsibility to the person at fault (internal causation) when the accident outcome is sever than when it is mild 5-We have a tendency to attribute very high or very low performance to internal causation, i.e. the poor are poor because they are lazy and dont want to work (Jones)

Brain-body pathways

2 pathways 1- through the ANS releasing catecholamine hormones mobilizing the bodys emergency response 2- through the pituitary gland and endocrine system controlling corticosteroid hormone release, increasing energy and inhibiting tissue inflammation

Rubins theory of love

According to ___, romantic love is made up of three elements: 1- attachment- the need to be cared for an be with the other person. physical contact and approval are also important components of attachment 2- caring: valuing the other persons happiness and needs as much as your own 3- intimacy- sharing private thoughts, feelings and desires with the other person Developed ___ Liking and loving sclae

Cannon-Bard theory

According to this physiological theory, there is: 1- Eliciting stimulus 2- Subcortical activity in the thalamus 3- Two that occur in paraellel: a. Autonomic arousal b. Conscious emotion Autonomic arousal and identification occur simultaneously "Im afraid, therefore I run"- challenged the James-Lange theory i.e. a person sees a snake, he feels afraid and muscles get tense at the same time, preparing to run away from the dangerous animal. One can observe the persons emotion based on the physiological signals that his body displays

Identity Achievement (Erikson)

After a process of active exploration, adolescents have made a strong commitment to a highly-developed set of beliefs and values. Identity achievement is characterized by high commitment and high exploration -driven by a mastery of the difficult challenge

contact hypothesis (sociocultural theory) of prejudice

Allport- it has sometimes been held that merely by assembling people without regard for race, color and religion or national origin, we can therefore destroy stereotypes and develop friendly attitudes -Amit- prejudice is strengthened or increased if contact between two groups produces competition and is unpleasant

affiliation (Murray)

Appears in __ list of psychogenic needs, to be close and loyal to another person, pleasing them and winning their friendship and attention

Affiliation (Schachter, Maslow, Bowlby and Murray)

Association and bonding need (differs fro extroverts, generally higher and for introverts generally lower)

Method of summated ratings (Likert scale)

Because the Thurstone scale needs judging, categorizing and statement selecting procedures this was an attempt to simplify attitude measurement. __ believed it was important to have judges express their own attitudes on a subject rather than to ask them to make general anti or pro judgements in relation to others attitude statements. The response range on this scale is encompassed five categories (strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, strongly disagree). A strongly pro response ona given item was scored asa 5, and this meant that the personwith the most prominent pro attitude ont he subject received the highest overall score on the ___. Correspondingly, the personwiththe strongest anti attitude onthe subject received the lowest overall score onthe scale.It is important that a persons score on each individual item in the scale correlate positively with the persons overall score

Analysis-of-behavior model (Definitional Model) (Heider)

Behavioral effect (E)= f(environment +personal force) formula states that behavioral effect is a function of environment and personal force. Research is concentrated upon determining the extent to which perceives will attribute another persons behavior to external or internal causation __'s theory includes internal attribution and external attribution -the degree to which we attribute other peoples behaviors to external circumstances or internal motivation

Hypothalamus

Central role in regulating hunger and other physiological needs. When you stimulate the rats lateral area, it prompts overeating, when you stimulate the rats ventro-medial nucleus it stops eating behavior.

Theory of emotion (Frijda)

Cognitive appraisal and action tendencies occur simultaneously -focus on action tendencies says that basic emotions are desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder and sorrow

difference between actor-observer bias and fundamental attribution bias

FAB- refers only to others; when we attribute a persons behavior to an internal stable feature of that person AOB-refers to comparison of attributions with others

Nonverbalcommunication (Ekman and Friesen)

Identified seven facial expressions: 1-happiness 2- sadness 3-anger 4- fear 5- surprise 6- disgust and 7-contempt.Of these, there is cross cultural agreement in facial expressions of fear, disgust, happiness and anger interpretation

Social Drives

Learning is the common element among drives in this category. We must learn to associate some kind of basic need gratification with these entries, or they never gain the capacity to motivate us. The normal means by which these entries gain their motivating qualities is an association with an element (i.e. food) that satisfies a primary drive. A person learns that with this element he or she can obtain whatever is necessary to satisfy biological or psychological drives. Entries in this category include money,achievement and freedom from anxiety. Particularly money and achievement will be found universally in your sources. Surprisingly, chimps have paralleled the human social dive for money. In an apparatus called "Chimp-o-Mat" they have been known to work diligently for tokens that they could later exchange for food

Drive theory of motivation (Homeostasis) (Cannon)

Primary drives (biologically based arousal states) preempt other activities until these drives are reduced. Motivation comes from the need to keep homeostasis

Blood glucose level (Mayer)

Regulating hunger by the level of blood glucose. Glucostats (glucose-sensitive neurons) appear to be liver-based, sending signals to the vagus nerve and from there to the hypothalamus

Bobo doll experiment (Bandura)

Results: -children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups -there was more partial and non-imitative aggressionamong those who have observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small -the girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general patternwas the observation of how they punched Bobo, and in the case the effects of gender were reversed -Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex model than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models was not strong -Boys imitated more physically aggressive than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggressionbetween boys and girls conclusion- supports banduras social learning theory, children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observational learning through watching the behavior of another person. This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children -girls more relational in aggression than boys

Masters and Johnson sex drive theory

Studied several hundred male and female volunteers who agreed to either masturbate of have intercourse in a laboratory. ___ hooked up the volunteers to instruments that measured carious physiological indicators during sexual activity. Using the results of these studies, they described the sexual response cycle and divided it into 4 phases: 1-excitement (vasoconstriction) phase: physiological arouses increases quickly. muscle tension, heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate increase. In men, the penis gets erect and the testes swell. In women, the clitoris hardens and swells, the vaginal lips open and the vagina lubricates 2- Plateau phase-physiological arousal continues, in women the clitoris retracts under the clitoral hold. Men may secrete a small amount of fluid from the penis 3-orgasm phase- physiological arousal peaks. Men ejaculate seminal fluid. Both men and women experience muscular contractions in the pelvic area, along with a sensation of pleasure 4- resolution phase- physiological responses return to normal levels. men then go through a refractory period that can vary in length, during which they are not responsive to stimulation. The refractory period tends to get longer as men age.

Schachter affiliation and attraction

The distinction between attraction and affiliation is that between positively evaluating other people (attraction) and simply being with other people (affiliation) ___ conducted a classic series of studies on the affiliation dimension and found that, in a situation of experimentally induced stress, persons were discriminating in their choice to be with other people. Given an option of simply being with other people, being with other people experiencing the same situational stress, or being alone, those persons having only the choice of simply being with other people preferred to remain alone- and those persons having the choice of being with others in the same situational stress preferred affiliation over being alone. __ concluded that, in the presence of fear, misery loves miserable company.

Helping behavior (Batson)

__ research adds another critical element to the likelihood of helping- if were in a hurry and on a tight time schedule, were far less likely to help than if we are not time-pressured __'s research also supports the view that we are by nature helpful empathic individauls

Micro approach to kinesics (Birdwhistell)

___ concentrated upon the face and the development of a notation system for each aspect of facial epression

Source credibility

a term commonly used to imply a communicator's positive characteristics that affect the receiver's acceptance of a message the extent to which the recipient sees the source as having relevant knowledge, skill, or experience and trusts the source to give unbiased objective informatio

impulsive aggression

actions that cant be controlled and are aumed at harming the self or others

Trait anxiety (Speilberger)

can be defined as a relatively enduring disposition to feel stress, worry and discomfort. i.e. a child experiences anxiety in social situations and is always anxiety prone throughout childhood and adulthood. or i.e. a person experiences anxiety in an array of norma

Beauty (Snyder)

classic study of men thinking they were talking with either a beautiful women or an average-appearance women bore out the sad reality that we favor beauty and attribute characteristics such as friendly, warm, good listeners and so on to beautiful people. The pattern extendsto lengths of senstences given by judges and peoples impressions of each other in job interviews. There is a downside too. Beautiful people can never be sure whether those who interact with them are being genuine or superficial. In the relationship context, even here, the principle of similarity seems to apply (beautiful people with beautiful people- shown in matching hypothesis)

Personality Attributes (Anderson)

deals with ___ as a basis for social attraction. He is concerned with the general question of whether there are personal traits that people collectively find attractive. Using an adjective-rating approach, he found that the highest rating among 555 adjectives was invariably given to traits of honesty, sincerity, and trustworthiness. Correspondingly, the lowest rating was given to words connoting liar of phony.

proxemics (Hall)

deals with research relating to territoriality, that is, personal space, unseen dividing lines and the dynamics of invading anothers person space.

Prejudice

defined as an attitude against an identifiable group, formed without knowledge of or familiarity with specific members of the group.

Machiavellianism (Christie)

describes a persons tendency to be unemotional, and therefore able to detach him or herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and manipulate others.

social cognition (Fiske and Taylor)

distinguishes the way people perceive things and people, and in the people context it outlines three patterns of how people are perceived 1- the naive scientist- very methodological 2-cognitive miser- cuts corners and takes shortcuts that can head down misleading or blind alleys refers to the general idea that individuals frequently rely on simple and time efficient strategies when evaluating information and making decisions. occurs not our of laziness, but out of necessity and efficiency. 3- the motivated tactician- can be either very careful, perhaps even cunning, or quite careless as her or his motivations and the situations disctate

Helping behavior (Allen)

found that directness of request is also important- that there is greater likelihood of obtaining help when the help request has been specifically affressed to the would be helper

Macro approach to kinesics (Scheflen)

general patterns of interactionover a period of time were studied

instrumental aggression

harmful behavior engaged without provocation to obtain an outcome or ceorce others. it is stam aggression

collective self

highlights ones intergroup side. consists of attitudes that are shared with ingroup members and differentiate the ingroup from outgroups.

relational self

highlights ones interpersonal side. consists of attributes that are shared with close others (i.e. partner, friends, family members) and define roles within the relationship.

objective test

in which responses are analyzed according to the presumed universal standard and are limited to the content of the test. measures an individuals characteristics independent of rater bias or the examiners own beliefs, usually by the administration of a bank of questions marked and compared against exacting scoring mechanisms that are completely standardized. contrasted with projective tests which are sensitive to raters or examiners beliefs

eating-while-reading effect (Janis)

indicated that people are more likely to accept a request without protest or agree with a viewpoint if it were presented during a pleasurable activity such as eating

Lewin's field theory

is a psychological theory which examines patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or environment.

informational influence

occurs when the conforming person does so because he or she believes the others are correct in their judgement

Perceptual defense (Bruner and Postman)

posited ___ in normal subjects as well as neurotics, to explain why people often fail to perceive emotionally threatening stimuli. Their subjects might register it at some unconscious level (measured by galvanic skin response for example) but conscious perception was delayed or even prevented.

Moderating factors- exercise (Greenberg)

reaps benefits in physical, cognitive and emotional well being

Lazurus Studies

says there are two ways to cope 1-problem focused- focused on changing the stressor 2-emotion focused-focused on changing the response to the stressor Problem is better

Ethology

scientific and objective study of animal behavior usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionary adaptive trait.

Bogardus's social distance scale

this scale had a seven-phrase description range that could be used in relation to a number of different indentifiable ethnic groups or nationalities. For whatever groups or nationalities that were being tested in a given situation, a person had a response range from 1-would admit to close kindship by marriage to 7- would exclude from my country several modifications of this scale technique have ben made, the best known recent one being that of Triandis

Aggression

-Psychoanalytic theory- views ___ as instinctual (that most of us spend much of our unconscious time trying to throttle it). -Drive theorists see __ as the result of frustration (giving it characteristics of a psychological drive perspective) - social learning theorists consider it a response that stems from observational learning and imitation (TV viewing and computer/video game playing by children is becoming an area of major concern within this perspective). With its increasing prevalence in our social milieu , it will likely remain strong as a research concern as well. Two views: -Berkowits position- frustration leads to ___ (whether ___ itself will depending upon the presence or absence of___-eliciting stimuli in the situation Banduras observational learning of ___- children playing ____ after viewing a TV model attacking a plastic, air-filled bobo doll).

sex-role (Taynor and Deaux)

-being a woman in a masculine situation operates as a nonvoluntary constraint. A women who performed well in a masculine task was seen as more deserving of reward than an equally performing man. - however, a man ws not seen as more deserving of reward than the woman in the feminine task conditions.

Physiological element of emotion

-bodily arousal accompanies feeling state -flight or fight -assess with GSR/Polygraph -as you are being asked questions, respiration will change if you are not being truthful -blood pressure will change, skin response will change psychological arousal that usually accompanies the emotion the body is feeling. If the body did not experience this arousal, the intensity of this emotion would be greatly decreased. During the arousal, the body experiences a surge of powerful feelings known as emotions. People who can detect changes in their arousal level experience their emotions much more intensely than those who cannot detect the changes in their arousal level

Source attractiveness

-encompasses similarity, familiarity and likeability. 1- similarity- a supposed resemblance between the source and the receiver of the message 2-familiarity- refers to the knowledge of the source through exposure 3- likability- an affection for the source as a result of physical appearance, behavior, or other personal traits. ___ leads to persuasion through a process of identification whereby the receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source and thus adopts similar beliefs, attitudes, preferences or behavior.

Stress and physical health

-relationship to physical diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and heart disease - relationship to a weakened immune system ** both relationships are correlational and subject to controversy

Pleasure centers (Olds and Milner)

-repeated self-stimulation to an animals limbic system -olds put the rat in a box and stimulated its brain whenever the rat approached a certain corner. He expected the rat to stay out of that corner, but observed the rat was coming back for more acting as if the brain stimulation was pleasurable. This occurs in areas of the lymbic system

Dopamine Hypothesis

-self stimulation most effective when stimulating nerve fibers in the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) implicated in the release of ___

Cooperation-competition (Tedeschi)

-two experiments have reported that a noncooperative other induced greater cooperation in subjects than a cooperative one. and -The greater the cooperativeness of a stimulated other in a prisoners dilemma game, the greater a subjects own cooperativenesst

5 stages of grief

1- denial 2-anger 3-bargaining 4-depression 5-resolution (acceptance)

Direct and indirect media effects (Klapper)

1- direct effects- takes place when the person affected has himself been involved directly in the communication process 2- indirect effects-takes place when individuals or groups are not involved in the communication process but are affected by changes in the individuals who are.

Steps in intervention helping (Latane and Darley)

1-Notice: noticing an emergency is influenced by factors like being in a hurry, such as when seminary students failed to help a victim when they were rushing across campus to make a presentation 2-Interpret as help-requiring situation- interpreting the situation correctly; is influenced by the ambiguity of the situation such as when it was unclear to research participants whether a woman was really in danger after she identified the man who was attacking her as her husband 3-Take personal responsibility- assuming responsibility, influenced by the presence of bystanders. i.e. it appears that people decided not to help Kitty Genovese because they assumed others would call the police. Helping effect decreases as the number of bystanders increases. 4-Choose form of assistance- deciding how to help, is influenced by confidence in ones ability to help. i..e, bystanders trained in CPR are more likely to help heart attack victims than bystanders untrained. 5- implement assistance- committing to help, influenced by the potential costs of helping such as a decision not to stop an assault by deadly weapon for fear of being killed

Good Samaritan Model (Darley and Bateson)

3 hypotheses: 1- people thinking religious helping thoughts would be still no more likely than others to offer assistance 2- people in a hurry will be less likely to offer aids then others 3- people who are religious in a samaritan fashion will be more likely to help than those of priest of levite fashion. In other words, people who are religious for what it will gain them will be less likely than those who value religion for its own or are searching for meaning of life Procedure: recruited seminary students for a study on religious eduation, they first completed personality questionnairs and later began experimental procedures in one building and then told to go to another building to continue. On the way they encountered a man slumped in an alleyway. (condition is unknown- hurt or drunk) They varied the amount of urgency they told the subjects (told them either they were late (high hurry), the assistant is waiting (medium hurry) or it will take a few minutes but you can head on over (low hurry) half of the participants were to go deliver a talk on the good samaritan, and the other half on job prospects for seminary graduates. Results- the amount of hurriness induced in the subject had a major effect on helping behavior, but the task variable did not (Even when the talk was about the good samaritan) Overall 40% offered some help. In low hurry situations, 63%, medium hurry 45% and high hurry 10%. There was no correlation between religious types and helping behavior. The only variable that seemed to show some effect was religion as a quest- of the people who helped, those who saw religion as a quest were less likely to offer substantial help than those who scored low on this statement. Conclusions: ironically, a person is less likely to help people even if he is going to speak on the parable of the Good Samaritan. The results seem to show that thinking about norms does not imply that one will act on them Many subjects who did not stop did appear aroused and anxious when they arrived at the second site. They were in conflict between helping the victim and meeting the needs of the experimenter. Conflict rather than callousness can explain the failure to stop the act is voluntary and is potentially costly, and there is no anticipation of reward

Allport on prejudice

___ says that there is nearly always several causes underlying the development and expression of prejudice and discrimination. He identified six major causes or theories of prejudice, five of which vary along a dimension bounded by individualistic percetpions and beliefs on one end, and by cultural/historical influences on the other. 6 causes of prejudice: 1- phenomenological emphasis- in this view, the persons current beliefs, perceptions and the verbal labels he uses regarding any particular group determine how he will react to the situation he is confronted with. There is an immediacy about these reactions, including prejudiced ones, which may be quite different on subsequent occasions 2- psychodynamic emphasis- a more enduring individualistic cause. In this view, people develop more or less stable personality characteristics that they bring to all social situations. These characteristics predispose the individual to react in prejudiced ways 3- situational emphasis- in this view, prejudice is seen as arising out of conformity to the current social forces operating in a culture. the focus here is sociophyscological as opposed to purely individualistic or purely cultural 4- sociocultural emphassis- the total social context is examined with the view of identifying those traditions and conditions that produce conflict among different groups, i.e. job and housing competition and opportunities for upward social mobility. These lead to increased uncertainty about ones values and customs, which in turn leads to prejudice against the groups of people with which one is in conflict 5- historical emphasis- recognizes that there is nearly always a long history involved with conflict and discrimination between particular groups in a given culture. This history serves to both justify the prejudices held by dominant groups and to perpetuate them. Many historians believe that economic exploitation is at the heart of this matter. If blacks, asians and jews are historically seen as morally or racially inferior, then negative treatment of them by the economically dominant groups is sanctioned 6- emphasis on earned reputation- is not on the individualistic-cultural/historical dimension. This cause asserts that there are perceived differences between groups, and that these differences stimulate dislike and hostility. the notion of earned reputation acknowledges that at least some of the perceived differences are based on objective reality. Indeed, in our previous discussion of stereotypes, we implicitly stated that there is often a reasonable basis for the existence of particular stereotypes

Drive theory of motivation (Hull)

a "drive" is a state of arousal or tension triggered by a persons physiological and biological needs. These needs include hunger, thirst, need for warmth, etc. In this theory, __ stated that drives give rise to an individuals motivation. Furthermore, ___ explained that an individual is in state of need when his survival is threatened. When a persons drive emerges, he will be in an unpleasant state of tension and the person will behave in such a way that this tension is reduced. To reduce the tension, he will begin seeking out ways to satisfy his biological needs, i.e looking for water if your thirsty According to this theory, any behavior that reduces the drives will be repeated by humans and animals. this is because the reduction of the drive serves as a positive reinforcement for the behavior that caused the drive reduction. The difference between Freud's theory and ___, is that he added the component of learning ___ considred this the basic of all learned behaviors developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other word ___ was interested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). One of the most important concepts in ___ theory was the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability which can be changed by reward and is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems

sleeper effect

a communication that has no immediate effect but proves to have long-range influence

instinct theory of motivation (Darwin, Lorenz and Tinbergen)

a fixed-action behavior pattern; behavior patterns wired in and occurring automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.

Emotion

a logical companion of motivation. When we attain (or fail to attain) a goal, words like joy, anger, delight and depression enter the picture. We express a feeling, an emotion. On the physiological side, emotional expression can prompt a number of changes including: 1- striated muscle changes controlled by the CNS- facial expressions, vocal expressions, muscle tension, tremors and so on 2- autonomic changes controlled by the ANS and endocrine glands- heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, blood-sugar level and levels of acidity, epinephrine and norepinephrine, mataboloism, breathing rate, and sweating.

Galvanic skin response (GSR)

a measure of lie detection

Bem's scale of psychological androgyny

a measure of sex-role stereotypes. If your androgyny scale score was low, you would be considered high in sex-role stereotyping, and vice- versa. Since current research emphasis in the field provide needs for new or modified measuring instruments, the development of new scales and techniques will no doubt continue

General adaptation syndrome (Selye)

a model comprised of three elements of phases which describe the body's response to threat: 1- alarm stage- in this phase, the initial reaction of the body to stress is that it labels the stressor as a threat or danger to balance, that is why it immediately activate its fight or flight response system, and releases the stress hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol. These hormones enable you to perform activities that you dont usually do 2- resistance stage- after the body has responded to the stressor, it is more likely that the stress level has been eradicated or simply reduced. What happens next to the flight or fight response is that your bodys defenses become weaker, as it needs to allocate energy to the repair of damaged muscle tissues and lower the production of the stress hormone. Although the body has shifted to this second phase of the stress response, it remails on-guard particularly when the stressors persist and the body is required to fight them continuously, although not as strong as it could during the initial response 3- exhaustion stage-during this phase, the stress has been persistent for a longer period. The body starts to lose its ability to combat the stressors and reduce their harmful impact because the adaptive energy is all drained out. The exhaustion stage can be referred to as the gate towards burnout or stress overload, which can lead to health problems if not solved immediately the ___ model presents a clear biological explanation about how the body responds and adapts to stress

stress

a nonspecific emotional response we make to real orimagined demands on us

intimacy motivation (McAdam)

a persistent desire for experience of self-merging with others. People with high ___ 1- view relationships as a source of positive affect 2- value talk for its own sake, particularly reciprocal and noninstrumental talk

Proximity (Whyte)

a prominent determinant of why people are attracted to eachother. ___ found that within a new housing development the single best predictor of social attraction and friendship development was the distance between houses. Freindship and social attraction were far more likely between persons living next door to eachother, than for instance,people living down the street from eachother or on different blocks.

ingratiation (Jones)

a psychological technique in which an individual attempts to influence, manipulate or control another by becoming more attractive or likeable to their target. This outcome can be achieved by using several methods 1- other enhancement- method in which the igratiator compliments the target individual 2-opinion conformity- occurs when the ingratiator adopts and validates the attitudes and beliefs of the target individual 3-self-presentation- a technique in which the ingratiator emphasizes their own attributes in order to be seen positively in the eyes of the target individual 4-situation-specific behaviors- involves the ingratiator finding out personal information about the target individual, and then using this information to gain their approval 5- favor doing- a method of seeming helpful and considerate to the target individual. This may also engender feelings of reciprocity between the ingratiatior and the target person 6- expression of humor- any event shared by the ingratiator with the target individual that is intended to be amusing to the target individual

Moderating factors- Relaxation response (Benson)

a scientific term for meditation, used to describe the ability of the body to stimulate relaxation of the muscle and organs and increases blood flow to the brain -leads to lower stress levels, increased wellbeing and even the ability to reduce their blood pressure levels and resting heart rate

fixed action patterns

a series or sequence of acts that occur behaviorally in animals. the sequence is unchangeable and will be carried out to completion once started, regardless of changes in the original stimulus. __ are triggered by a type of external stimulus called a sign stimulus. the job of the sign stimulus is to start off the ___ of a particular organism. The sign stimulus occurs, and the organism responds to it. The response continues until the organism has completed whatever series of actions are in the ___. It is a very simplistic response, one that occurs without the use of any real logic. It is not a behavioral response that is taught or learned; all __ responses are innate to the organism that display them. Although it is still theoretical, it has been proposed that there exists a neural network called the innate releasing mechanism that is responsible for all __ in organisms. i.e. some moths will fold their wings whenever they detect ultrasonic sounds from predators such as bats. The moth fold up, drop to the ground and hide in response to sensing the sounds. The sign stimlus is the ultrasonic sound, the __ is that they fold drop and hide.

Projective test

a test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test

theory of planned behavior

a theory that links beliefs and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioural control.[1] It is a theory explaining human behaviour. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors.

Circle network (Bauer)

a three-level hierarchy which is very different from the wheel, chain and Y networks. it is symbolic of horizontal and decentralized communication. ___ gives every member equal communication opportunities. Each member can communicate with persons to their right and left. Members have identical restrictions, but the circle is a less restricted condition than the wheel, chain or y networks. i.e. the ___ has more two-way channels open for problem solving (i.e. five) than the four channels of the aforementioned networks. In the ___, everyone becomes a decision maker

self-enhancement

a type of motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and maintain self-esteem. especially prominant in situatiosn of threat, failure or blows to ones self esteem

dogmatism (Rokeach)

a. a relatively closed cognitive organization of beliefs and disbeliefs about reality b- organized around a central set of beliefs about absolute authority, which in turn c- provides framework for patterns of intolerance and qualified tolerance toward others - a personality trait associated with a tendency to habitually, arrogantly assert opinions, sometimes with little regard to evidence. This may be an aspect of authoritarianism, and its opposite is openmindedness (___ is close-minded) the __ personality style is characterized by oversimplified thinking, resistance to changing attitudes or beliefs, and appealing to authority to justify their beliefs.

overgeneralization

about ones falure into a more global problem- usually seen in people with low self-esteem

investment theory (intimate social exchange)(Rusbult)

according to this model, investments serve to stabilize relationship. The greater the nontransferable investments a person has in a given relationship, the more stable the relationship is likely to be. The same investment concept is applied in relationship marketing. - according to this model, satisfacion and stability in a relationship depend on the degree to which partners feel committed to the relationship. Commitment is determined by the balance or trade off between the positive and negative aspects of the relationship. i.e. commitment will be strong if a relationship partner perceives

self-perception theory (Bem)

account of attitude formation which asserts that people develop their attitudes (When there is no previous attitude due to lack of experience, etc and the emotional response is ambiguous) by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes determine behaviors. The theory also suggests that people induce attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood states. The person interprets their own overt behaviors rationally in the same way they attempt to explain others behaviors. -counterintuitive because common knowledge would assume that a persons personality and attitudes drive their actions; however self-perception theory shows that this is not always the case. illustrates that we are what we do. According to this theory, we interpret our own actions the way we interpret others actions and our actions are often socially influenced and not produced out of our own free will as we might expect. according to this theory, changes in attitudes occur because of overjustification

Resistance stage (GAS) (Selye)

after the body has responded to the stressor, it is more likely that the stress level has been eradicated or simply reduced. What happens next to the flight or fight response is that your bodys defenses become weaker, as it needs to allocate energy to the repair of damaged muscle tissues and lower the production of the stress hormone. Although the body has shifted to this second phase of the stress response, it remails on-guard particularly when the stressors persist and the body is required to fight them continuously, although not as strong as it could during the initial response

Prejudice (Hraba and Grant)

after work from clark and clark, indicated that this preference no longer exists. The turnabout may be interpreted as indicative of both personal and racial pride -replicated clark and clarks study to reexamine the racial preferences of children in an interracial setting. took black and white children and gave them 4 dolls; two black and two white. The children were asked the same questions used by clark and clark found that black and white children preferred the doll of their own race. black children in interracial settings are not necessarily white oriented, possibly because times are changing, the black pride campaign and interracial contact is becoming more accepted (many of the children had friends of the opposite race) in terms of racial identification, they had a question "give me the doll that looks like you" similar to clark and clarks study, found that few made errors and they had strong racial identification however, clark and clark performed their study in a different area (not in lincoln newbraska) it could be that black children in lincoln unlike other cities may have chosen black dolls with clark and clark as well in 1939. We cant know the answer

Stanford prison experiment (Zimbardo)

aim: to investigate how readily people would conform to the roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life. procedure: converted the basement of stanford into a mock prison and got 24 male college students who were paid $15 a day. Participants were randomly assigned to either the role of prisoner or guard in a stimulated prison experiment. prisoners were treated like every other criminal, being arrested in their homes without warning, fingerprinted, photographed and booked, etc. When they arrived they were stripped naked and issued a uniform with ID numbers to make them feel anonymous. They could refer to eachother only by number Findings: within a very short time, both prisoners and guards were settling into their new roles with the guards adopting theirs quickly and easily. Within hours of the experiment, some guards began to harass prisoners behaving in brutal and sadistic manner and enjoying it. the prisoners were taunted with insults and petty orders, given pointless tasks and dehumanized. Were told to do push-ups as physical punishment. The prisoners also took their roles seriously. the guards became more aggressive and abusive, and prisoners were let out because they showed signs of mental disorder and depression. Was supposed to go on for 2 weeks but lasted 6 days. conclusion: people will readily conform to social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the prison guards. The prison environment was an important factor in creating the guards brutal behavior (none of the participants who acted as guards showed sadistic tendencies before the study) therefore, the findings support the situational explanation of behavior rather than the dispositional one ___ proposed two processes can explain the prisoners final submission: 1- deindividuation- a state when you become so immersed in the norms of the group that you lose your sense of identity and personal responsibility. The guards may have been so sadistic because they did not feel what happened was down to them personally-rather it was a group norm. They also may have lost their sense of identity because of the uniforms they wore. 2- learned helplessness- could explain the submission to the guards. The prisoners learnt that whatever they did had little effect on what happened to them. In the mock prison the unpredictable decisions of the guards led the prisoners to give up responding. -demonstrates the powerful role that situation can play in human behavior. Because the guards were placed in a position of power, they began to behave in ways they would not normally act in everyday lives or other situations. The prisoners placed in a situation where they had no real control became passive and depressed.

contagion theory (Lebon)

argues that crowds cause people to act in a certain way. This theory suggests that crowds exert a hypnotic influence on their members. The hypnotic influence on their members. the hypnotic influence combined with the anonymity of belonging to a large group of people, even for just that moment, results in irrational, emotionally charged behavior. Or as the name implies, the frenzy of the crowd is somehow contagious like a disease and the contagion feeds upon itself growing with time. In the end, the crowd has assumed a life of its own, stirring up emotions and driving people toward irrational even violent action

Study by Lewin, Lippit and White

aim: to study behavioral responses to different leadership styles including autocratic, democratic and laissez faire method- field experiment participants- a sample of 20 ten year old boys divided into 4 groups of 5 with each group prematched in terms of physical, intellectual and social ability Procedure: experiment took place over a period of 5 months during which the boys attended a childrens activity club. Each group had a leader who used on of the leadership styles. Every 6 weeks each group had a new leader using a new leadership style. All leaders used each stle and all groups had leaders using each style Results: 1- with the autocratic style leader the groups were most productive but tended to stop or slow down with their work when the leader was absent and became aggressive towards eachother when things went wrong 2- with the democratic leadership groups were slightly less productive but continued to work on their tasks when the leader was absent and cooperated when things went wrong 3- with the laissez faire style leader members were least productive and tended to be aggressive towards each other and gave up easily when things went wrong

social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner)

allows us to enhance our individual self-esteem by our association with the groups to which we belong. This identification creates a sense of "in group favoritism"- if effect, "us" and "them". explains how self-esteem and self-evaluation can be enhanced by identification with another persons success by basking in reflected glory not earned; high self-esteem typically a perception of oneself as attractive, competent, likeable and morally a good person. The perception of having these attributes makes the person feel as if they are more attractive to the outside world and thus more desirable to others to be in a social relationship enables us to engage in BIRGing of groups with whom we identify at the same that it creates "in-groups" and "out-groups" -enhance individual esteem through our group belonging

false consensus hypothesis (Ross)

an attributional type of cognitive bias whereby people overestimate the extent to which their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of others (i.e. that others also think the same way that they do) this cognitive bias leads to the perception of consensus that does not exist. Increases self-esteem (overconfidence effect) -our overestimating the extent to which others share our attitudes and opinions

State-trait anxiety inventory (Speilberger)

an introspective psychological inventory consisting of 40 report items pertaining to anxiety effect. Feelings of anxiety may occur in stressful situations such as when confronted with an important test or interview, or may be associated with psychological disorders such as OCD and GAD. the ___ purports to measure ones conscious awareness at two extremes of anxiety effect named state anxiety (A-state) and trait anxiety (A-trait). Affectivity ranges from immediate, trasitory emotional states, through longer lasting mood states, through dynamic motivational traits randing all the way up to relatively enduring personality traits. Higher __ scores suggest higher levels of anxiety.

Theories of love

ancient writers gave us six types of dynamics relating to love relationships 1-ludus (game-playing, uncommited) 2-storge (friendship) 3-mania (demanding, possessive) 4- pragma (pragmatic or practical) 5- agape (giving, altruistic) 6- erotic (passionate) In gender comparisons, men score higher than women onludus while women scorehigher than men on storge, mania and pragma

Star network (Bauer)

another decentralized extension of the circle network. by connecting everyone in the circle network, the result is a star or all channel network. The ___ permits each member to communicate freely with all other persons (decentralized communication) the __ has no central position, and no communication restrictions are placed on any member. A committee in which no member either formally or informally assumes a leadership position is a good example

Wilson sociobiological roots

argued that animal behavior, including that of humans is the product of heredity, environmental stimuli and past experiences and that free will is an illusion. all animal social behavior is governed by epigenetic rules worked out by the laws of evolution

Value-added theory (Smelser)

argues that collective behavior is actually a sort of release valve for built up tension within the social system, community or group. If the proper determinants are present then collective behavior becomes inevitable. Conversely, if any of the key determinants are not present no collective behavior will occur unless and until the missing determinants fall into place. These are primarily social, although physical factors such as location and weather may also contribute to or hinder the development of collective behavior.

techniques in coersive persuasion (Schein)

associated with the study of brainwashing techniques and has subdivided the general approach into a physical phase and a psychological phase. The physical phase occurs first and includes such things as exhaustive, forced marches at night (accompanied by sparse food, little or no medical attention, the leaving behind those who cannot keep the rigorous pace, and captor explanation that all this is made necessary by the ruthless aggression of the captured soldiers armed forces. The psychological phase begins upon arrival at the captors camp facility. Leaders are seperated from the group, original insignia of rank are no longer recognized, prisoners are rewarded for informing on fellow prisoners, incoming mail is read and only the unpleasant news is relayed, prisoners are rewarded for making confessions of their wrongs against the captors and for admitting the burden of guilt they feel at having engaged in such unfortunate aggressive behavior. The ultimate goal is to gain converts ot the cause of the captors, but __ also observed that the goal is seldom realized. Although a number of prisoners have been found to make confessions and testimonials, few convert

Self-concept (Kuhn)

assumes that human behavior is organized, the organization supplied by the individuals self-attitudes or ___. proposed a test that assessed self-attitudes by asking individuals verbally to characterize themsevles. The test- the twenty statement test (TST)- is a sheet of paper. at the top there are instructions "there are twenty numbered blanks on the page below. Please write twenty answers to the question "who am i"in the blanks. Write the answer in the order they occur to you, dont worry about logic or importance. He found that responses could be devided into two major groups 1-social roles- external or objective aspects of oneself such as son, teacher, friend 2- personality traits- internal or affective aspects of oneself such as gregarious, impatient and humorous Results showed that typically young children describe themselves more in terms of personal traits, whereas older people feel defined to a greater extent by their social roles -__ understood the answers to these questions as internalizations of a persons objective social status. Hence the organization of behavior could be analyzed in terms of the ___ which __ understood as a plan for behavior. Thus the subjective and perhaps more importantly the anticipatory aspect of the self, could be compared with the objective aspects of behavior

actor-observer effect

assuming internal (motivational) causation for other peoples behavior and external (situational) causation for ones own behavior when we are the person performing the action, we attribute it to more circumstance than personality (this isnt me the situation is causing me to act like this). in this way we are much less forgiving to others when they do something that we do not like, but expect more forgiveness when we are the actor. stronger for negative opposed to positive actions.

Learned helplessness (Seligman)

assuming that nothing one does can make any difference in a persons life (i.e. attributing total external causation)

Social communication theory (Kendon and Goffman)

assumption that people interact in patterned, systematic ways; thus their moment-by-moment interactional choices are not random, neither are they due simply to individual preferences. This implies that unstated rules govern interaction and that most people follow, these rules,even if they cannot name them explicitly. If behavior can be appropriately described as rule-governed then it must be relatively predictable and analyzable. If communication behavior were not rule-governed, there would be no consistency to what we observe and we could not study it. investigated many aspects of gestures including conventionalization, integration between gestures and speech and the role of gesture in communication

Optimal Arousal (Berlyne)

attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and curiosity based on Hulls drive reduction theory. Accoding to ___, there is an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a given time. If the arousal drops below the optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation (i.e. exploratory behavior). __ argued that curiosity was a consequence of conceptual conflict that could be caused by doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity or irrelevence There is an optimal arousal state for maximum efficiency. Below it we are bored, and above it we are anxious.

Expectancy value theory (Tolman and Rotter)

based on the work of Tolman, this approach suggests that we come to expect certain outcomes for given behaviors and place a value on those outcomes. We are then motivated to repeat those behaviors that bring an outcome we highly value

Door in the face technique (Ciakdubu)

begins with a huge commitment potential, and relief comes when a more modest option is presented i.e. were preparing for uncle leroys visit so we head for the liquor bottle of store. The salesperson shows us a $150 bottle of wine, and we find our throat sink deep into our stomach. just then, the salesperson says' "however we have this wine available for $20"- Ah relief!

Cognitive-motivational-relational CMR theory of emotion (Lazarus)

believed that all emotions were the result of cognitive appraisals of the personal meaning of events and experiences. Therefore, suggested that emotions occur as the persult of the persons cognitive interpretation of a stimulus or event to determine if the event is positive, negative or neutral. Then a secondary appraisal takes place to assess our thoughts and emotions and determine if we are able to successfully cope with the event. Proposed that we have four categories of emotion 1- Negative emotions- result from harm, loss or threats. Includes anger, fear, shame, sadness, jealousy and disgust 2- positive emotions- result from reaching goals and gaining benefits Includes happiness, joy, pride and love 3- Borderline emotions- hope, contentment, compassion 4- complex emotions- (non emotions/arousal) cognitive evaluations that can lead to emotions- grief, depression, frustration, disappointment, nervousness, tension, curiosity, surprise and amazement, bewilderment

Socialization(Wolfgang)

believes that our society in effect has legitimized violence. Among subtle sanctions he sees in support of this position are the societys toleration of physical disciplining of children by their parents and the institutionalization of sanctioned violence through wars ___=the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, values and ideologies providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own society. In this case, aggression is __ed because it is accepted and seen during life.

Kelly's covariation theory

best known attribution theory. developed a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some characteristic (internal) of the person or the environment (external) the term ___ simply means that a person has information from multiple observations, at different times and situations and can perceive the ____ of an observed effect and its causes argues that in trying to discover the causes of behavior people act like scientists and take into account 3 kinds of evidence; __ believed that there were three types of causal information which influences our judgements. low factors=person (internal) attribution, high factors=situational (External) attribution 1. consensus- the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar situation. i.e. Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend; if her friend smokes too, her behavior is high in consenses. If only Alison smokes it is low 2-Distinctiveness- the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in similar situations. i.e. if alison only smokes out with her friends, her behavior is high in distinctiveness. if she smokes at any place or time, distinctiveness is low 3- consistency- the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation occurs. i.e. if alison only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high. if she only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is low one problem however is that we may not have enough information to make this kind of judgement. i.e. we dont know if alison smokes all the time or not according to ___ we fall back on past experiences and look for either 1- multiple necessary causes-i.e.we see an athlete win a marathon and we reason that she must be very fit, highly motivated and trained hard and that she must have all of these to win 2-multiple sufficient causes-i.e. we see an athlete fail a drug test we reason that she may be trying to cheat, or have taken a banned substance by accident or been tricked into taking it by her coach. Here, any one reason would be sufficient --in ___s view, for something to be the cause of a behavior it must be present when the behavior occurs and absent when it is not

Achievement- ascribed status distinction

between a status attained on the basis of ones own achievement and status accorded on the basis of given characteristics such as family line, wealth, etc

prisoners dilemma

both players can make intermediate gains if they cooperatively refrain from trying to maximize individual gain. If they both try to maximize individual gains, they will both suffer great losses. The matrix concept allows several payoff possibilities to be established and investigated

Agression

can be defined as behavior intended to inflict physical or psychological injury/pain. Among boys, __ tends to be physical- fists or weapons. Among girls, it tends to be verbal- the cutting remark

State anxiety (Speilberger)

can be defined as fear, nervousness, discomfort and the arousal of the ANS induced temporarily by situations perceived as dangerous (i.e. how a person is feeling at the time of a perceived threat) i.e. a child feels anxious when contronted by a large, strange animal. or i.e. a person feels anxious to get on an airplane for the first time

Behavioral elements of emotion

characteristic overt expressionof emotion -body language and facial expression -six basic emotions generally able to identify -this is the outward expression of our emotions. body gestures, posture, facial expressions and our tone of voice display what emotions we are feeling. Many of our facial expressions are universal. i.e. if someone has a mad look on their face, it doesnt matter what language they speak or where they are from, chances are they are mad. However, some emotional expressions are influenced by our cultures and societys rules for displaying emotions. i.e. the guards outside Buckingham Palace are not allowed to display any emotion on their face.Some people have described them as looking mad when in reality they are not

theory of emotion (Valins and Reisenzein)

cognitive theory of emotion which states that arousal is not a prerequisite for experiencing an emotion; cognitive processes alone can do it. Challenged schachter-singer

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

cognitive theory of emotion which states that emotion is based on two factors: 1- physiological arousal 2- cognitive label According to this theory, when an emotion is felt, a physiological arousal occurs and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to labelthe physiological arousal. This can sometimes cause misinterpretations of emotions based on the bodys physiological state. When the brain does now know why it feels an emotion it relies on external stimulation for cues on how to label the emotion This theory claims that physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted within the context of each situation with ultimately produces the emotional experience. These cognitive interpretations- how a person labels and understands what they are experiencing are formed based on the persons past experience i.e. if you saw a snake, this theory argues that the snake would eliciit sympathetic nervous system activation (physiological arousal) that would be cognitively labeled as fear (cognition) based on the context. What you would actually experience, then would be the feeling of fear

Aggression-eliciting stimuli (Berkowitz)

concerned with the effects of ____ upon a potential aggressor. He has found that the presence of weapons heightens both the likelihood and the level of aggression study: first, participants were angered by a person pretending to be another participant (called a confederate). Next, participants were seated at a table that had a shotgun and a revolver on it, or in the control condition badminton racquets and shuttlecocks. The items on the table were described as part of another experiment that the researcher had supposedly forgotten to put away. The participant was supposed to decide what level of electric shock to deliver to the confederate who had angered them, and the electric shocks were used to measure aggression. The experimenter told participants to ignore the items on the table, but apparently they could not. Participants who saw the guns were more aggressive them participants who saw the sports items. This effect was dubbed the weapons effect

Elements of communication (Klapper)

concluded that mediated messages from the media do not normally cause much chnage in audience attitude and behavior. argued that although a mediated message could result in significant change, most often mediated messages strengthen attitudes that audience members already hold and reinforce behavior patterns that already exist. In short, he pointed out that mediated messages are just part of the influence process. other factors such as processes and norms, cultural norms, and values, opinion leadership, family and peer influence, personality characteristics of audience members and the selective nature of perception must all be considered if media effects are to be understood. the message, the perceived characteristic of the soruce, the channel or medium, and receivers characteristics must all be considered in order to understand media effects.

Aggression (Milgram)

conducted a frightening investigation through a shock-administering experiment, he found that people are suprisingly obedient to commands to administer high-level shocks to other people -action as distinct from signal conformity using a shock generator and implied harm to another person

Moderating factors- Social support (Gore)

conducted an experiment on 100 stably, employed married men who were tested 5 times over 2 years. results: while unemployed, unsupported evidenced significantly higher elevations and more changes in measures of cholesterol, illness symptoms, and affective response than did the supported.

Affiliation and attraction (Sarnoff and Zimbardo)

conducting similar studies to schachter in which both unrealistic fear (anxiety) and realistic fear were introduced, ___ foundthat in high-anxiety settings persons preferred to remain alone. ( this was interpreted as hesitancy to share their unrealistic fear with others because of the risk of embarrassment). Thus the research findings indicate that people have a tendency to affiliate with "similar situation others" in cases of high fear and a tendency to prefer being alone in cases of high anxiety

Person perception (Schlosberg and Woodworth)

confirmed the hypothesis that a category could exist for each emotional expression, however adjacent categories can overlap to some extent - ___2 grouped emotions into categories for closely related emotions (i.e. wonder, astonshment, amazement and surpirse) he then joined the groups into even broader clusters (i.e. joining the love, happiness and mirth groups into one cluster, and joining the fear and suffering groups into another. Developed a linear scale with 6 clusters ordered by similarity. ___1 then pursued his approach, first altering the linear scale into a circular one and asked what the members of the broad clusters had in common. What, i..e, unites love, happiness and mirth? or fear and suffering? ___1 suggestion was such things as degree of pleasantness versus unpleasantness. In his final version, ____1 suggested three such underlying dimensions; pleasant-unpleasant, degree of activation, and attention-rejection this theory suggests that affective reactions and arousal represent an independent dimension of emotion, and that both pleasant and unpleasant emotions may be found at all points on the arousal continuum from drowsiness to high activation.

Social psychology

connects sociology and clinical psychology. Whereas the sociologist is concerned with the study of groups and the clinical psychologist works with the concerns and problems of the individual, the ___ studies the behavior of an individual within the group and the effects of the group upon the individuals behavior

Additive/averaging model (Anderson)

consider a setting in which one is to make some type of judgement on the basis on n informational stimuli. According to this theory, everything depends on how you integrate stimulus information. we assume that every stimulus has a value, and overall evaluation is obtained by either: 1- adding the values together 2-averaging out the values Main result of his studies: addition of moderately positive stimuli to highly polarized stimuli decreases the polarity of the response. The averaging formation- the addition of moderately polarized stimuli to highly polarized stimuli decreases the mean polarity of the set

Theory of collective behavior (Freud)

consists of the idea that becoming a member of a crowd serves to unlock the unconscious mind. This occurs because the superego is displaced by the larger crowd, to be replaced by a charismatic crowd leader. this theory attempts to explain how the psychology of a crowd differs from and interacts with that of individuals within it. Relates to behaviors and thought processes of both the individual crowd members and the crowd as an entity. Crowd behavior is heavily influenced by the loss of responsibility of the individual and the impression of universality of behavior, both of which increase with the size of the crowd -why do we invariably give way to resisting emotion and reacting in an opposite way in a crowd? ___ suggests that what holds any group together is a love relationship, i.e. emotional ties. This explains what he considers to be the principal phenomenon of group psychology. interprets crowd behavior as the release of repressed drives Through a crowd, the restraints of a superego are relaxed and primitive ego-impulses come into play. The 'censor' within the individual is set aside in the crowd and the 'instinct' of 'basic id' impulses which are normally confined to the inner depth of personality come to surface. The crowd thus provides a momentary release of otherwise repressed drives

Public opinion polling (Gallup)

constitutes another measurement approach in the area of attitude measurement. ___ seeks to obtain a response percentage figure that can serve as a base for comparison when subsequent polls are conducted on the same question or attitude dimension. The "white elephant" in this area which served as a great lesson for subsequent pollsters was a presidential poll conducted by the Literary Digest in 1926. The digest used the telephone book as a source of names to be included in its samples. Conducting a poll using these names, the digest predicted that Alf Landon would win the election by a landslide. When Roosevelts strength at the ballot box smothered Landons election hopes, it also smothered the literary digest. Because the digests managers had failed to realize that the names in the phone directory did not constitute a representative sample of the voting public, they had polled an unrepresentative sample and correspondingly had madean erroneous prediction. The literary digest went out of business, but the lesson of representative sampling was remembered well by other would-be pollsters, especially George Gallup, whose american institute of public opinion has become a byword in polling. Polling techniques have become very refined and polls are depended upon heavily by certain groups, notably politicians. Pollsters warn, however, that they are not predictors of an outcome, but instead monitors of an opinion as it exists within a sample at a specific time

Type B personality (Friedmanand Rosenman)

contrasts to type A. by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels. They typically work steadily and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve. When faced with competition they may focus less on winning or losing and more on enjoying the game regardless of winning or losing. __ are attracted to careers of creativity; writer, counselor, therapist, actor or actress. However network and computer systems managers, professors and judges are more likely to be ___ as well. Their personal character may enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective and think of the outer and inner world

Parasympathetic nervous system

controls the normal operations of the body (keeps the body running smoothly) calms everything down after emergency (i.e. heart rate)

Facial Electromyograph (EMG)

cousin of the GSR, detects subtle muscle cues of positive or negative attitudes toward a stimulus the person has just heard or seen. Cacioppo and colleagues make frequent use of the ___ and the EEG in their attitude measuremnt work

self-esteem (Baumeister)

critical of programs designed to artificially raise self-esteem as a means of reducing social problems- pointed out that career criminals locked in prisons (antisocial people) have very high self-esteem. they feel a sense of entitelment to take what they want from others

Moderating factors- Hardiness (Kobasa)

defined as a personality structure comprising the three related general dispositions of commitment, control and challenge that functions as a resistance resource in the encounter with stressful conditions 1-commitment- defined as a tendency to involve oneself in the activities in life and having a genuine interest in and curiosity about the surrounding world (Activities, things, other people) 2- control- a tendency to believe and act as if one can influence the events taking place around oneself through ones own effort 3- challenge- defined as he belief that change, rather than stability, is the normal mode of life and constitutes motivating oppurtunities for personal growth rather than threats to security its been found that this personality trait is related to making good use of social resources, negatively correlated with self-reported alcohol and drug use -helps decrease the ability of stressful events to produce arousal in the SNS

proxemics (Ardrey)

defined territory as an area of space, whether of water or earth or air, which an animal or group of animals defends as an exclusive preserve. In all territorial species, without exception, possession of a territory lends enhanced energy to the proprietor. The challenger is almost invariably defeater, the intruder expelled. In part, there seems to be some mysterious flow of energy and resolve which invests a proprietor on his home grounds

Foot in the door technique (Freedman)

demonstrates that we are more likely to agree to a large, commitment type request if we have agreed in advance to a smaller commitment request. This is the salesman familiar approach of getting a small commitment now and returning to ask for a larger commitment later the idea is to get the targeted person to say yes to a simple small request right before asking for a big yes, they will be more likely to say yes to the big one i.e. sam is completing a science project, which requires him to design and create a model of the solar system. He asks his mother, nora, to help him create a design for his project. Nora draws a sketch and gathers supplies for Sam. Sam then asks his mother to help him glue the pieces together, which she does. In the end, Nora ends up constructing the entire science project with little help from sam.

Approach-approach conflict

describes a situation where a person is trying to make a decision between two desirable options. i.e. a student wishes to pursue a graduate degree and has been accepted into two graduate programs and needs to make a decision about which to attend. In this situation, the student might in addition to comparing the quality and prestige of the programs they might also consider the location, climate and other amenities before making a final decision

Type A and Type B personality theory (Friedmanand Rosenman)

describes two contrasting personality types. In this theory, personalities that are more competitive, outgoing, ambitious, impatient and or aggressive are labeled type A while more relaxed personalities are labeled type B The two cardiologists that developed this theory came to believe that type A personalities had a greater chance of developing coronary heart disease.

10 Postulates (Plutchik)

developed 10 postulates on which his evolutionary theory is based 1- animals and humans- animals and humans experience the same basic emotions in similar ways 2- evolutionary history- emotions appeared as a result of evolution. emotions were present in animals even before apes evolved 3- survival issues- emotions have evolved over time in order to increase the chances of survival in the environment. i.e. trust results in collaboration and sharing between humans 4- prototype patterns- although there are several types of emotions that are present in different species, there are prototype patterns, or common elements that are identifiable 5- basic emotions- a relatively small number of prototype primary emotions or basic emotions can be identified 6- combinations- all other emotions occur as a result of a mixture or combination of the basic emotions. i.e. love is a combination of joy (primary emotion) and trust (primary emotion) 7- hypothetical constructs- it is recognized that primary emotions are hypothetical constructs or idealized states which we describe in terms of their particular properties and characteristics. These descriptions can only be inferred based on several kinds of evidence 8- opposites- the primary emotions are categorized into pairs of polar opposites 9-similarity- all emotions have different degrees of similarity to one another 10-intensity- each emotion can vary in its level of intensity.

Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) (Holmes-Rahe)

developed a questionnaire for identifying major stressful life events Each one of the 43 life events is awarded a life change unit depending on how traumatic it was felt to be A total value for stressful events can be worked out by adding up the scores of each event experienced over a 12 month period items such as "death of spouse" "divorce", etc.

Conformity (Crutchfield)

developed an indirec tmeans of imposing conformity pressure that relieves the need to have a large number of persons serve as confederates. His technique involves 5 individual booths, each equipped with a light panel. Via the panel, a subject presumably sees how persons occupying the other four booths have responded to the questions. In actuality, each booth occupant is being given the same light-panel-response feedback from a control room. Although this technique enables every participant to be a subject, it is one step removed from the conformity pressures imposed through direct interaction

Rubin's liking and loving scale

developed two questionnaires to measure love and liking. initially identified appx. 80 questions designed to assess the attitudes a person holds about others The questions were sorted according to whether or not they reflected feelings of liking or loving. These two sets of questions were first administered to 198 undergrad students and a factor analysis was conducted. The results allowed ___ to identify 13 questions for liking and 13 questions for loving that were reliable measures of these two variables. Liking scale i.e. "i feel that ___ is a very stable person, I have confidence in ___'s opinion" The loving scale i.e. "i feel strong feelings of possessiveness towards ___, i like it when __ confides in me" These questionnaires provided support for his theory of love.

equal-appearing intervals (Thurstone)

develped a scale technique known as __ to designa standardizing attitude measurement scale. This term encompasses both the underlying concepts and the procedures used in developing such a scale. i.e., the experimenter might ask 200 people to act as judges whos job would be to categorize a large group of statements that had been written on a specific subject (i.e. war). They would read each statement, decide to what extent it was favorable or unfavorable (i.e. for or against war) and place it in the category corresonding to their rating. There would be twelve categories into which the judges could sort the statements. Categories 1 and 2 would receive the statements that were felt to be strongly antiwar, while categories 10 and 11 would receive strongly pro-war statements. Takes a very long time When the judges completed their sorting, the weeding out and selection of statements for the final scale would begin. The best candidate for the final scale would meet two criteria: 1- low variability among the judges (meaning that a statement did not get placed into categories 1 or 2 by some judge and 10 or 11 by others) and 2- equal representation of all statement categories (meaning that the statements in the final scale would be equally distributed across the 12 categories). The second criterion prompts the ____ description associated with ___ scaling procedures. After the above series of steps, the resulting scale would be a collection of appx. 20 statements. Judges would then be asked to read those statements, checking the ones that were in agreement with their respective viewpoints on the subject.By adding the category weightings of these statements (1-12), and obtaining amean score, the scale administrator would be able to determine where in the 12 category range the judges attitudes on the subject happened to be.Scale results would indicate,i.e,whether they were pro or anti war

Cooperation-competition (Sherif and Sherif)

did a classic study utilizing subjects from a boys summer camp. Through prearrangements, they established two basic groups, which they soon found to be very hostile toward each other. The only technique that the investigators found effective in reducing this hostility was the introduction of a 'superordinate goal'- a desirable corporate goal that neither group could accomplish alone (i.e. finding the problem with the camps water supply, or getting the camps disabled food truck moving again). Whereas merely bringing the groups together only served to aggravate the hostility, the superordinate goal proved effective in hostility reduction

Proximity (Festinger)

did a similar study to Whyte in an apartment complex containing several two-story buildings with five apartments on each floor. Social attraction and friendship patterns were found to be the most prominent in the next-door setting and weaker as one moved additional doors away from any given apartment.This finding introduced the concept of functional distance-functional because, although two or three doors away is not all that far in terms of actual physical distance, the principle of proximity still holds.

Autokinetic effect (Sherif)

did the earliest work in the field of conformity with something called the ___. Using a small beam of light, he would ask subjects to individually make a judgement of how much it moved (but the light wasnt moving at all). Individuals would make different judgements and he would then combine groups of three who had made divergent judgements. They had to come up with an agreed-upon judgement. Later, when again asked for their individual judgement, __ found that the individuals had moved toward the group judgement.

implicit associations test (IAT)

many people hold divergent implicit and explicit attidues; i.e. a person may claim to be unprejudiced but still harbor prejudiced attidues. people who claim to be unprejudiced still seat themselves closer to a person of the same race than to a person of a different race!

Overload (Milgram)

discussed the importance of psychological maps for adaptation to living in large social systems such as large cities. These maps are not only individual products but are shaped by social and cultural factors. Psychological maps help define cognitive and emotional boundaries that are critical in controlling ___, i.e. the systems inability to process inputs from the environment because there are too many inputs to cope with. ___ listed 6 responses to ____ that apply equally well to individuals, groups, organizations and other social groupings: 1- less time given to each input (limit time and involvement with new inputs) 2- disregard low priority inputs (the investment of time and energy are reserved for carefully defining inputs) 3. Redrawing of boundaries in certain social transactions to shift the burden of the overload system to another party in the exchange (i.e. bus drivers once made change for riders, now the responsibility for having the right change has been shifted to the customer) 4- blocking off reception prior to entering a system (use of unlisted telephone numbers; not answering the telephone or taking it off the hook) 5- diminishing the intensity of inputs with filtering devices (only become superficially involved) 6- creating specialized institutions to absorb inputs that would otherwise overwhelm the individual (welfare deparments, social security departments, and other special agencies)

exhaustion stage (GAS) (Selye)

during this phase, the stress has been persistent for a longer period. The body starts to lose its ability to combat the stressors and reduce their harmful impact because the adaptive energy is all drained out. The ____ can be referred to as the gate towards burnout or stress overload, which can lead to health problems if not solved immediately

exemplification

efforts to make yourself appear virtuous

Prejudice (Rokeach)

experimentally pitted attitude and race similarities/differences against one another to see which would prevail. Similarities in attitude proved far more favorable in attraction and liking than similarities in race. The challenge becomes that of getting to know individuals which serves to weaken and dilute group stereotypes -attitude similarity prevails over race similarity

Social role theory (Eagly)

explains that the inherent physical differences between men and women led to a division of labor in society. More specifically, men are usually physically larger and stronger than women. Conversely, females tend to be smaller in size and not as physically strong as men. states that these innate differences are causative factors in the development of gender roles for men and women. social and cultural expectations, or gender stereotypes contribute to the notion that there are male-specific careers and female-specific careers. i.e., tendency to picture women as secretaries and men as CEOs the theory suggests that men and women are profoundly influenced by these gender stereotypes, and if ones behavior does not match up with his or her perceived gender role, stress and confusion can result. Further opportunities may be limited for those who do not follow gender-specific roles because it goes against societies norm

willpower depletion (Baumeister)

explains what happens after weve resisted temptation. we exert willpower every day; i..e eating a salad instead of a hamburger. however, this takes a mental toll. i.e. ___ brough subjects into a room full of fresh baked cookies and a bowl of radishes. some were asked to sample the cookies and other eat the radishes. after 30 minutes they were given a difficult geometric puzzle. ___ found that those who ate radishes (and resisted the cookie) gave up on the puzzle after 8 minutes, while the cookie eaters preserved for nearly 19 minutes drawing on willpower to resist the cookied seemed to drain the subjects self-control for subsequent situations

Responsiveness (Mehrabian)

expressed through 'activity' cues that relate to orienting behavior and involve the relative importance of the interaction participants. Such non-verbal behavior as vocal activity, speech rate, speech volume and facial activity are indices of ___.

Cognitive dissonance (Aronson et al)

extended Festingers theory to the area of initiation-type settings. If we go through some pretty unpleasant behavior in order to meet the requirements for joining a group, we justify having gone through this behavior by enhancing our valuation of the group. We say, in effect 'this is a tremendous group and well worth the initiation requirements we went through in order to join" i.e. sorority and fraternities, basic training in the military, etc. in each of these instances- ones tendency to say that the experience was worth the trouble is an example of cognitive dissonance- which in this theory is a means of self-justification -attitudes move in the direction of behavior- a drive towards consistency

Social exchange theory (Rusbult)

extended these basic social exchange principles of attraction into the area of close, committed relationships. She notes that attraction principles were developed on the premise of strangers and that important additional considerations need to be added in the area of close commitment. She proposes and researched three categories of variables 1- the degree of positive feeling one has about his/her partner (based on the extent to which the partner gratifies this individuals important needs in areas such as intellectual, companionship, intimacy and sexuality) 2- the quality of alternatives (other options in your region and age range) 3- level of investment (resources attached to the relationship and degree of loss if it were to end). The basic attraction principles continue to apply, but, as __ demonstrates, they take on important additional variables as relationships move toward closeness and intimacy

Elaboration Liklihood Model (ELM) (Petty and Cacioppo)

extends and modifies Festingers theory of cognitive dissonance. The model states that people use either a central or a peripheral route to decision making. In the central route, people are highly motivated and give careful thought and extensive deliberation to the decision they are making. In the peripheral route, people have low motivation and give very little thought or deliberation to the decision they are making. These routes are two ends of a continuum, and different influence strategies work for central and peripheral. i.e., classical conditioning techniques or simple exposure work well on the peripheral route, but would have little or no impact on the highly discerning person following the central route. Correspondingly, creating a positive mood would prominently influence the low-motivation peripheral route but would have little or no impact on those following the central route. The central route is influenced by promoting concepts that people value and find relevant to them. Here, slight variations in expression can make the significant difference, i.e. rather than saying "society will benefit from this recycling campaign"the pronoun "you will benefit.." makes the critical difference model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used and their outcomes on attitude change. the ___ proposes two major routes to persuasion; 1- central route- under this route, persuasion will likely result from a persons careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented in support of advocacy. The central route involves high level of message elaboration in which a great amount of cognition about the arguments are generated by the individual receiving the message. the results of attitude change will be relatively enduring, resistant and predictive of behavior 2- the peripheral route- on the other hand, under this route persuasion results from a persons association with positive or negative cues in the stimulus or making a simple inference about the merits of an advocated position. The cues received by the individual under the peripheral route are generally unrelated to the logical quality of the stimulus. these cues will involve factors such as credibility or attractiveness of the sources of the message, or the production quality of the message. The likelihood of elaboration will be determined by an individuals motivation and ability to evaluate the argument being presented https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model -two routes to persuasion: central route (convincing route) and peripheral route (attractive or expert source)

incentive

external stimulus catalyst for behavior. Includes reward and response predisposition based on deprivation, learning and heredity

Conformity (Hollander)

felt the necessity of moving beyond a conformity-nonconformity terminology.. iHe believed that within the nonconformity category there could be both 1- anticonformity- persons who were reacting against conformity and 2-independence- those who were behaving independently on the basis of their own preferences (regardless of the conforming trend). To characterize this distinction, he introduced the terms anticonformity and independence (replacing nonconformity)

equity theory

focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners.___ is measured by comparing the ratio of contributions (or costs) and benefits (or rewards) for each person. would explain that over benefitted people feel guilty

introspection

for the purpose of self-awareness suffers from the same flaws as introspection as a scientific technique. observation is more reliable when assessing the self. observation or examination of one's own mental and emotional state, mental processes, etc.; the act of looking within oneself.

Helping behavior (Darley)

found another variable that has found to be important is the clarity of the helping situation-whether the person requesting help really is in an emergency situation.

Mere exposure effect (Zajonc)

found familiarity to be a prominent factor in social attraction. In one of his studies, he had persons look at turkish words (totally meaningless to the viewing persons). He offered some words only one or two times, but showed others as often as 25 times. The words seen most often were accorded the most positive definitions.

Helping behavior (Bryan, test and piliavin)

found the model variable to be important; if a model of helping has preceded the incident in which a person is called upon to help, the likelihood that the person will help is greater than the likelihood in a no-model setting -showed that the bystander effect does not seem to appear if a helping response is first modelled by another observer which seems to contradict the diffusion of responsibility. They suggest that this behavior can be explained by a process of conformity to social norms. The social norms explanation holds that people use actions from others as cues to decide what an appropriate response to specific situations should be

criticisms of the stanford prison experiment

frequently cited as an example of unethical research. Could not be replicated today because it fails to meet standards of ethical codes of the APA. -others say its not generalizable because it was an unrepresentative sample (mostly white and middle class) -also lacks ecological validity. While they did their best to recreate a prison setting, it is simply not possible to perfectly mimic all of the environmental and situational variables of prison life.

Acme-Bolt trucking game (Deutsch)

game of cooperation-competition. in the game, players operate trucking firms called Acme and Bolt. They are paid for moving their trucks from their base to the others base. They earn or lose money on the basis of how long it takes them to make the trip. Each has a long-way-round which he can choose to take; it always costs them money. Each also has a short, money-making route, which he must share with the other; part of that route is only one lane wide. Two truckes meeting there are blocked, until one backs up, lets the other go through and then proceeds in turn. __ found that a player who is given such threat potential is very likely to use it (and take the shorter route) concluded that when an individual has the opportunity to apply threat to another in competition they will use it and that this threatening behavior does not lead to cooperation

Motivation

generally defined as a social or psychological condition that directs an individuals behavior toward a certain goal. Drive, on the other hand is a biological condition that performs a goal-directed function. The distinction is that a rat probably turns right in the T maze because it has sensations of hunger or thirst, not to preserve its self-esteem. In the cases of both motivation and drive, we have to infer they exist on the basis of what the animal or person does. We note the relationship between a stimulus and a response and then say "aha! the rat was hungry"/ or "i see a lot of love messages in the glances those two have been exchanging". Each of these cases involve a stimulus (food pellet, lover) to which an organism responds (by turning right in the alley, or sending affectionate glances). In short, on the basis of what we see we infer.

Game decision theory (Gamind)

has been prominently developed for investigating the dynamics of cooperation and competition in laboratory settings. A major distinction in this area is that between the zero-sum game and the nonzero-sum game 1- zero-sum game- the gains of one player are made at the direct expense of the other 2-nonzero-sum game- allows each player to make intermediate gains. The nonzero-sum game has been prominently adopted in the characteristic research on cooperation-competition. A game involves a playoff matrix. Within a matrix, each player can make one of two choices. Each player knows in advance that the payoff will depend upon the choice made by the other player

Biological drives

have common elements including 1- the maintenance and preservation of the organism 2- homeostasis (the tendency toward achieving and maintaining a state of balance) and 3- the quality of preempting all other drives. Entries in this group include hunger, thirst, pain, respiration, fatigue, body temperature and bowel and bladder tension. The commonalities of biological drives can be easily illustrated. i.e., if a person is hungry his or her guitar picking behavior stops temporarily (is preempted) until the hunger drive has been reduced. The tension of the drive itself creates a disturbing imbalance within the individual, requiring that the tension be relieved and balance be restored (homeostasis). The entire behavior sequence has survival at its roote (maintenance and preservation of the organism)

Theory of the crowd (Lebon)

held that crowds exist in three stages 1-Submergence- the individuals in the crowd lost their sense of individual self and personal responsibility. This is quite heavily induced by the anonymity of the crowd during submergence, the indviduals become anonymous in the crowd which makes them lose their sense of individual self and personal responsibility. He believes in that a person will lose its individuality, autonomy and judgment and tends to follow the crowds collective unconscious as long as he/she becomes part of the crowd people. He points out the characteristics of crowd psychology: "impulsiveness, irritability, incapacity to reason, the absence of judgement of the critic spirit, the exaggeration of sentiments and others". This makes them subordinated to instinctual drives of collective unconscious. Then comes the- 2- contagion- refers to the propensity for individuals in a crowd to unquestionably follow the predominant ideas and emotions of the crow. This effect is capable of spreading between 'submerged' individuals much like a disease refers to the spread in the crowd of particular behaviors. it means that individuals in a crowd will follow the ideas, emotions and behaviors of the crowd. 3- suggestion- refers to the period in which the ideas and emotions of the crowd are primarily drawn from a shared racial unconscious. This behavior comes from an archaic shared unconscious and is therefore uncivilized in nature. It is limited by moral and cognitive abilities of the least capable members. comes after contagion; individuals in the crowd have a singular mind. Then suggestions generated from the strongest members of the crowd, will guid the rest of the crowd ___ believed that crowds could be a powerful force only for destruction. __ idea that crowds foster anonymity and generate emotion has been contested. - according to __, relieved of individual responsibility, individuals will behave in a more primal fashion. He asserts, by the mere fact that he forms part of an organized crowd, a man descends several rungs on the ladder of civilization. A modern comparison might be the teenager who argues that his own actions of toilet papering the principals house wasnt so bad because everyone else was doing it

sandbagging

hiding the strength, skill or difficulty of something or someone early in engagement. i.e. deliberately playing below ones actual ability in order to fool opponents into accepting higher stakes bet, in social, wen one withholds comments or information that could support another persons or partys cause or argument, especially after a previous understanding or implied understanding that support would be provided in sales- holding back slaes, during a difficult or losing period and waiitng to complete and book them until a stronger, winning period where the sales rep can achieve a higher commission. involves hiding your wins

individual self

highlights ones unique side. consists of attributes that differentiate the person from others, independent of relational bonds or group memberships

emotional messages

highly emotional persuasive messages are most effective when the message is followed by an action step the audience can take, because raising peoples emotions can interfere with persuasion unless you provide them with an action step they can take to reduce their arousal.

Cognitive (Subjective)element of emotion

how we interpret certain situations or stimulations. This determines which emotion our body will feel. i.e. if you are alone, sitting in the dark, watching a scary movie and you hear a loud noise you may become scared, fearing that there is an immediate threat or that you are in danger. This emotional response to this imaginary threat is just as powerful as it would be to a real threat.Our perception to the imaginary threat is what makes it feel real to us and causes the emotion in our body

Matching hypothesis (Berscheild and Feingold)

hypothesis that those who are dating, engaged, living together or married are equivalent in physical attractiveness

Bogus pipeline

impressive looking equipment that subjects are told will detect their lies and true feelings on even the most socially sensitive questions. The instrument looks convincing enough and unwitting subjects opt toward honest responding, but in reality it doesnt measure a thing

Shachter-Singer research

injected particupants with adrenaline which causes a number of physioligical effects such as increased blood flow to the muscles and increased heart rate. They found that injecting the drug did not lead participants to experience any given condition. Contrary to the james-lange theory therefore, this theory argues that bodily changes can support conscious arousal of emotions but do not necessarily cause them. Rather, the interpretation of a certain emotion depends on both the individuals physiological state as well as their circumstances, a relationship mediated by cognitive processing -arousal and physiological chang are interprted on the basis of context (i.e. ill feel what those around me are feeling)

Social stimulation need (Harlow)

in his famous series of experiments with monkeys showed that those raised in isolation with a wire frame (surrogate "mother") covered with terry cloth as their only companion developed extremely bizarre behaviors which persisted until adulthood. They fail to interact appropriately with others, withdraw when approached and seem unable to recognize common social gestures or to perceive social emotional nuances. They became socially and emotionally blind and deaf, although they could see and hear without difficulty. in humans as well, when there is inadequate social stimulation develop bizarre behaviors such as biting on their skin and pinching themselves until they bleed. That is, being in need of physical contact with others, when this contact is insufficient, children and young animals will engage in repetitive and sometimes abusive self-stimulatory activities. So great is the need for stimulation that when it is lacking they supply it to themselves in an inappropriate manner. when conditioned with fear, they ran behind the closest object they could find

Affilation (Maslow)

in his hierarchy of needs, the need for ___ appears midway between the most basic physical needs and the highest level need for self-actualization

Aronson's gain-loss model (Aronson and Linder)

in studies such as the one performed by ___, it was found that movement from a negative to a positive evaluation of a person led to stronger social attraction toward the evaluator by the person being evaluated than did movement from a neutral position toward positive evaluation. __ quotes Spinoza's observation that "hatred which is completely vanquished by love passes into love and love is thereupon greater than if hatrid had not preceded it". Within this kind of situation, it has been suggested that a kind of double or compound reward operates with 1- the removal of the aversive stimulus operating as negative reinforcement 2-the presentation of a desired stimulus operating as positive reinforcement. Unofficially, this has been termed "___s law of marital infidelity.The woman who receives a compliment froma stranger finds that compliment more rewarding than an equivalent compliment from her husband. The husband-beginning from a general position of positive reinforcement, lacks the capacity to be as rewarding as the stranger (who begins from a neutral position). Thus the close friend or spouse constitutes a less potent source of reward but a strong and more potent source of punishment The distinction between attraction and affiliation is that between positively evaluating other people (attraction) and simply being with other people (affiliation)

Aggression (Siegal)

in the case of TV, suggested that a more long-range result of violence viewing is the expectation that children come to associate with specific roles in society. One of the most blatant examples of this is the role-violence differential between male and female roles as socially communicated and defined.

Persuasion

in this area, concerns relating to both noncoercive and coercive __ comes into view. The latter includes brainwashing techniques and techniques formerly used in police interogation, the former deals with general __ techniques as used in public speaking, advertising, and the like

Alarm stage (GAS) (Selye)

in this phase, the initial reaction of the body to stress is that it labels the stressor as a threat or danger to balance, that is why it immediately activate its fight or flight response system, and releases the stress hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol. These hormones enable you to perform activities that you dont usually do

Semantic differential scale (Osgood)

in this scale, the subject is given a concept such as church, capital punishment, etc- followed by a series of bipolar adjectives (i.e. good-bad, honest-dishonest, clean-dirty, etc.). Between the two poles adjectives (good-bad i.e.) there are seven spaces and the subjects job is to place a check in oneof those spaces. A check next to the spot 'good' will receive a score of 7, and correspondingly 'bad' will receive 1. There are several sets of these bipolar adjectivves thus allowing for a large possible range in which scores can occur. Through factor analysis, __ has discovered threedimensions to be tested- 1-evaluative- tested with adjectives such as good-bad 2-activity- adjectives such as active-passive 3- potency- adjectives such as strong-weak the key dimension, and the one measured most prominently within an ___ scale, is the evaluative one

frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard and Miller)

indicates that frustration (being blocked from a goal or having the goal removed) leads to aggression attempts to explain why people scapegoat as well- scapegoating= a person or group made to bear the blame for others or to suffer in their place. It attempts to give an explanation as to the cause of violence; the theory says that frustration causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target. i.e. a teenage boy who was unable to go on a trip because his friend had a cold. Not long after this he got into a big fight with his little sister. This displaced aggression is directed away from the real target and towards a safer target, called a scapegoat. This provides a partial release of the pent up frustration but the initial disappointment may never be admitted and experienced fully.

Just-world hypothesis (Lerner)

indicates that people like to believe that the world is just and that individuals get what they deserve

Yerkes-Dodson Law

indicates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. The process is often illustrated graphically as a bell shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of arousal -increases in motivation and arousal bring increases in emotion. A mid-range level of arousal lends to optimal performance effectiveness

Age of sex-typing

individuals in young adulthood are most likely to ___

Source power

intended to bring about compliance in the receiver. i.e. a police officer giving an anti-drink drive message - has ___ when he or she can actually administer rewards or punishments to the receiver. As a result of this power, the source may be able to induce another person to respond to the request or position he or she is advocating. depends on several factors- 1- perceived control- must be perceived as being able to administer positive or negative sanctions to the receiver 2-perceived concern- the receiver must think the source cares about whether or not the receiver conforms 3-perceived scrutiny- the receivers estimate of the sources ability to observe conformity

Drive

internal state of tension activities prompting activities designed to reduce the tension.

affiliation (Bowlby)

introduced the distinction between attachment and ___. ___ interaction - one where both people are in a good mood, do not feel threatened and have the goals of enjoying their time together or advancing common interests. This is in contrast two an attachment interaction, which is one where one person is threatened or distressed and seeks comfort and support from the other

Modeling(Bandura)

investigated the modeling effects- for instance, the effect of viewing an aggressive model on TV. He finds that a childs aggression is heightened immediately following observation of a model who has been rewarded for aggressive activity

Prejudice (Pettigrew)

investigated the role of conformity in prejudice. investigated the idea that people who tended to be more conformist would also be more prejudiced and found this to be true of white south african students. Similarly, he accounted for the higher levels of prejudice against black people in the southern US than in the north in terms of greater social acceptability of this kind of prejudice in the south

Aggression (Zimbardo)

investigated vandalism, violence and his concept of deindividuation- indicates that when people lose their identities or become anonymous within the larger group, they are likely to engage in aggression and violence

risk taking (Wallach,Kogan and Bem)

investigation demonstrated in a context of aversive consequences that unanimous group decisions concerning matters of risk show a shift toward greater risk taking when compared with individual decisions, and postdiscussion individual decsions that follow group consensus reflect the risky shift of the group rather than the original prediscussion decisions. Underlying these results is the diffusion of responsibility. Higher risk taking has greater social desirability than conservatism.

Liking/positiveness(Mehrabian)

involves the evaluation of other persons or objects that relate to approach- avoidance tendencies. Non verbal behaviors associated with positiveness, represent immediacy cues such as eye contact, forward lean, touching, distance and orientation

interdependence theory (Kelley and Thibaut)

is a social exchange theory that shows how the rewards and costs associated with interpersonal relationships collaborate with peoples' expectations from them. This theory comes from the idea that closeness is the key to all relationships; that people communicate to become closer to one another. The theory states that there are rewards and costs to any relationship and that people try to maximize the rewards while minimizing the costs.

Laissez-Faire leadership style (Lewin, Lippit, White)

is to minimize the leaders involvement in decision making, and hence allowing people to make their own decisions although they may still be responsible for the outcome. __ works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination, i.e. in sharing resources across a range of different people and groups

Arousal-affect model (Zillmann and Bryant)

link aggression to arousal and affect. if you or i have been physically arroused (perhaps just had strenuous physical activity, and someone curses at you, we are much more likely to aggress than if we had not been physically aroused prior to the insult.

sex-roles (Williams, Bennet and Best)

made a distinction between sex roles, sex-role stereotypes and sex-trait stereotypes- a distinction they have built into their measurement instrument the Adjective Checklist which is used to determine the presence of sex-trait stereotypes

Interrole-intrarole conflict distinction

made between conflict experienced 1-interrole- in meeting the expectations of two different roles (i.e. daughter and fiance, son and fiance) -occurs accross domains of life. i.e. a husband and father who is also chief of police. if tornado strikes the small town he is living in, the man has to decide if he should go home and be with his family and fulfil the role of being a good husband and father or remain and fulfill the duties of a good chief of police because the whole town needs his expertise and 2-intrarole- conflict experienced in meeting expectations within a single role (i.e. professor and student differences in expectations for the role of a college student) -occurs when the demands are within a single domain of life, such as a job. i.e. when two superiors ask an employee to do a task, and both cannot be accomplished at the same time

Emotions (Ortony and Turner)

maintained that researchers cannot find basic emotions because we do not and probably cannot have a satisfactory criterion of basicness. Stemmed from the cognitive theory perspective that emotions are cognition dependent and contain various forms of cognition.__ argued that the so called basic emotions were not psychologically primitive or biologically primitive. They questioned whether any of the so-called basic emotions met their suggested criteria for biologically based emotions. -focus here is on the component of emotions rather than basic emotions themselves

correspondence bias

making dispositional inteferences IN THE FACE OF DOMINANT SITUATIONAL CUES! according to fundamental attribution bias, suggests that we fail to see situational contributions at all. here, the difference between this and FAE is that we draw correspondent trait inferences from situationally constarined behavior. i.e. a debate coach who was requested to say a pro-marijuana speech, we will infer they are pro-marijuana. the FAE is typically assessed with with questions such as "was this behavior caused by the person or the situation" while ___ is typically assessed by specific attitude ratings (i.e. does this person hold a pro-marijunana attititude) here, situational cues cause us to make inferences.

Plutchik's wheel of emotion

mixing emotions to produce new blends developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion, created the ___ which illustrates the various relationships among the emotions -__ identifies only eight basic emotions, you can see from the wheel that there are many different degrees creating a wide spectrum of emotions. __ states that emotions are much more complex than most people realize. emotions have a long evolutionary history. they are not only adaptive but they have evolved over time in order to increase our reproductive fitness. Emotion plays an important role in issues of survival, and it involves both cognition and behavior. Developed 10 postulates on which his evolutionary theory of emotions is based (see term) 8 basic emotions; 1- Joy is the opposite of sadness 2- Fear is the opposite of anger 3- Anticipation is the opposite of surprise 4- disgust is the opposite of trust The intensity of emotions decrease as you move outward and increases as you move towards the wheels center. The intensity of the emotion is indicated by the color. The darker the shade, the more intense the emotion, i.e. anger at its least level of intensity is annoyance, and as its highest level of intensity becomes rage

normative influence

occurs when a person wishes to avoid the negative consequences, or perhaps ostracism of differing with the group

overjustification effect

occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. The overall effect of offering a reward for a previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic motivation and the undermining of pre-existing intrinsic motivation. Once rewards are no longer offered, interest in the activity is lost; prior intrinsic motivation does not return, and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity

Spitz's study

one of the first studies to report the detrimental effects of seperating infants from their mothers was done by __. He compared the development of infants raised by caregivers in a foundling home (a home for illegitimate and abandoned babies) to that of infants raised by their mothers in a prison. Each caregiver in the foundling home was responsible for at least 8 infants. The mothers, who were all either intellectually disabled or emotionally disturbed were responsible for caring for their own infants in the prison. The infants raised in the foundling home had poor appetites and lacked interest in their surrounding; they exhibited sever depression.. As a result, they were delayed in their growth and mental develoment. The infants raised by their mothers in prison, on the other hand, developed normally. Even though the mothers in the prison were socially deviant, the one-on-one care and nurturance they gave their infants enabled the infants to exhibit normal development, whereas even though the caregivers in the institution were professionally trained, they had eight babies to nurture and probably could not establish emotional attachments with each one. __ supported "nature" care

homeostasis

organisms physiological state of equilibrium

perceived freedom (Steiner)

tested the idea that perceived freedom increases as the behavior alternatives become more nearly equal in attractiveness

Theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger)

original theory of attitude change; says that there is a tendency for people to seek a stage of consonance (agreement) between their attitudes and their behavior. Someone is in a state of consonance when their behavior in a given belief-area corresponds to ones attitude in that area. After formulating his theory, ___ next step was to create a dissonance between the persons attitude and behavior. Subjects were induced to behave in conflict with an attitude they held. He predicted that in order to regain the comfort that comes with consonance, the persons attitude would tend to change in the direction of the behavior that had been performed. i.e. a conscientious objector who had been forced to use a rifle in frontline army combat would begin to change his attitude in favor of this behavior. -attitudes move in the direction of behavior- a drive towards consistency

availability heuristic (Tversky and Kahneman)

our tendency to judge on the basis of likelihoods that readily pop into our minds -mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given persons mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision under the ___ people tend to heavily weigh their judgements toward more recent information, making new opinions biased toward the latest news

low-balling technique (Doob/McLaughlin)

our tendency to stay with a commitment weve made after the initailly low stakes have been raised. The car salesperson initially told us we could have the car for 9000, then by design, a discovery was made that 10000 was the lowest they could go. -initially you get the individual to agree to your request and then afterwards increase the original terms; tricking them into agreeing more than they intended. Most people will agree The success of this technique works on the principle of commitment; because the person has said yes or agreed to an initial request, commitment has been given. When the request changes of becomes unreasonable, the person will to a degree find it difficult to say no because of having originally commited themselves

Cooperation-competition (kelly and thibaut)

payoff matrix which in its simplest form, describes an exchange between two parties for which two choices of behavior exist; either to cooperate or to compete with the other. The outcomes of any possible exchange combination can easily be determined from the matrix.

willpower

people who believe they have limited supplies of willpower show an exxaggerated willpower depletion effect

Milgrams urban overload hypothesis

people who live in cities are constantly being exposed to large amounts of stimuli, there are so many stimuli in the city environment that it often becomes too much for a person to process at once. As a result of being bombarded with stimuli, we experience overload and must adapt to these demands. We set priorities that involve choosing which stimuli to process while choosing to ignore others. One consequence of this adaptation includes not getting involved in situations where someone may be injured and need help (if you live in a small town however, youll be more likely to help)

James-Lange theory of emotion

physiological theory which believes there is: 1- a stimulus (i.e. a loud bang) 2-perception/interpretation (i.e. danger) 3- specific pattern of autonomic arousal (i.e. heart races, etc.) 4- particular emotion experienced (i.e. fear) specific pattern of autonomic arousal leads to identification of the emotion. "we feel happy because we smile, sad because we cry" assumes that emotions produce distinct physical responses -i run, therefore im afraid, the action precedes the emotion. The emotion results from the phsiological arousal

Ekmans universal emotions

pioneered research into emotion recognition. His team of scientists provided the test subjects had to classify the emotional states they saw in each photo, from a predetermined list of possible emotions. Determined that there were six core emotions which he termed universal emotions. Includes 1- Joy (or happiness) - symbolized by raising of the mouth corners (an obvious smile) and tightening of the eyelids 2- Surprise- symbolized by eyebrows arching, eyes opening wideand exposing more white with the jaw dropping slightly 3- sadness- symbolized by lowering of the moth corners, the eyebrows descending to the inner corners and the eyelids drooping 4- anger- symbolized by eyebrows lowering, lips pressing firmly and eyes bulging 5- disgust- symbolized by the upper lip raising, nose bridge wrinkling and cheeks raising 6- fear- symbolized by the upper eyelids raising, eyes opening and the lips stretching horizontally there is a seventh emotion that is sometimes considered a univerally recognized emotion but is controversial 7-contempt- symbolized by half of the upper lip tightening up and often the head is slightly tilted back

achievement theory of motivation (McClelland and Atkinson)

postulates a basic achievement motive or need to achieve (n Ach). people high in n Ach welcome new challenges and are constantly seeking to attain high standards and to excel. suggests a basic achievement motive or need to achieve nAch -also more likely to take personal responsibility!!

Prejudice (Clark and Clark)

provided basic early work with young children and found that young black children some years ago expressed a preference to be white did this by conducting an experiment where they gave young children white and black dolls and asked them questions such as "show me the doll that you like best" found that: 1-black children preferred white dolls over black ones. 2- when the kids were asked to fill in a human figure with the color of their own skin, they frequently chose a lighter shade than their actual skin color. 3- the children also gave the color white positive attributes like good and pretty, and black was attributed to being bad and ugly.

approach-avoidance conflict

psychological conflict that results when a goal is both desirable and undesirable involves making decisions about situations that have both positive and negative ramifications. i.e. anindividual making a decision about taking a job that possesses both financial gain and prestige,but also contains a great deal of stress and long hours. this involves the individual assessing for themselves whether the negative outweighs the positive.

Groupthink (Janis)

psychological phenomenon associated with verbal communication that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences. requires individuals to avoid raising controversial issues or alternative solutions, and there is a loss of individual creativity, uniqueness and independent thinking. The dysfunction group dynamics of the "ingroup" produces an illusion of unvulnerability- an inflated certainty that the right decision has been made. Thus, the "ingroup" significantly overrates its own abilities of its opponents (the outgroup). Furthermore, groupthink can produce dehumanizing actions against the outgroup ___ analyzed the phenomenon surrounding Kenedy Administration decisions that culminated in the Bay of Pigs invasion. Among the characteristics of groupthink are 1- illusions of invulnerability 2- evolution of a rationale (justifying the groups decision 3-belief in the morality of the groups decision 4-stereotyped views about the enemy 5-conformity pressures 6-self-censorship of critical thoughts (the individual censoring self and not expressing critical thoughts to the group 7- mindguards (persons in the group who suppress information divergent from group opinion) 8-illusion of unanimity (an illusion of unanimity within the group despite unexpressed individual doubts __ believed that __ is likely to occur when 1- the decision making group is highly cohesive 2-the group is insulated from other, more balanced information 3-the leader has preconceived notions of the correct policy to follow to prevent __, ___ underscores the importance of arranging group conditions in such a manner that individual thought and expression are encouraged

Sleeper effect (Skinner)

psychological phenomenon related to persuasion. It is a delayed increase of the effect of a message that is accompanied by a discounting one When people are exposed normally to a persuasive message their attitudes toward the advocacy of the message display a significant increase. Over time, however their newly formed attitude seems to gravitate toward the opinion held prior to receiving the message, almost as if they were never exposed to the communication. In contrast, some messages are often accompanied with a discounting cue (i.e. message disclaimer, low-credibility source) that would arouse a recipients suspicion of the validity of the message and suppress any attitude change that might occur to exposure to the message alone. Furthermore, when people are exposed to a persuasive message followed by a discounting one, people tend to be more persuaded over time. This is referred to as the ____. i.e. in political campaigns during important elections, undecided voters often see negative advertisements about a party or candidate for office. At the end of the advertisement, they might also notice that the opposing candidate paid for the advertisement. Presumably, this would make voters question the truthfulness of the advertisement and consequently, they may not be persuaded initially. However, even though the source of the advertisement lacked credibility, voters will be more likely to be persuaded later (and ultimately, vote against the candidate disfavored by the advertisement).

chain network (Bauer)

ranks next highest in centralization to the wheel network. Only two people communicate with one another and they in turn have only one person with whom they communicate. Information is generally sent through such a network in a relay fashon. i.e. a teacher (B) reports to the department head (C) who in turn reports to the principal (A) who reports to the assistant superintendent for instruction (D) who reports to the superintendent (E)

Polygraph test

records autonomic fluctuations - Not always accurate -sensitive to those high on anxiety measures -less likely to identify those who lie without accompanying discomfort measures breathing, heart rate, and galvanic skin response (GSR)

status congruence (Homans)

refers to a persons tendency to make all aspects of the individuals status congruent -the extent to which an individuals standing on one status factor is consistent with his standing on other factors -when persons are ranked on status dimensions such as income, education, occupation and ethnic origin and the results are similarity of ranks across dimensions

distributive justice (Homans)

refers to comparing your reward-minus-cost to that of another worker. if, i.e. one worker is not as well educated as another but earns more money, ___ does not prevail and worker discontent can be anticipated.

avoidance-avoidance conflict

refers to making a decision between two equally undesirable choices.i.e. making a decision between doing homework or doing housework. This type of conflict would normally be settled by an assessment of the relative importance of the two tasks

Androgyny (Bem)

refers to sex equality in status and role opportunities and expectations. Her scale of psychological androgyny is one of the instruments to measure the presence of sex-role stereotypes

Ask and you shall be given technique (Doob/McLaughlin)

refers to the high likelihood that a person will respond positively to our request on behalf of a charitable, worthy cause

group polarization

refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. these more extreme decisions are towards greater risk if individuals initial tendencies are to be risky and towards greater caution if individuals tend to be cautious. Also says that individuals initial attitudes may change and be strengthened and intensified after group discussion -people make more extreme decisions AFTER a discussion then they would before a discussion- therefore theres a shift in attitude.. they move further out on the dimension they were on originally. a group will feel strongly about a dominant viewpoint

Cognitive dissonance (Cialdini)

refined Festingers original theory and makes the point point that a persons degree of cognitive disonance will depend upon the strength of that persons need for consistency

Cognitive dissonance (Cooper and Fazio)

refined Festingers original theory and set our four steps they consider basic to the occurrence of cognitive dissonance 1- negative consequences-will the attitude-discrepant behavior have negative consequences? 2- personal responsibility- will the person feel personal responsibility for those consequences? 3- physiological arousal- will the person be physiologically aroused 4- arousal attribution- will the person attribute that arousal to his or her behavior

Moderating factors-pent-up emotions (Spielberger)

relief theory views laughter as a release from pent-up emotion

Potency (Dominance) (Mehrabian)

represents status or social control and is demonstrated through relaxation cues of posture such as hand and neck relaxation, sideways lean, reclining angle and arm-leg position asymmetry

frustration

resulting emotional state when a goal is thwarted or blocked

Kinesics (Mehrabian)

says that the meaning of a message is communicated by: 1- your words 7% 2-your tone of voice 38% 3- your body language 55%

Similarity (Newcome)

second determinant in why people are attracted to eachother. __ put the variables of proximity and ___ in competition with each other by setting up a dormitory room assignment procedure and carefully assigning rooms on the basis of either similar or dissimilar interests and values. Of major concern was whether sheer proximity (being roomates) would determine attraction patterns or whether similarity in interests and values would be the major determinant in attraction.The outcome revealed that proximity operated short-range bt that similarity determined the long-range attraction patterns

Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) (Cialdini)

self-serving cognition whereby an individual associates themselves with known successful others such that the winners success becomes the individuals own accomplishment. i.e. sharing a home state with a celebrity connects with social identity theory. -leads to self-enhancement!

warm-cold variable in first impressions (Kelley)

showed how perceptions of people are influenced by their reputation. __ told students that their class would be taken over by a new lecturer, whom they asked to evaluate later. Before the class, the students were given a short description of the incoming instructor, with one important variable. half the students were led to expect a 'warm' person while the other half were led to expect a 'cold' person. All the subjects were exposed to the same 20 minutes of the lecture and interaction with the new instructor. However, the group of subjects who expected a warm person rated the instructor as more considerate, sociable, humorous good natured, informal and humane than the subjects in the group who expected a cold person. Thus it is clear that motives and expectations color peoples experiences.

Y network (Bauer)

similar to the chain except that two members fall outside the chain. In the centralized Y network, i.e., members A and B can send information to C but they can receive information from no one. C and D can exchange information; E can receive information from D but cannot send any information. i.e. two assistant principles (A and B) report to the principle (C) the principle in turn reports ot the assistant superintendent (D) who reports to the superintendent (E)

generalized thurstone scale (Remmers)

so called generalized scales on the basis of thurstones scale which were designed to measure attitudes toward; i.e. any social institution, any school subject, any teacher, any dramatic production differs from thurstones scale in that is is general and not specific attitudes being measured

Bystander effect

social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present. The probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders

Guttman's unidimensional approach

sought to measures range of depth on a given attitude dimension, in a scale iteslf, he arranged this depth measurement sequentially. This means that,if a subject had a very slight agreement attitude on the attitude dimension, the person would agree with the first item on the scale.If a person had a stronger agreement attitude, the person might agree with the first two scale items,and so on. In theory it was an approach whereby ___ claimd the ability to discern what specific items in his scale the subject had agreed with, simply by knowing that persons overall scale score. In practice, prediction has not always been neatly accomplished but the method proved innovative and important (Least extreme) Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your country? Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your community? Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your neighbourhood? Are you willing to permit immigrants to live next door to you? Would you permit your child to marry an immigrant? (Most extreme) E.g., agreement with item 3 implies agreement with items 1 and 2.

Helping behavior (Darly and Latane)

spearheadied early investigations and in their laboratory studies found the number of other persons present to be a prominent variable- with the likelihood of anyone helping decreasing as the number of bystanders increased.

verbal communication

specific communication patterns and leadership styles are prominent research concerns within this area.

negative state relief model (Cialdini)

that our empathy makes us feel sad with and for the individual and helping that individual enables us to feel good- in effect egoistic motivation rather than altrustic

Authoritarian personality

state of mind or attitude characterized by belief in absolute obedience or submission to ones own authority, as well as the administration of that belief through the oppression of ones subordinates. It usually applies to individuals who are viewed as having authoritative, strict, or oppressive personality toward subordinates

Action tendency (Frijda)

states of readiness to execute a given kind of action which is defined by its end result aimed at or achieved. In the case of negative emtoions, reaching the associated end state should mitigate its experience (i.e. fear subsides once one believes the objects of ones fear cannot reach oneself anymore) whereas positive emotions generally put an individual in a mode of relational action readiness (i.e. joy can put one in a mode of readiness for new interactions)

empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson)

states that feeling empathy for a person in need evokes motivation to help that person in which these benefits to self are not the ultimate goal of helping, they are unintended consequenses. This theoryimpies that pure altruism is possible and psychologial egoism is false. inherently altruistic and empathy is a critical variable

inoculation theory of persuasion (McGuire)

states that people can be immunized against a subsequent persuasive communication if they have been familiarized in advance with the persuasive arguments they are going to hear, and have heard counterarguments -technique used to make poeple immune to attempts to change their attitude by first exposing them to small arguments against their position. It is so named because it works just like medical___, which exposes a persons body to a weak version of a virus. The weakened virus triggers the production of antibodies in response, but it is not strong enough to overwhelm the bodies resistance. Later, when exposed to the full virus, the body knows what to expect and is better able to resist than it would have been before the ____ ___ then, exposes a person to a weak logical argument which is contrary to their preexisting attitude. This triggers the creation of counterarguments in response. Later, when exposed to a strong persuasion techniques that attempts to change their preexisting attitude through logic, the individual already has arguments to use in its defense (like a vaccine)

Reactance theory (Brehm)

states that when people are restricted in some way they feel a strong need to resist and fight back to gain their freedom. All stories rely on perceived freedom, or belief by the individual that a freedom does in fact exist. Relies on 2 principles 1- the more important the persons freedom is perceived to be, the larger the reaction to the removal of it. in other words, if the freedom being threatened is perceived to be very important to the individual, they will react on a larger scale than if the freedom is seen as not so important. The stronger the feeling of freedom, the larger the resistance to the limitations 2-when several freedoms are threatened, the reaction is greater. i.e. in grade school boys were given a red ball and girls a yellow ball. they had to keep and protect their ball. In reaction, they started trading their balls. If the teacher also limited who could play with the ball, where you could play and what games you can play the rebellion would have been stronger -motivation to reestablish ones freedom after perceived unjust restriction

stereotype, prejudice discrimitation

stereotype- a cognition prejudice- an attitdude discrimination- behavior

Class and Class measurement (Brown)

suggested there are three methods of measuring ones social class; 1- the subjective method- is one in which people are asked to define their own social class. Though this approach is simple and direct, it has a number of flaws; individuals may claim that everyone is equal or they may classify themselves according to their aspirations. Also, improved social conditions may lead individuals to consider themselves as middle class though they are not 2- the reputational method- asks individuals to classify others in social classes based on the reputation of these individuals. This method allows an understanding of how people in a community see major social divisions. Its use, however, is limited to small communities where people know one another 3- objective method- requires the researcher to rank individuals according to objective criteria such as income, occupation and prestige. Though researchers might err in their measurement, other researchers can use the same criteria to verify their findings. Sociologists have often used this method to characterize class structures in a society

Least- effort principle (Allport)

suggests that all human brains use stereotyping as a normal cognitive function to process information. A kind of mental shortcut to understand the world. i.e. a manager looking for a job applicant- when the applicant is late he assumes that the person is unorganized even though he might have just been stuck in traffic

Cognitive-neoassociation analysis (Berkowitz)

suggests that our thoughts and feelings interact. In this context, a person interprets the situation, considers their feelings and weighs the consequences of aggressive action. In many respects, this is not far removed from the frustration-aggression hypothesis element of aggression displacement of scapegoating- not decking your boss because the consequences would be too costly, but kicking your dog when you get home

Allport on prejudice (Allport)

summarized early work in the area, and asks if prejudice is innately engrained in human psychology - considered all factors of prejudice, but came to the conclusion that stereotypical categorization is present historically throughout all types of cultures and came up with the least-effort principle

Decentralization

systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all of the organization. In a ___ concern, authority is retained by the top management for taking making decision and framing policies concerning the whole concern. Rest of authority may be delegated to the middle level or lower level of management

self-reference effect

tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which the self is implicated in the infomration. when people are asked to remember information when it is related insome way to the self, the recall rate can be improved

pleasure-pain (hedonistic/Eupicurean) theory of motivation

tension reduction theory; actions are selected to maximize pleasure and minimize pain

psychoanalytic (hydraulic) theory of motivation (Freud)

tension reduction theory; build up and release. There is a build up of tension, which must be released (catharsis). There are life and death instincts (eros/thanatos). Drive for sexual gratification is baisically motivating and is either satisfied directly or through indirect means such as fantasy and creativity

Schachter's Affiliation experimetns

the earliest attempts to study affiliation in a systematic fashion. In one study, a group of female participants were told they would be taking part in an experiment in which painful but harmless shocks would be administered. Another group were told they would be given painless electrical shocks. both groups would have to wait for 10 minutes prior to the procedure, and could choose to wait with others or alone. The result showed that a significantly higher number of women who were to receive the painful shocks, chose to wait with other women.

passive-aggression

the indirect expression of hostility such through procrastination, stubborness, sullen behavior or deliberate or repeated failure to accomplish requested rasts for which one is responsible habitual pattern of passive resistence to expected work requirements, opposition, sullenness, stuborness, and negative attitdues in response to requirements for normal performance levels expected of others. in the workplace- procrastination, forgetfullness and purposeful inefficiency especially in reaction to demans by authority figures but can also occur in interpersonal relationships

action specific energy (Energy Model, Lorenz)

the internal force that accumulates within the organism and provides the motivation for behavior. It is an specific in the sense that each behavior requires its own specific energy. As the energy builds, it is prevented from being released by an innate releasing mechanim (IRM). The increasing pressure stimulates appetitive behavior, and energizes overall behavior, increasing the likelihood that the animal will encounter an environment that contains a sign stimulus. This stimulus is a trigger that releases the accumulated energy. The result is a fixed action pattern which might be considered an instinctive behavior.

Helping behavior

the investigation into this started with Kitty Genovese murder in the Forest Hills section of Queens, NY in 1964 when 38 persons were known to have watched the half hour gruesome murder. What was shocking was that no one tried to help or call the police. causes the bystander effect

Democratic leadership style (Lewin, Lippit, White)

the leader involves the people in the decision-making, although the process for the final decision may vary from the leader having the final say to them facilitating consensus in the group. Usually appreciated by the people, especially if they have been used to autocratic decisions which with they disagreed. Can be problematic when there are a wide range of opinions and there is no clear way of reaching an equitable final decision

Autocratic leadership style (Lewin, Lippit, White)

the leader takes decisions without consulting with others. the decision is made without any form of consultation. in ___s experiment, he found that this caused the most level of discontent. An ___ works when there is no need for input on the decision, where the decision would not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected whether they were or were not involved in the decision making

Deindividuation theory (Zimbardo)

the loss of self awareness and of individual accountability in a group. The theory seeks to explain the violent and impulsive behavior of the individual in large crowds and mobs. Le bon was the first to analyze this; then Festinger who proposed that anonymity was a key element in the effects of ___, because the presence of a large number of people diffuses the responsibility. ___ added to festingers theory and specified other causes of ____; groups also tend to exhibit high arousal that can have an energizing effect on each person, which in turn causes them to feel more excited. High arousal may produce a sensory overload, forcing the individual to depend on automatic processing to make quick assessments and decisions which may be inaccurate or impulsive. These effects may also be exacerbated by the use of drugs or alcohol. classic study of ___: participnats came to a lab and administered shocks to a women, similar to milgrams experiment. The participants were either dressed in large lab coats and hoods to hide their identity or they wore regular clothing with a name tag. Shocks were administered longer when the participant was anonymous and wore lab clothing.

one sided vs two sided communication (Skinner)

the more effective approach is mentioning the opposing view (two sided) as well as your argument, rather than presenting only your argument (one-sided)

wheel network (Bauer)

the most structured an centralized of the patterns because each member can communicate with only one other person. i.e. a superintendent of schools and those who are his immediate subordinates (assistent superintendent for business, instruction, personnel, and assistant to the superintendent) probably form a wheel network. The superintendent is A and his assistant superintendents are B, C, D, and E respectively. The four subordinates send information to the superintendent and the superintendent sends that information back to them, usually in the form of decisions

social loafing

the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.

Sternberg's triangular theory of love

the points of __ triangle (going top, counter clockwise) are 1-intimacy 2- passion 3- commitment then makes point linkages 1- intimacy+passion=romantic love romantic love- bondage both intimately and passionately but without sustaining commitment 2- Intimacy+commitment=companionate love companionate love= intimate, non passionate type of love that is stronger than friendship because of the element of long-term commitmeent. i.e. between family members of between close friends 3- passion+commitment=fatuous love fatuous love= courtship and marriage. commitment is made on the basis of passion without the stablizing influence of intimate involvment 4- intimacy+passion+commitment= consummate love consummate love= the most complete formof love,representing an ideal relationship which people strive towards. associated with love of the perfect couple, according to ___ these couples will continue to have great sex fifteen or more years into the relationship, and they cannot imagine themselves happier over the long-term with anyone else. Maintaining it is harder than achieving it

Complementarity Theory (Winch)

the primary application of this view is in the area of extensive, intimate relationships such as courtship and marriage. This theory says, that such relationships require that aspects of personality be ____ in order for the relationship to be successful. Two people who both have strong dominance needs would be seen as heading for disaster in such a relationship. Success in the relationship would be achieved only if a strong domoinance need on the part of one person were met by a low dominance need on the part of the other (in effect, ___.) Because it is relationship-specific and symbolically messier, this theory runs no real interference with its tailor made prospective opponent-the balance model

Impression management (Tedeschi)

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. Because the impression people make on others have implications for how others perceive, evaluate and treat them, as well as for their own views of themselves, people sometimes behave in ways that will create certain impressions in others eyes -conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction

maternal aggression

the process during which a female which protect her offspring in the case another threatens their safety by means of a threat display not necessarily violence

internal attribution (Heider)

the process of assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic rather than outside forces. When we explain behavior of others we look for enduring internal attributions such as personality traits. i.e. we attribute the behavior of a person to their personality motives or beliefs

external attribution (Heider)

the process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a persons control rather than to some internal characteristic.When we try to explain our own behavior we tend to make external attributions such as situational or environment features.

Attitude

there are three components essential to the existence of an ___ 1- cognitive 2-emotional 3-behavioral i.e., if we know something about cars (cognitive), get a "charge" out of working with them (emotional) and frequently can be spotted under the hood of a car (behavioral) then we have an ___ about cars.. knowledge alone, without emotional feeling does not qualify- and the only way an ___ can be detected is through some form of behavior (i.e. working on cars frequently).

Halo effect

the self-serving cognitive bias tendency for a persons positive or negative traits to spill over from one personality area to another in others perceptions of them -refers to the habitual tendency of people to rate attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics than those who are less attractive (also related to other areas, i.e. in a classroom teachers are subject to the __ rating error when evaluating their students. i.e. a teacher who sees a well-behaved student might tend to assume this student is also bright, diligent, and engaged before that teacher objectively evaluated the students capacity in these areas.

Kinesics

the study of body lanugage, the ways in which people unqittingly communicate through their gestures, facial expressions, and so on

sunk cost effect

the tendency for humans to continue investing in something that clearly isnt working beause we want to avoid failure, we often continue spending time effort and money to try and fix what isnt working instead of cutting losses and moving on.

Fundamental attribution error (Ross)

the tendency for people to place an undue emphasis on internal characteristics of the agent (character or intention) rather than external factors in explaining another persons behavior in a given situation. This contrasts with interpreting ones own behavior, where situational factors are more easily recognized and can be taken into account -our tendency to vastly overestimate the role of personal dispositional factors and vastly underestimate the role of situational factors i.e. a driver Alice is about to pass through an intersection. Her like turns green and she begins to accelerate, but another car drives through the red light and crosses in front of her. The ____ may lead her to think the other driver was unskilled or reckless. This will only be an error if the other driver had good reason for running the light, such as rushing a patient to the hospital. If this was the case and alice had been driving the other car, she would have understood that the situation called for speed at the cost of safety, but when seeing it from the outside she was inclined to believe that the behavior of the other driver reflected their fundamental nature (having poor driving skills or a reckless attitude)

Type A personality (Friedmanand Rosenman)

the theory describes this type of individual as ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-conscious, sensitive, impatient, anxious, proactive and concerned with time management. People with __ are often high-achieving workaholics. Push themselves with deadlines and hate both delays and ambivalence suggests that dangerous __ behavior is expressed through 3 major symptoms: 1-free-floating hostility which can be triggered by even minor incidents 2-time urgency and impatience which causes irritationand exasperation usually described as being "short fused". 3-competitive drive which causes stress and achievement-driven mentality. The first of these symptoms is thought to be covert and less observable while the other two are more overt

Rewardingness (Aronson)

the third determinant of attraction; found that individuals are attracted to persons who care about them (reciprocity) and will be very wary about persons whose care seems to have within it the possibility of an ulterior motive. Concentrating on the __ aspect of attraction, __ and his associates have also found that persons are more likely to be attracted to individuals who evaluated them positively than to individuals who have negatively or neutrally evaluated them. A surprising finding was that attraction was most prominent in instances where the evaluation had moved from an initially negative one to an eventually positive one. The strength of the attraction in such instances is attributed to the combined effects of negative reinforcement (removal of an aversive stimulus) and positive reinforcement (positive evaluation)l and this phenomenon provides the basis for ___ gain-loss model.

Social exchange theory (Gergen)

theory puts social attraction in the context of a persons rewards from interaction divided by the persons cost incurred in the interaction. When costs outrun rewards, social attraction can be expected to decline and disappear. Moreover, the most favorable fraction (rewards/costs) will be the front-runner when a choice must occur in social attraction. If, for example, a college student is dating back home nad on the campus,the back-home relationship must be prominently more rewarding than on-campus one to remain comparable in strength, maintaining the back-home relationship involves more cost. According to this theory, people continually scan and evaluate reward/cost in their social relationships

Muliticultural theory of emotion (Shaver)

theory states that people universally organize their emotions with six basic categories- 1-love 2-joy 3-anger 4-sadness 5-fear 6-surprise

self monitering

theory that deals with the phenomena of expressive controls. defined as a personality trait that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accomodate social situations -low self-monitoring are less concerned with modifying their behavior to fit their social enviornments, i.e. being the only one in the office with a beard.

intrinsic motivation theory (White)

there is an internal drive to develop our competencies and to accept challenges that will promote our individual growth. There is related motivation to have personal control over events affecting our lives argued that intrinsically motivated behavior is essential for an organism to gain the competence necessary for autonomy, where by autonomy he meant the extent to which an organism is able to bring its environment under its control, to achieve mastery over its environment. Through intrinsically motivated activity, an organism is able to learn much of what is possible in an environment and how to realize these possibilities. A system that is competent in this sense has broad set of reusable skills for controlling its environment; it is able to interact effectively with its environment toward a wide variety of ends. The activity through which these broad skills are learned is motivated by an intrinsic reward system that favors the development of broad competence rather than being directed to more specific externally directed goals.

Psychological drives

these drives have the common characteristic of seeking to establish mental-emotional well being. Psychological drives include sex, curiosity and gregariousness. 1- sex- seems to have many biological drive characteristics, but does not qualify as a full-fledged biological drive entity because its arousal is an activity sought as its reduction (not homeostatic), and though it is essential for the survival of the species, it is not necessary for the survival of an individual organism. Its power as a motivator is well known to advertisers, who utilize it as a selling aid for products ranging from magazines and entertainment to automobiles and cigarettes. Motivational research in this area has reached a point where even foods have been categorized as masculine or feminine 2- curiosity- defined as a need to explore. Romanes, Thorndike and Harlow have been among the early researchers who found that monkeys will perform a task or learn a response without any tangible reward except the opportunity to explore and discover. In one instance, the curiosity reward was the opportunity to see an electric train in operation. Translated to the human level, curiosity is exemplified by our desire to know what is on the mood. Curiosity is penchant to explore, discover and know 3- Gregariousness- the drive for affiliation among humans and other species. One yeardstick for measuring emotional trouble in a freind might be the observation that he or she stays alone a good deal and does not mix. The capacity for interaction with others is seen as an aid in maintaining mental and emotonal well being

sensation seeking theory (Zuckerman)

this approach theorizes a sensation-seeking personality trait and suggests it has four components 1-thrill and adventure seeking 2-experience seeking 3-disinhibition 4-susceptibility to boredom. These four components are measured in ___ Sensation-seeking scale

Festinger's social comparison

this model demonstrates how perceived similarity and social attraction tend to interact. __ is saying that 1- people are attracted to persons they perceive as similar to themselves 2- they perceive the persons to whom they are attracted as more similar to themselves than is really the case. Those "perceived similar others" take on special significance in ambigious decision making or opinion forming situations. When we are faced with contradictory or ambiguous information and have to make a decision, we will rely heavily on the opinion of this "perceived similar other person. This dynamic can be potentially disastrous in close, intimate relationship decisions, because we overlook the major differences that very likely exist between us. Yes, we very well may be "attracted to the perceived similar" but beware of that next step- perceiving those to whom were attracted as more similar than they really are. The snowball effect within this concept is readily apparent- social attraction feeds perceived similarity, which feeds more social attraction, and so forth

Balance theory (A-B-X) (Heider and Newcomb)

this model is build upon persons A and B having attraction feelings toward each other and toward person or concept X. in the resulting A-B-X triad, the model indicates that consonance or a state of balance exists when there is an even number of negative signs. Imbalance exists when there is an odd number of negative signs. i.e., suppose that jack likes rock music, his dad does not like rock music and jack likes his dad. the situation within this triad is imbalance (one negative sign). Balance can be restored if Jack changes his views about either rock music or his dad (bringing a second negative sign into the triad) Obviously, all + signs in the triad also represent balance- both jack and his dad liking rock music and jack liking his dad. The model is usually demonstrated as a triangularly positioned triad with signs placed between the entry The balance model is frequently used in explaining and demonstrating a phenomenon such as cognitive dissonance proposes that there is a natural inclination for an actor (A) to organize thoughts about a person (B) and thoughts about another person, object or issue (X) in a way that is harmonious and balanced. Such relationships will prove more satisfying than those characterized by imbalance

Jones and Davis correspondent inference theory

thought that people pay particular attention to intentional behavior (As opposed to accidental or unthinking behavior) this theory helps us understand the process of making an internal attribution; they say that we tend to do this when we see a correspondence between motive and behavior. i.e. when we see a correspondence between someone behaving in a friendly way and being a friendly person -found that when external forces are strong and a person goes against these forces, the persons behavior is likely to be attributed to internal causation. Similarly, there is difficulty in attributing internal causation when the persons behavior is normative or in keeping with group behavior. __ uses the term ___ to refer to an occassion when an observer infers that a persons behavior matches or corresponds with their personality. what leads us to make a ____? ___ say we draw 5 sources of information 1-choice-if a behavior is freely chosen it is believed to be due to internal (dispositional) factors 2-accidental vs. intentional behavior- behavior that is intentional is likely to be attributed to the persons personality and behavior which is accidental is likely to be attributed to situation/external causes 3. social desirability- behaviors low in social desirability (non conforming) lead us to make internal inferences more than socially undesirable behaviors. i.e. if you observe a person getting on a bus and sitting on the floor instead of a seat. This behavior has low social desirability (non conforming) and is likely to correspond with the personality of the individual 4- hedonistic relevance- if the other persons behavior appears to be directly intended to benefit or harm us 5- personalism- if the other persons behavior appears to be intended to have an impact on us, we assume that it is personal and not just a by-product of the situation we are both in

defensive-attribution hypothesis (Shaver)

to explain why people attribute internal causality to others, __ suggested that the prospect of bad or unfortunate consequences occurring by chance threatens self-esteem. it therefore becomes a kind of self-defense to attribute internal causations to others

Authoritarian Personality (Adorno)

took a post WWII look at the question of whether attitudes (particularly anti semitism) were related to general personality traits and characteristics. The large, comprehensive study uncovered a relationship between the ____ and attitudes of anti-semitism and prejudice. The ____ scale developed within this study has been widely used in other contexts and is commonly referred to as the F-Scale

Cognitive Dissonance (Bem)

took the position that what Festinger termed cognitive dissonance was simply the individual perceiving his or her behavior and adjusting the attitude to correspond with it

Ability Attribution (Jones and Shaver)

two motives are involved in this domain: 1- we want to see ourselves as more capable than others and 2- yet know how capable we really are with precision. biased attribution can occur in response to either or both motives. We can attribute to others less ability than they in fact possess, thus enhancing out own relative standing or we can attribute to others an ability level more similar to our own than the facts justify, therefore enabling more precise comparison.

communication

two tracks- 1- verbal communication- deals with communication via words 2- nonverbal communication- refers to ways which social communication occurs without words

relational aggression

type of aggression in which harm is caused by damaging someones relationships or social status.

positive illusion

unrealisticaly favorable attitudes that people have towards themselves or to people that are close to them. maintains self esteem atleast in the short tun. three broad kinds: 1-inflated assessment of ones own abilities 2- unrealistic optimism about the future 3-illusion of control

Similarity (Byrne)

used a questionnaire technique to establish within their subjects either perceived similarity or dissimilarity to another persons attitude. Typically, __ would present his subject with the results of a questionnaire that presumably had been filled out by another person- but actually had been based on the subjects responses to an earlier questionnaire. The subjects reactions yield strong evidence of attraction on the basis of perceived similarity (i.e. agreement between the subjects responses and those of the "other person") This evidence of attraction holds even in situations where the perceived "other person" has been represented as being a member of a different ethnic group or nationality

opponent process theory (Solomon)

views emotions as pairs of opposites (i.e. fear-relief, pleasure-pain). This theory states that when emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed. i.e. if you are frightened by a mean dog, the emotion of fear is expressed and relief is suppressed. If the fear-causing stimulus continues to be present, after a while the fear decreases and the relief intensifies. i.e. if the dog didnt move, your fear would decrease and relief that the dog didnt attack would increase. If the stimulus is no longer present, then the first emotion disappears and is replaced totally with the second emotion. If the dog turns and runs, you are no longer afraid, but rather feel very relieved. ___ analyzed the emotions present when skydivers jump from planes. Beginners experience extreme fear as they jump, which is replaced by great relief when they land. With repeated jumps, the fear decreases and the post-jump pleasure increases. this process may explain a variety of thrill-seeking behaviors. it also has been proposed as a model of drug addiction. The drug initially produces pleasurable feelings, but then a negative emotional experience occurs. eventually, the drug user takes drugs not for their pleasurable effects, but to avoid withdrawal symptoms. The ___ is an attempt to link emotional states with motivation. pleasurable affective stimuli evoke one brain process that then triggers an opposing inhibitory proccess. The opposing process is gradual and lasts longer than the pleasurable stumuli, having major implications for a vicious-cycle type phenomenon for drug users and other substance abusers. As the drug user comes down from a short term, pleasurable high, a longer-lasing depression trough lies ahead. The reverse sequence would be true in the case of unpleasurable initial affective stimuli. describes how we react to emotional stimuli, and how our responses change with repeated exposure to stimuli: A. our initial reaction- an emotional stimulus can elicit a primary emotional response (A state), which then instigates an opposite emotional response (B state). The A state may be pleasant (thus evoking an unpleasant B state), or it may be unpleasant (thus evoking a pleasant B state). The intensity of A is tied to the intensity of the stimulus, and a given stimulus will always produce the same A state. The intensity of B is determined by the intensify of A. Compared to the A state, B is initially less intense than A, is sluggish in intensifying, and is also sluggish in terminating. The overall emotional response to a stimulus is the summation of A and B over time. B. The intensification of the opponent B state- this theory suggests that repeated stimulation (and thus repeated A states) causes changes is B that include 1-its more rapid onset 2-greater intensity 3-slower offset This may explain tolerance and withdrawal in drug addiction. Tolerance involves reduced reactivity to a drug with repeated exposure to the drug. Withdrawal refers to the adjustment of the body and a drug craving when the drug is not present. The development of tolerance is the weakening of the A state (because B increases). Withdrawal is the intensification of the B state, especially when no drug is present C- the addictive process- addiction does not always develop in people who use drugs, but when it does, ___ says it is because addicts recognize that drug abstinence produces withdrawal symptoms (B state). Thus addicts seek the drug (which increases A state) simply to overcome the unpleasant feelings of withdrawal D- the influence of other aversive events- the theory may explain why addictions are difficult to cure. The addicts B state is generalized discomfort, thus any situation that arouses a similar general discomfort may motivate the addict to seek out the drug again to decrease the discomfort E- the search for pleasure- addiction to must drugs is based on the drug producing a pleasant A state, which is followed by an unpleasant B state (withdrawal). But some behaviors, such as thrill seeking, may represent a situation that produces an unpleasant A state with a pleasant B state that intensifies with repeated stimulation.

Milgram experiment

wanted to investigate whether germans were particularly obedient to authority figures as this was a common explanation for the nazi killings in WW2. The procedure was that the participant was paired with another person where one is the learner and one is the teacher. The learner was always one of Milgrams confederates pretending to be a real participant. The learner was taken into a room and had electrodes attached to his arms, and the teacher and researcher went into a room next door that contained an electic shock generator and a row of switches marked 15V (slight shock) to 375V (Danger-sever shock) to 450V (XXX) Aim: was interested in researching how far people will go in obeying instruction if it involved harming another person procedure: the learner was strapped to a chair with electrodes and was told to learn a list of words and the teacher is told to administer an elextric shock every time the learner makes a mistake. if the teacher was hesitant, they were told to please continue or they have no other choice but to continue Results: 1- 65% of participants continued to the highest level of 450. All participants continued to 300. Conclusion: ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent uman being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up. -the closer in proximity, the less shock administrated

Intimacy (Erikson)

warm, close dyadic relationship. In ___ theory, this is part of the 6th stage of psychosocial development occurs in young adulthood when we begin to share ourselves more ___ly with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety,and care within a relatioship. Avoiding ___, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, lonliness and sometimes depression. Success in this stage can lead to the virtue of love

Optimal incongruity (McClelland)

were concerned with an ___ between some aspect of a persons perceptions and the corresponding adaptation level. A person at any given ime will have developed an adaptation level in relation to perceptual inputs, and that amount of the stimulus will cause a neutral response. Modest deviations from that amount, either above or below are said to be desired and to cause an affectively positive response. Large discrepencies, however, cause negative affect. Hence, people approach moderately discrepant situations but avoid highly discrepant ones. Each of us has a personal adaptation level and finds small deviations from it pleasant and stimulating, while large deviations are anxiety-producing.

mutual interdependence (sheriff)

when people or groups that have different ideas or attributes get together to do something that will benefit both parties in such a way that they will self-justify to themselves that it was worth it i.e. robbers cave experiment (sherif and sherif boys camp)

line-judgement techniques (Asch)

when seven or eight persons acted as confederates in unanimously making an obvious error or judgment. Next, the unsuspecting subject was asked to respond. Findings indicate the subjects prominent tendency to go along with the obviously wrong judgement that has preceded. If confederate unanimity is broken, such conformity is far less likely.

two-sided/one-sided communication

whether persuasive communication will be most effective if both points of view are presented or if only one view is presented

primacy-recency effect (Skinner)

whether the first communicator or last communicator position in a presentation sequence is most effective the major question is how long after the communication will the audience be making their decision. If the decision is soon or immediate recency would apply (i.e. the last communicator in the sequence would be the most influential). If the decision is distant, primacy would be most effective. Communicator characteristics and credibility are among the additional concerns central to investigations undertaken here

Rewardingness (Jones)

working with integration found that persons are attracted to individuals whose positive evaluation does not carry the prospect of subsequent commitment or expectation. Counterpart to this outcome is the finding that flattery or ingratiation is most effective when directed toward an area in which the recipient has never been sure of having competence but has wished for such competence

Bowlby's study

wrote that maternal love and care are the most important influences on an infants future development. After reviewing studies on infants (i.e. Spit's study) separated from their mothers, he concluded that any break in the early mother-child relationship could have sever emotional, social and intellectual consequences. What bowlby meant by "any break" was loss of the mother in infancy due to death or seperation because of hospitalization, employment or other circumstances such as neglect- being physically present but emotionally absent. He went on to say that being deprived of the early mother-child relationship would cause the infant to become depressed, physically and mentally retarded or deliquent __ also supported "nature" care -emphasizes the importance of social stimulation to survival