Growth/Lifespan Development
Parenting Style: Authoritarian
- high demandingness and low responsiveness - use absolute standards of conduct, punishment, and power assertion - offspring are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent - offspring have limited sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement
Effects of compensatory preschool programs (e.g. HeadStart) are more pronounced when...
- high parent involvement - lots of time spent in program - wraparound services provided (health, housing, etc.) - followed by academic support in elementary school
___ is one of the best predictors of psychological adjustment to childhood chronic illness
- illness severity
Erickson: Generativity vs. Stagnation
- middle adulthood - the people one lives and works with ar ethe most important - exhibit commitment to the well-being of future generations
Conventional Morality: Law and Order Orientation
- moral judgements are based on the rules and laws established by legitimate authority
Fetal Alcohol Effects
- more common than FAS - occurs when mother consumes a moderate amount of alcohol regularly throughout the pregnancy
Dishabituation
- occurs whent he infant's responsivity increases following a change in stimulus
Concrete Operational Stage: Seriate
- order items in terms of length or other quantitative dimensions
Surface Structure of Language
- refers to the organization of words, phrases, and sentences
Attachment
- refers to the strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her primary caregivers
Deep Structure of Language
- refers to the underlying meaning of sentences
Morphological Bootstrapping
- refers to using knowledge about morphemes to deduce syntax of meaning of a word
Prosodic Bootstrapping
- refers to using pitch, rhythm, etc to make inferences about syntax
Teratogens: Maternal HIV/AIDS
- risk of transmission to infant decreases significantly with use of antiretroviral drug zidovudine (AZT) - frequently small for gestational age, show signs of virus (e.g., susceptibility to infections) during first year of life - with treatment about1/3 survive to age 8+
Social-Cognitive Factors of Aggression
- self-efficacy beliefs: more likely to feel it is easy to be aggressive and hard to inhibit aggression - expect aggression to be followed by positive consequences - show little remorse following aggressive acts - may misinterpret positive or ambiguous acts of others
Milestones: 10-12 Months
- stands alone and walks with help - takes first steps alone
Terotogens
- substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus and include drugs, chemicals, and certain maternal conditions
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (Rosenthal Effect)
- teacher's expectations about achievement led to those students achieving more over the year
Effects of early maturation in adolescence for females
- tend to have poor self-concept - be unpopular with peers - dissatisfied with their physical development - have low academic achievement - more likely to engage in sexually precocious behavior and drug and alcohol use - increased risk for developing depression or an eating disorder
Moral Development
- the ability to distinguish right from wrong and then act in accordance with that distinction
Empathy
- the ability to recognize and respond sympathetically to the feelings of others - cognitive and affective components - impacted by caregiver relationship
Gateway Hypothesis
- the abuse of illicit drugs by adolescents often begins with early use of drugs, such as tabacco and alcohol, and is followed by use of cocaine, methamphetamines, etc.
Ecological Model: Microsystem
- the child's immediate environment - includes face-to-face relationships within the home, school, and neighborhood
Zone of Proximal Development
- the discrepancy between a child's current developmental level (level at which the child can function independently) and the level of development that is just beyond her current level but can be reached when an adult or more experienced peer provides appropriate scaffolding - symbolic play lets child practice behaviors in situations that requrie less precision and accuracy than reality
Accommodation
- the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Synchrony Effect
- the optimal time for completion of certain types of tasks (especially tasks that depend on the ability to inhibit a prepotent response) is related to circadian arousal - older adults peak arousal and task performance occurs in the morning - younger adults have higher levels in the evening
Instrumental Aggression
- used to achieve an objective
Permissive parenting style: characteristics and outcomes on children
- warm and caring but make few demands and are nonpunitive -allow children to make own decisions/chores/etc. -children tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence
Parenting Style: Permissive (Indulgent)
- warm and caring, but make few demands and are non punative - let children make their own decisions - offspring tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence
List Marcia's Four Identity Statuses
1. Identity diffusion 2. Identity foreclosure 3. Identity moratorium 4. Identity achievement
Peer conformity peak
12-14 years old
holophrasic speech
12-18 months combining single words with gestures and intonations
Separation anxiety peaks at about:
14-18 months, then declines
According to Piaget, deferred imitation does not occur until about:
18 months of age; depends on ability to represent objects and actions symbolically (i.e., to form a mental representation of object or action)
telegraphic speech
18-24 months two word sentences
Children use telegraphic speech (two-word utterances) to communicate an entire sentence at age:
18-24 months; children exhibit a spurt in vocab growth bt 18-24 months and combine two words to construct a short sentence
Children begin to express jealousy, embarrassment, and other self-conscious emotions bt ages:
18-24 months; same time that sense of self emerges
Attachment: AAI and Intergenerational
Autonomous on the AAI = Secure Dismissing on the AAI = Avoidant Preoccupied on the AAI = Anxious
Basic trust vs mistrust stage (Erikson) occurs from:
Birth to one year
Gottman & Levenson: Emotionally inexpressive pattern
Characterized by suppression of both positive and negative affect; avoid conflict but also self-disclosure and any other form of emotional engagement
Gottman's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Criticism, defensiveness, contempt, + stonewalling; associated w high risk for early divorce (suppression of both pos + neg affect predicts later divorce)
Macrosystem
Cultural values, laws, customs, political climate, etc.
Freud: Phalic Stages
3 - 6 years Energy centered on the genitals. Primary task is resolution of the oedipal complex. Success results in identification with same-sex parent and dev. of the superego. Fixation results in sexual acting out.
Stages of Prenatal Development
3 main stages: 1. Germinal state (first 2 weeks) 2. Embryonic Stage (3 - 8 weeks) 3. Fetal Stage (9 - birth).
Children separated prior to ___ of age don't show any negative consequences. Negative consequences occur when children are separated at the age of ___ or older. Children who are adopted by ___ of age are able to develop a close bond with their adoptive parents.
3 months; 9 months; 6 years
Infants first exhibit recognition mem for up to 24 hrs following presentation of stimulus at age:
3 months; infants habituate to visual stimuli (show less response to 2nd pres of stimulus for periods up to 24 hrs); researchers often use habituation to assess info-processing skills in infants: found that recognition memory skills are apparent at v early age
Stages of Language Acquisition: Crying
3 patterns: Hunger cry, anger cry, and pain cry. By 2 months of age also produce an irregular (fussy) cry. All cries produce a physiological response in parents.
Thomas and Chess
3 temperament groups: easy, slow-to-warm-up, difficult
Babbling begins at about:
3 to 6 mos; consists of the repetition of vowel-consonant sounds; initially includes sounds of all languages
By __ months of age, infants can recognize a stimulus for up to 24 hours. By __ to ___ months of age, infants can imitate a series of events and recall that series of events a couple days later.
3, 6 to 12
Initiative vs guilt stage (Erikson) occurs from:
3-6 years of age ("early childhood")
complex grammar
3-6 years to be, negation, questions
Freud's phallic stage: age, body part, goal
3-6 years; sexual energy is centered on the genitals Primary source of conflict: resolution of the Oedipal conflict (marked desire for the opposite-sex parent and view of the same-sex parent as a rival). Successful outcome results when a child identifies with the same-sex parent and develops the superego Fixation results in: phallic character (involves sexual exploitation of others)
Separation anxiety usually first appears between ages:
6-8 months
Homozygous
A gene that is inherited from both parents - Identical pair of alleles.
Sex-linked disorder
Disorder carried on a sex chromosome
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
A range of conditions that involve largely irreversible physical, behavioral, and/or cognitive abnormalities.
Marcia: Identity diffusion
Adolescents exhibiting diffusion have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives; not committed to an identity
Erikson's Autonomy vs. Shame corresponds to Freud's
Anal Stage
Offense hx factors predictive of re-offense for juveniles:
Age at first contact w law; length of first incarceration; age of commencement of first offense; no correlation for # of prior arrests
Overextension
Occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects/events than is appropriate (calling all four-legged animals as doggie)
Underextension
Occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations (e.g., using the word dish to refer only to plastic dish child normally used)
Teratogens: Cocaine
Increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. High risk for SIDS, seizures, low brithweight, and reduced head circumference. Cognitive and behavior problems may persist at least into the early school years
Maternal employment
Inconsistent results, overall benefits outweigh costs More egalitarian gender role concepts and more positive View of femininity daughters have higher self-esteem, independence, academic achievement, and achievement motivation, higher career goals More likely to have negative outcomes for boys when combined with low levels of parental supervision and monitoring Less likely to have a negative impact on children if both parents have a positive attitude toward it
Peer pressure
Increases during preadolescence, peaks during early adolescence (ages 13-15), then gradually declines
Thomas and Chess: Characteristics of difficult children
Irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, have unpredictable habits, preponderance of negative moods
Differences in memory bt younger + older children due to differences in:
Metacognition (ability to think about thinking) + metamemory (ability to reflect on one's own memory processes)
Chomsky: Approach to language acquisition he advocated for
Nativist
Child sexual abuse outcomes - gender differences
No consistent gender differences, however those that were found indicate worse outcomes for females than males Effects of sexual abuse tend to be less severe when the perpetrator was a stranger rather than a family member or familiar individual
Piaget's theory of moral development
Piaget identified two broad stages of morality: Heteronomous morality and Autonomous morality.
Self Awareness: Physical
Recognition of physical self occurs at 18 months
Self-awareness becomes apparent during the _________ year of life
Second
Adult attachment interview: Autonomous adults tend to have children who exhibit a ______________ attachment in the strange situation
Secure
Attachment: Trajectory
Secure children are less dependent at ages 4-5, have more positive peer interaction, exhibit prosocial B, better empathy and better academic performance.
School: Teacher Expectations
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy = teacher expectations influence outcomes
Bowlby: Built-in attachment behaviors
Sucking, crying, cooing--the purpose of the behaviors is to keep the mothers in close proximity
Evocative genotype-environment correlation
Occurs when a child's genetic make-up evokes a reaction from the parent's (e.g., cooperative child). The impact is greatest in infancy and early childhood.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
Views all learning as socially mediated INTERPERSONAL - refers to child's interactions with others INTRAPERSONAL - when the child internalizes what they have learned
Of the sense, __________ is least well developed at birth
Vision
Causes of Prader-Willi Syndrome
Typically caused by a mutation of the 15th pair of chromosomes; Caused by genomic imprinting, maternal UPD, and deletions of chromosome 15.
Underextension and overextension
Under - uses word to narrowly (cat only for his pet cat) Over - all 4 legged animals are cats
Theory of mind at age 4-5
Understand that another person's thoughts may be false or inaccurate, which will leave them to certain behaviors
Self Awareness
Understanding that one is separate from others.
By six months, an infant's visual acuity is:
V close to that of a normal adult
how boys handle divorce
affected immediately, demonstrating increased negative behaviors
Conservation
depends on the operations of reversibility and decentration and develops gradually with numbers occurring first, followed by liquid, length, weight, and then displacement volume.
Effects of Divorce on Parenting
diminished capacity to parent - women lonely, less attentive, more authoritarian - men more permissive and indulgent
synchrony effect
older adults best in am and younger best in am and pm
4 techniques identified by Rutter for promoting resiliency in high-risk children
reducing risk impact reducing negative chain reactions promoting self-esteem providing opportunities
translocation
transfer of a chromosome segment to another chromosome.
Child sexual abuse outcomes - gender differences
worse for females than males
Five stages of grief
1. Denial/isolation 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance
Genital
12+ yrs Genitals Sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Stages of Language Acquisition: Vocabulary Growth
18 Months - Children begin to experience a rapid increase in vocab
Heteronomous morality
1st stage (5-10 yrs) in which children regard rules as hand down by authorities. Permanent. Unchangeable. Piaget
Babies have some color vision by:
2-3 months of age
PREOPERATIONAL- (a PREacher is standing behind an OPERATING table. Big Ben is on the table which is made of lEGOs (EGOcentrism). The preacher begins performing witchcraft (magical thinking) and big ben's teddy bear comes to life (animism))
2-7 Precausal reasoning (magical thinking, animism) Egocentricim (can't separate own view from others) Irreversibility (don't know actions can be reversed) Centration (focus on most noticeable features of object)
Maternal HIV
35-60% chance of transmitting to child; 80% of infected babies have late appearance of sx and slow progression; w tx, infants can survive to age 8+; delays in physical + cog dev, high rates of life-threatening opportunistic infections
An infant born less than _______ weeks after conception is considered premature or preterm
37
Development of racial identity
6 months - recognition of racial differences 3 to 4 years old - ability to label people by race 10 years old - understand social connotations of racial differences
Latency
6-12 yrs Libidinal energy is diffuse, not focused on one area Dev. social skills, not achieving sexual gratification
Recessive Gene
A gene that is not expressed when a dominant gene is present. Only expressed if inheritance is homozygous. E.g. blonde hair, blue eyes, etc.
Irreversibility
A lack of understanding that processes can be reversed.
Gender identity
A person's sense of being a male or a female; fairly well-established by age 3 (most 3-year-olds label themselves and others as girl or boy, identify opposite or same sex, know what behaviors are considered appropriate and I appropriate for each gender)
Prolonged Anoxia
- oxygen shortage - consequences can include: delayed motor and cognitive development, MR, and in severe cases CP
Tertiary circular reactions (Piaget)
Ages 12-18 months; varying an original action on an external object to see what happens
Bioecological model
A systems model of human development developed by Bronfenbrenner
Overregularization
Child applies usual rules to exceptional cases (e.g., child says "tooths" instead of "teeth," "holded" instead of "held")
Prenting Styles
Combination of responsiveness and demandingness: 4 styles
Androgyny
Combined masculine and feminine characteristics and preferences
Self-Fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal) effect
Demonstrates that teachers' expectations about student achievement can have a self-fulfilling prophecy
Adults classified as dismissing on the AAI:
Describe their childhood rx w parents using pos terms, but their specific childhood mems contradict or do not support these pos descriptions
Stages of language acquisition: Echolalia and expressive jargon
At about 9 months age, children imitate adult speech sounds without an understanding of their meaning, followed by expressive jargon (vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning)
Heritability estimate
An estimate of the degree to phenotype varies in a given population based on the genotype.
Attachment: Fathers
Father-infant attachment = important Predicted by involvement (e.g. play) rather than caregiving
Erikson: Initiative vs guilt
Favorable relationships with family members result in ability to set goals and devise/carry out plans without infringing upon others
Erikson's Initiative v. Guilt (Early Childhood)
Favorable relationships with family members result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others.
Stages of language acquisition: Metalinguistic awareness
During the early school years, children gain metalinguistic awareness (ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and on themselves as language users)
Identity vs role confusion
Erikson; adolescence; positive resolution is the dev of a coherent identity
Chomsky's Nativist Theory
People have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) - brain mechanism that allows children to learn language just by being exposed to it (language milestones similar across diff languages + cultures)
Nativist Theory of language
People have innate capacity for language; emphasizes universal patterns of lang dev
Children of authoritarian parents are:
Irritable, insecure, withdrawn, + dependent; have low self-esteem, + are lacking in motivation + curiosity
Freud's Anal Stage
Libido (sexual energy) centered in the anus; primary task is control of bodily wastes
Lead in utero
Low birth weight, intellectual disability
What happens if a mom uses lead during pregnancy?
Low birthweight Intellectual disability
Exposure to Lead during prenatal development
Low birthweight and intellectual disability
Parenting Styles: Rejecting/Neglecting
Low demand and low responsiveness Children has low self-esteem, poor self-control, are impulsive and moody - correlated with juvenile delinquency
Child sexual abuse
No clear consensus, sometimes females fare worse than males Affects are less severe when the perpetrator was a stranger
Decentration
Occurs in concrete operational stage; contributes to the ability to conserve
Synchrony Effect
Optimal time for cognitive task completion depends on circadian rhythm. Younger adults - best during morning and evening. Older adults - best during morning.
List Freud's psychosexual stages
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Surface structure
Organization of words + phrases in a sentence
Gross motor milestones for three-year-old children
Pedaling a tricycle, kicking a stationary ball forward, throwing a ball overhead, going up stairs using alternate feet, running w/o falling
Erikson: Identity vs role confusion
Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence; positive outcome reflected in sense of identity and direction for future
Three stages of Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Premoral stage (prior to age 7); heteronomous stage (7-10); autonomous stage (11+)
Industry v. Inferiority
School age: Influences are ppl in neighborhood & school To avoid inferiority, must master social & academic skills
Life Expectancy
The average number of years a person can expect to live
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. Genetically determined patterns for development e.g., learning to walk
Androgyny
The presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual.
Damage Theories of Aging
These theories highlight a number of random processes that cause the deterioration of cells and organ systems.
Childhood (infantile) amnesia
adults are unable to recall events prior to age 3 or 4 because the areas of the brain essential for memory are not developed at age 4.
Child's first words usually refer to
objects that change or move are dynamic. (shoe, car, ball)
First Words
usually first words are nominals or labels for objects
Freud genital stage
(13 to 20 yrs) Libido is reawakened as genital organs mature; focus is on relationships with members of the opposite sex
Freud anal stage
(18 mos to 3 yrs) Learning independence and control, with focus on the excretory function
Anal Stage
(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
Freud phallic stage
(3 to 6 yrs) Identification with parent of same sex; development of sexual identity; focus is on genital organs
Freud latency stage
(6 to 12 yrs) Sexuality is repressed; focus is on relationships with same-sex peers
Concrete Operational Stage
- 7-11 years - children are capable of mental operation, which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information - can classify, seriate, understand part-whole relationships, and conserve
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 4 - Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions
- 8-12 months - the infant combines secondary circular reactions into new, more complex action sequences (e.g., uncover object then grasp it)
Effects of Divorce: Custody
- Children do better when living with same-sex parent - Children generally do better when with mother - All children do better when have regular and positive contact with non-custodial parent
Gender Differences in Achievement
- Girls = higher verbal IQ - Boys = higher visual-spatial IQ
Freud's psychosexual dev: latency stage
- Libidinal energy is diffuse - Emphasis is on developing social skills
Freud's psychosexual dev: genital stage
- Libido is centered in the genitals - successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Effects of early physical maturation in adolescence for males
- Linked to several benefits, including greater popularity with peers and superior athletic skills - dissatisfaction with body image and increased risk for drug and alcohol use, delinquency, and depression
Predictors of Divorce
- Marrying at a young age - lower education - no religious affiliation - mixed ethnic relationship - single parent home - history of rape - child prior to marriage - cohabited prior to marriage
Self-Directed (Private) Speech
- Piaget described it as egocentric - Vgotsky described it as a way to help children regulate and organize their own behaviors, noting it becomes internalized as children get older
Effects of Divorce on Children: Age & Gender
- Preschoolers exhibit more problems than older children - Long term consequences may be worse for older children - Gender differences are inconsistent - Boys may be more adversely effected and recover more slowly
Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use
- Shedler and Blocks found a coherent syndrome in frequent users that noted that by age 7 the kids had a sense of alientation, impulsivity, indeciseveness, and subjective distress - other risk factors includemale gender, low SES, physical or sexual abuse, and low parental warmth and involvement
Physical Changes in Adulthood
- Vision: inability to focus on close objects around age 40 and visual changes after age 65 that affect daily life - Audition: hearing problems by age 40, hearing loss after age 75, tends to be decrease in ability to perceive-high-frequency sounds - Strength, Coordination, and Reaction Time: normal aging is accompanied by behavioral slowing
Temperament
- a person's basic disposition, which influences hwo he or she responds to situations - affected by heredity, apparent at birth and somewhat predictive of later personality and adjustment
Gender-Role Identity
- a person's sense of being male or female - fairly well established by age 3 - greater impact than biological sex on self-esteem (androgyny)
Critical Period
- a specific, predetermined period of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development
Teratogens: Maternal Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- a type of herpes virus that is passed from the pregnant mom to her fetus through the placenta - 1% of newborns are infected - 10% of those have low birthweight, petechial rash, microencephaly, enlarged liver and spleen, retinal inflammation, and calcium deposits in brain -20-30% die perinatally - those who live tend to have MR and hearing and visual impairments
Emotional Contagion
- ability of infants to detect emotions in others that appears during the first few weeks of life - ex. cry when other infants cry
Milestones: 1-3 Months
- able to raise chin from ground and turn head from side-to-side - at end of period can play with hands and fingers and bring objects in hand to mouth
Self-Awareness: Physical Self-Recognition
- about 18 months - infants begin to recognize themselves in pictures and mirrors
Stages of Language Acquistion: Vocabulary Growth
- about 18 months, exhibit rapid increase in vocabulary with fastest rate of growth between 30-36 months - at 36 months, sentences contain 3-4 words and vocabulary is around 1000 words
Signs of Attachment: Social Referencing
- about 6 months - looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond in a new or ambiguous situation
Signs of Attachment: Stranger Anxiety
- about 8-10 months until about 2 years - infants become very fearful and anxious in the presence of strangers, especially if caregiver is not present or does not respond positively to the stranger
Gilligan's Moral Theory
- backlash to Kohlberg's research on only men - focuses more on caring, compassion, and responsibility to others
Piaget's Constructivism
- based on the assumption that people actively construct higher levels of knowledge from elements contributed by both biological maturation and the environment - research suggests that cognitive development occurs in predictable sequence of stages and a stage is never skipped - ages at which stages are met may differ and he may have underestimated young children's compentence - not all adolescents and adults reach formal operational thought, especially on tasks that are unfamiliar
Adult Attachment: Preoccupied
- become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parents or seem passively preoccupied with a parent - tend to have children who exhibit a resistant/ambivalent attachment pattern
Prenatal Development: Embryonic Stage
- beginning of 3rd week through 8th week - exposure to teratogens during this stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities
Signs of Attachment: Separation Anxiety
- begins around 6-8 months; peaks around 14-18 months - severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from her primary caregiver
Prenatal Development: Fetal Stage
- begins at the onset of the 9th week and continues until birth
Sensorimotor Stage: Object Permanence
- begins in substage 4 - allows the child to recognize that objects and people continue to exist when they are out of sight
Adolescent Egocentrism: Imaginary Audience
- belief that one is always the center of attention
Adolescent Egocentrism: Personal Fable
- belief that one is unique and not subject to the antural laws that govern others
Self-Awareness: Self-Descriptions
- between 19-30 months - children use neutral terms (e.g., brown hair) and evaluative terms (e.g., good girl) to describe themselves
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Oral
- birth to 1 year - the mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation and weaning is the primary conflict - fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits
Patterns of Attachment: Insecure (Anxious) / Avoidant
- interacts very little with mother - shows little distress when she leaves the room and avoids or ignores her when she returns - mothers aver very impatient and unresponsive or provide their children with too much stimulation
Difficult Temperament
- irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, and have unpredictable habits and a preponderance of negative moods
Milestones: 25-48 Months
- jumps with both feet and has good hand-finger coordination - rides tricycle, dresses and undresses simple clothing, and completely toilet trained - exhibits a stable preference for the right or left hand
Piaget's View of Language and Thought
- language is dependent on thought
Sensorimotor Stage: Circular Reactions
- learning is a result of these - actions that are performed in order to reproduce events that initially occured by chance
Vision
- least well developed sense at birth - can see about 20 feet at birth - by 2-5 days after birth prefer looking at faces and by 2 months prefer mother's face
Freud's psychosexual dev: phallic stage
- libido is centered in the genitals - primary task is resolution of Oedipal conflict - fixation can produce a phallic character (i.e., sexual exploitation)
Sensitive Period
- longer in duration and more flexible than critical periods, and not tied as closely to chronological or maturational age - more likely for human behaviors (e.g., attachment & language)
Teratogens: Lead
- low birth weight and mental retardation
Parenting Style: Rejecting-Neglecting (Uninvolved)
- low levels of responsivity and demandingness - may be overly hostile - offspring have low self-esteem and poor self-control and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive - predictive of juvenile deliquency
Freud's psychosexual dev: anal stage
- main issue during this stage is control of bodily wastes -conflicts stem from issues related to toilet training -fixation produces anal retentiveness (e.g., OC bx) or expulsiveness (e.g., cruelty)
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) (Chomsky)
- makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it
___ are more biologically vulnerable than ___
- males; females
Erickson: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
- maturation/old age - social influence broadens to include mankind - the development of wisdom and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one's limitations and morality
Anaclitic Depression
- may develop in children who are separated from their mothers during second half of first year of life - developmental delays, unresponsiveness, and withdrawal
Internal Working Models (Bowlby)
- mental representation of the self and others that influences the child's future relationships - the result of attachment development stages
Effects of Age on Memory
- most negative impact for recent long-term and working memory - episodic memory is more adversely affected than semantic or procedural - working memory is affected by declines in processing efficiency and long-term memory is affected by less effective use of encoding strategies
Child-Directed Speech
- motherese, parentese - speak more slowly, use shorter and simpler sentences, exaggerate and repeat the most important words, and frequently ask questions
Freud's psychosexual dev: oral stage
- mouth is focus of sensation and stimulation -weaning is primary source of conflict -fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, orally-focused habits
Small-for-Gestational Age (SGA)
- newborn is below the 10th percentile for her gestational age - develop a less-than-normal rate and as a result are at high risk for asphyxia during birth, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, and other physical problems as well as LDs and ADHD
Taste and Smell
- newborns are responsive to different tastes and odors - within a few hours, show preference for sweet liquids
Inversion
- occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the segment formed by the breaks turns upside down and reattaches to the chromosome - usually do not affect phenotype in humans
Formal Operational Stage: Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
- person can identify competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses
Erickson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
- personality theory stresses the role of social factors, and his stages of development each involve a different psychosocial crisis - places greater emphasis on the ego than the id - assumes people are basically rational and that behavior is due largely to ego functioning
Resilience Factors for High Risk Babies
- positive outcomes were more likely when: they experienced fewer stressors after birth, had an easy temperament, and were provided stable support from a parent or other caregiver
Emotionally Volatile Attack-Defend Pattern (Gottman & Levenson)
- predictive of earlier divorce - characterized by escalating negativity - expression of anger (rather than anger itself) is predictive of divorce - criticism, defensiveness, contempt and, and stonewalling
Emotionally Inexpressive Pattern
- predictive of later divorce - characterized by suppression of both positive and negative affect - avoid conflict, self-disclosure, and any form of emotional engagement
Goodness-of-Fit Model (Thomas & Chess)
- predicts taht it is the degree of match between parents' behaviors and their child's temperament that contributes to the child's outcome (some research suggested that children categorized as difficult or easy at age 3 were poorly or well adjusted as young adults)
Piaget: Premoral Stage of Development
- prior to age 6 - exhibit little if any concern for rules
Klinefelter syndrome: Cause and characteristics
1. Cause: Presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome 2. Characteristics: Occurs in males, small penis and testes, developing breasts during puberty, limited interest in sexual activity, sterile, may have learning disabilities
Children by age 10 recognize that death involves _________________
A cessation of functioning and is irreversible and universal
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
A child learns about objects and other people through the sensory information they provide (look, feel and taste) and the actions that can be performed on them (grasping, sucking, hitting).
Erikson's Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood)
A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one's parent and other caregivers.
Leading causes of death: Adolescents
Accidents, homicides, and suicides
Leading causes of death: Preschool and school-age children
Accidents, including car accidents, poisonings, falls, fires, and drownings
Elkind's Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable - Continued
According to Elkind, the imaginary audience contributes to an adolescent's self-consciousness and embarrassment in social situations while the personal fable accounts for their risky behavior and belief that others, especially their parents, can't possibly understand them.
Marcia: Identity foreclosure
Adolescents have experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or other person
Most commonly used substance by adolescents ages 12-17:
Alcohol (11.6%); followed by tobacco products (7.8%) and marijuana (7.1%)
Chromosomal Disorders
All human cells except the sperm and ovum contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs; 1 is sex chromosome pair- XX in females, XY in males). Inheritance of a single dominant gene, 2 recessive genes, or chromosomal abnormality may lead to disorder (can be change in number or structure of chromosomes)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
All learning is socially mediated. Learning is first interpersonal (mediated through interactions with others) and then intrapersonal (internalized learning)
Children's understanding of death: universality
All living being eventually die
Freud's oral stage: age, body part, conflict, fixation implications
Birth-1 year; the mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation Primary source of conflict: weaning Fixation results in: dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally/focused habits (e.g., smoking, nail-biting, overeating)
Hostile/reactive aggression
An angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person
Babbling
An early sign of language. Along with crying and cooing, is classified as a type of pre-linguistic speech. Babbling begins at about 3-6 months of age and consists of the repetition of vowel consonant combinations such as mama mama and baba baba. A baby babbling initially includes the sounds of all languages. By the time a child is 8 or 9 months old, it narrows to include only the sounds of his or her native language. The babbling phase lasts until about one year of age when children utter their first words which most often refer to familiar people or objects.
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation
An experimental method designed to measure the nature of attachment between mothers and babies through a series of brief events that involve separating and reuniting children and their mother/primary caregiver. From this experiment, four distinct attachment patterns were identified.
Down syndrome
And autosomal disorder, extra chromosome on 21 Associated with intellectual disability, restricted physical growth, distinctive physical features, increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's, leukemia, and heart defects
Behavioral inhibition AKA
Approach-withdrawal + shyness sociability; shown to be fairly stable + good predictor of social rx; Kagan
Tizard et al.'s research on "late adoptees" (children placed in adoptive homes after age 4) found that these children:
Are able to form strong bonds when adoption occurs by age 6; also found they have higher-than-normal rates of emotional + soc probs in C+A, including excessive need for adult attention + "overfriendliness" toward unfamiliar adults
Moral Development: Gilligan
Argues that Kohlberg's theory is gender bias agains females. Women = more oriented toward care and compassion. Level 1 - Orientation of Indiv. Survival (what's best for the self) Transition - From selfishness to responsibility (connected to others) Level 2 - Goodness as self-sacrifice Transition - From Goodness to Truth Level 3 - Morality of Nonviolence (avoiding harm to self and others)
Kohlberg's Conventional
Arnd age 10/11 3. (Good Boy/Good Girl) What will be liked or approved of. 4. (Law & Order) Based on rules & laws by legit authorities
Relational crisis (Gilligan)
Around 11 or 12 years of age, girls experience of relational crisis when there is a conflict between themselves and the social pressure to fit cultural stereotypes about the perfect good woman
In re: gender diffs in convo style, women are more likely to:
Ask questions during a convo; men tend to talk for longer periods of time, interrupt more frequently, and make more eye contact
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI): Adults are classified as ______________ on the AAI when they give coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with their parents
Autonomous
Adult Attachment Interview outcomes
Autonomous - Coherent Narrative of their childhood relationship with their parents → securely attached children Dismissing - everything is positive in the family of origin → avoidant children Preoccupied - everything is negative (or confusing) in the family of origin → ambivalent children
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to about 24 months of age; During this stage, children learn about themselves and their environment by coordinating sensory experiences with motor activity.
Oral
Birth-1 Mouth Weaning Dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, & orally-focused habits
Teratogens: Effects of alcohol
Cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
Prader-Willi syndrome
Characterized by an ID and intense foods cravings + extreme obesity; caused by a chromosomal deletion (when part of a chromosome is missing)
Gottman & Levenson: Emotionally volatile attack-defend pattern
Characterized by escalating negativity; expression of anger involving combination of criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling
Turner Syndrome: Cause and characteristics
1. Cause: presence of a single X chromosome 2. Characteristics: Occurs in females, short stature, drooping eyelids, webbed neck, retarded or absent development of secondary sex characteristics, may exhibit certain cognitive deficits
Down Syndrome: Cause and characteristics
1. Cause: presence of an extra chromosome 21 2. Characteristics: Intellectual disability, retarded physical growth and motor development, distinctive physical features, increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease, leukemia, and heart defects
What are the stages of language acquisition?
1. Crying 2. Cooing - 6-8 weeks, just vowel sounds (THINK: coo like 8 on its side.) 3. Babbling - 4 months, repetitions of simple consonant and vowel sounds 4. Echolalia and expressive jargon - 9 months, sounds repeated without meaning (THINK: 9 is like "nein" or like "no") 5. First words - Expressive vocabulary starts between 10 and 15 months. (THINK: 1st, 10 both have 1's.) At 13 months receptive vocabulary is 50 words. By 18 months, expressive vocabulary is 50 words. (Holophrastic speech = use of single words to express whole phrases and sentences) 6. Telegraphic speech - 18 to 24 months, two or more words together to make a sentence (e.g. me go). Child's vocabulary up to 400 words. Most rapid vocabulary growth at 30 to 36 months (THINK: tree, rapidly growing)
List stages of language acquisition
1. Crying 2. Cooing and babbling 3. Echolalia and expressive jargon 4. First words 5. Telegraphic speech 6. Vocabulary growth 7. Grammatically correct sentences 8. Metalinguistic awareness
According to Chomsky's notion of transformational grammar, speaking involves transforming ________________ into ________________, while listening entails transforming _____________________ into _________________
1. Deep structure; surface structure 2. Surface structure into deep structure
Stages of grief (Kubler-Ross) and what the research says about them (5)
1. Denial and isolation 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance (THINK: To bed, huh? DBDA) Research shows that these stages don't necessarily occur in this order and that stages may be repeated.
Epigenesis
1. Describes relationship between genetic and environmental influences as bidirectional and ongoing
List two interaction patterns predictive of divorce (Gotten & Levenson, 2000)
1. Emotionally volatile attack-defend pattern 2. Emotionally inexpressive pattern
Of the emotionally volatile attack-defend and emotional inexpressive patterns, which is predictive of earlier divorce, and which is predictive of later divorce
1. Emotionally volatile attack-defend pattern: predictive of earlier divorce 2. Emotionally inexpressive pattern: predictive of later divorce
Bowlby's theory of attachment
1. Exposure of an infant to his or her mother during a critical period (infant's first year of life) results in a bond between them that helps ensure the infant's survival 2. Humans are born with a biological predisposition that increases the likelihood that an attachment will form
Three stages of prenatal development and their duration
1. Germinal stage (1st two weeks) - zygote 2. Embryonic stage (3rd week - 8th week) 3. Fetal stage (9th week - birth)
Kohlberg: Conventional Morality
1. Good boy/girl orientation: right action is the one that is liked or approved by others 2. Law and order orientation: moral judgments are based on the rules and laws established by legitimate authorities
Chromosomal disorders are the result of...
1. Inheritance of a single dominant gene 2. Inheritance of two recessive genes 3. Chromosomal abnormality
Phenylketonuria: Characteristics and treatment
1. Lack enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine; can result in severe intellectual disability 2. Beginning a diet low in phenylalanine soon after birth prevents severe intellectual disability
List levels and transitions of Gilligan's Theory of moral development
1. Level 1: Orientation of individual survival 2. Transition 1: From selfishness to responsibility 3. Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice 4. Transition 2: From goodness to truth 5. Level 3: Morality of nonviolence
Predictors of divorce
1. Marrying at a young age 2. Lower level of education 3. No religious affiliation 4. Mixed-ethnic relationship 5. Come from single-parent home 6. Raped 7. Had child prior to marriage or within 7 months of marriage 8. Cohabited with partner before marriage
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Five environmental systems
1. Microsystem 2. Mesosystem 3. Exosystem 4. Macrosystem 5. Chronosystem
Kohlberg: Postconventional morality
1. Morality of conduct, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws (right action consistent with democratically determined laws) 2. Morality of individual principles and conscience: right and wrong are determined on the basis of broad, self-chosen universally applicable ethical principles
List the three phases in children's understanding of death
1. Nonfunctionality 2. Irreversibility 3. Universality
Synchrony effect: Definition and differences between older and younger adults
1. Optimal time for completion of certain types of tasks (especially those dependent on ability to inhibit a prepotent response) is related to circadian arousal, which varies with age 2. Older adults: peak arousal and task performance levels occur in morning; younger adults: higher levels of both in evening
What percentage of teenagers report drinking alcohol in the past month? Using illicit drugs? Using tobacco?
12% drinking alcohol, 9% illicit drugs, 8% tobacco
Freud: Genital Stage
12+ years Libido is centered on the genitals. Successful navigation results in blending sexuality and affection to produce mature relationships.
Freud's genital stage: age, body part, goal
12+ years; libido is again centered in the genitals Successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Developmental Milestones 13-15 months
13 - 14 months walks alone with a wide gate. Creeps up stairs, scribbles, and uses cup.
Developmental milestones (13-15 months)
13 to 14 months - walks alone 15 months - creeps upstairs, scribbles, uses cup
Children begin to exhibit self-conscious emotions bt ages:
18 and 24 months; same time that sense of self emerges; by 24 mos, jealousy, embarrassment, empathy evident; followed by shame, guilt, pride at 30-36 months
Developmental milestones (16-25 months)
18 months - runs clumsily, upstairs with hand held, use a spoon 24 months- up and downstairs, kicks the ball, turns pages in a book, 50% toilet trained in the day
Stages of Language Acquisition: Grammatically Correct Sentences
2 1/2 - 5
Phenylketonuria (PKU) - cause, symptoms
2 recessive genes cause this disorder. Can't metabolize phenylalanine (in milk, eggs, bread). If they ingest phenylalanine --> severe intellectual disability.
Disorders due to genes
2 recessives: PKU Single dominant gene: Tay-Sacks Disease, Sickle Cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Huntington's chorea
At what age do 60% of infants recognize their own image in a mirror?
21 months of age (compared to 30% of 18 month old babies)
Sex Chromosomes
23rd chromosome. Sex-linked disorders.
Brain is 25% of adult weight at birth, and 80% by age:
24 months; due to an increase in neuron size and interconnections and formation of glial cells
Children begin using telegraphic speech by about:
24 months; have vocab of abt 200 words; initially consists of only two words (usually a noun + verb)
Brain Development: The brain is only about ____% of its adult weight at birth, ______% at age 2, and full adult weight on or before age _____
25%; 80%; 16
Small-for-gestational age (SGA) definition, implications
= newborn weight below the 10th percentile for his/her gestational age --> slower heart rate, asphyxia during birth, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, learning disabilities, ADHD {Think Tiny Mighty - slower heart rate, slower breathing, weak with no sugar, he couldn't focus on any task --> learning disability/ADHD)
Research on bilingual education suggests that:
Children in high-quality transition programs do as well as - or even better than - those in immersion programs in terms of both English skills + mastery of subject matter
Piaget's Constructivist Theory
Cog dev as result of combo of biological maturation + environmental stimulation, and is an active process in which child creates knowledge by acting upon the world both physically + mentally
Alcohol-related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND)
Cognitive deficits and behavioral problems without prominent facial anomalies, retarded physical growth, or physical defects.
Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory
Cognitive understanding of gender precedes the adoption of gender-role bx; three universal + invariant stages of gender identity dev: gender identity (2-3), gender stability (4-6), gender constancy (age 6-7)
Neo-Piagetians
Combine information process and piaget stages.
Authoritative
Combine rational control with responsivity Set clear rules & high stds for children Rely on reasoning, praise, explanations, other inductive techniques for compliance & encourage independence kids are assertive, socially responsible, achievement oriented, have high self-esteem, self-confident, & get good grades in school
Preoccupied
Confused & incoherent attachment memories, remain enmeshed with family issues, believe family problems cannot be overcome
According to Kochanska and Knaack, effortful (inhibitory) control is an important contributor to early development of:
Conscience; effortful control becomes a stable, coherent trait by 33-45 months of age; children w higher effortful control at 22 to 45 months had stronger consciences at 56 months of age
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Exosystem
Consists of elements in the broader environment that affect the child's immediate environment and includes parents' workplace, the school board, community agencies, local industry, and mass media
Chronosystem
Consists of environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on his or her circumstances and developmental stage (immediate and long-term effects of a change in family structure or socioeconomic status).
Death and Dying: Reaction to Death
Death anxiety appears to be greatest among middle-aged adults.
Adult Physical Changes - Strength, coordination, and reaction time
Declines with age.
First sign of hearing impairment:
Decrease in ability to hear high frequencies (first evident around age 50)
"Hot/cool" Systems (Mischel et al)
Delay of gratification; "hot" and "cool" systems of the brain; hot system develops earlier than cool system
Stages of grief (Kubler-Ross)
Denial and isolation Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance
Conservation: Piaget
Dependends on the ability to reverse and decentrate.
% of environmental role
Depends on the characteristic we are considering 50% for many characteristics
Marital Roles
Despite changes, traditional roles are still most common. Even in dual-income households, women do 2x the amount of home chores.
Sensitive Periods
Dev. Psychologists believe that critical periods exist for human physical development, but agree that sensitive periods are more likely for behavior. They are longer in length, more flexible, and less tied to chronological age than critical periods.
Dismissing
Devalue the importance of attachment relationships, defensive and guarded when asked about childhood, idealize parents without concrete support
Bronfenner's Ecological Model
Development involves interactions between an individual and context or environment. Context is described in terms of 5 environmental systems or levels: -Microsystem -Mesosystem -Exosystem -Macrosystem -Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: General premise
Development involves interactions between the individual and his/her context or environment
Brofenbrenner's Ecological Model
Development involves interactions between the individual and his/her environment.
Piaget's Constructivist Theory
Development is based on the idea that people actively construct higher levels of knowledge. Motivated to achieve equalibrium. Disequilibrium occurs when there is descrepency between current understanding and reality.
Gender Identity development according to psychodynamic theory
Development of gender identity depends on successful resolution of the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage of the development, resulting in identification with the same-sex parent
Development of self-awareness is precursor to:
Development of sense of identity
Autosomal disorder
Disorders carried on autosomes (the 22 pairs of chromosomes which are not sex chromosomes) (e.g., Huntington's)
Disorders due to chromosomal abnormality
Disorders with a variation in the number of chromosomes for an abnormality in the structure
About 80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit a __________________ attachment
Disoriented/disorganized attachment
Disorganized/Disoriented
Display contradictory reactions. Often seem frightened or confused by their mother. They may cry whens he leaves the room, then stand motionless or run away from her when she returns. In many cases, children with this pattern have been neglected or abused and this pattern has been linked to maternal depression and prenatal exposure to alcohol or drugs.
Stepfathers are more ___________ and ______________ than their biological counterparts
Distant; disengaged
Longitudinal research on children exposed prenatally to cocaine found that:
During early school years, they have higher-than-normal rates or LDs + bx probs, + difficulties w peers (although some of this may be due to adverse environmental conditions following their birth)
Underextension
During the early phases of language acquisition, children make several predictable language errors. One is underextension which involves applying a word too narrowly to objects or events. Example: A child might initially use the word car only for the family vehicle.
Television Pos. Impacts
Educational programing appears to benefit cog. dev., prosocial attitudes younger children (4 yo) have difficulty distinguishing between fantasy of TV and reality.
Exosystem
Elements in the broader environment that a child may not experience firsthand, but which affect a child's immediate environment (e.g., parents' workplace, the school board, community agencies, local industry, mass media)
Teratogen exposure during the ________________ stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities
Embryonic
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson's third stage, in which a child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.
Coined the term "identity crisis"
Erikson; described it as most important psychosocial crisis faced by human beings; Identified adolescence as time when search for an identity is most intense
Trust vs. Mistrust
Eriksons' first psychosocial crisis. infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met; Confidence with good caregivers or mistrust when needs are not met; Birth to 1 year;
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Eriskon's sixth stage. From age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life
Deferred Imitation as a Memory Research Tool
Evaluate a baby's delayed recall by having a parent or other person model a novel sequence of actions in a specific context and then returning that infant to that context at a later time. If the infant imitates the sequence of actions after the delay, this provides evidence of a delayed recall. Research using deferred imitation has shown that the ability to retrieve memories of observed actions emerges during the last few months of the first year of life and improves substantially during the second year. In one study, 13 month old babies were able to imitate a sequence of actions that they had observed up to 6 months later while many 20 month old babies were able to do so 12 months later.
Identity Moratorium
Experiences crisis & actively explores alternative identities High confusion, discontent, & rebelliousness
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Exhibit fear of their caregivers, a days or confused facial expression, and other disorganized behaviors Most of these children have been mistreated by their caregivers
Children w disorganized/disoriented attachment
Exhibit inconsistent, contradictory bx; distressed when mom leaves but disoriented and confused when she returns and may exhibit unusual frozen postures and look away when held; have often been abused or severely neglected by their caregivers
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Dx
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME: Most serious; has bx, cog, and physical problems ALCOHOL RELATED NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DXdx-has the cog effects Alcohol-related birth defects-has the physical defects
Levinson's Seasons of Life
Divides life into 4 stages: Infancy-adulthood, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Transitions from one stage to another are particularly stressful. 1. Early Adulthood Transition (17-22) 2. Age 30 Transition (28-33) 3. Middle-Life Transition (40-45)
Behaviorist theories of language
Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement; observing + imitating language of others + being reinforced for doing so
Theories of Language Development: Nativist
Language is innate, with genetically determined factors; children understand very complex rules quickly
Compared to popular children, unpopular children are generally:
Less intelligent, less physically attractive, less cooperative; NOT less friendly or sociable tho
Freud's Latency Stage (6-12 years)
Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body, and the emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification.
Freud's Latency Stage (fourth stage)
Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body; emphasis on developing social skills rather than on achieving sexual gratification
Freud's Genital Stage (fifth stage)
Libido again centered in genitals but the successful outcome at this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended w affection to produce mature sexual rx
Moral Development: Kohlberg - Conventional
Good boy/Good Girl Orientation: The right action is the one that is approved of by others. Law and Order Orientation: Moral judgments are based on the rules established by authorities.
Predictors of Divorce: Interaction Style
Gottman - Emotional Volatility Attack Defend - Expression of anger predicts divorce when it is expressed in the following 4 patterns: criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling
Horizontal Decalage
Gradual development. Manifests inconsistency in exhibiting a particular ability
Horizontal decalage
Gradual mastery of logical concepts
Gender Identity Outcomes
Greater impact than biological sex on MH outcomes. For both sexes, androgyny and masculinity are correlated with better outcomes
Effect of age on memory:
Greater negative impact on explicit memory (e.g. recalling items on grocery list) vs. implicit memory (e.g. remembering words to a familiar song while singing). Affected are: recent long-term memory, then working memory/short-term memory Unaffected are: remote long-term memory, memory span, sensory memory. Episodic memory more affected than semantic or procedural memory. Working memory declines primarily due to reduced processing efficiency/perceptual speed, reduced ability to prevent irrelevant information from entering working memory. Long-term memory declines primarily due to less effective encoding strategies.
Reminiscence Bump
Greater recall of events from about 10-30 years of age. Why? More novel experiences during this period, encoding of information is most efficient, and/or sense of identity developed during these years
Contact comfort (Harlow)
Harlow's research with monkeys found that a babies attachment to his mother it due to the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft cuddly parent Before this, everyone thought it was just due to being fed
Attachment: Contact Comfort
Harry Harlow Based on the Rhesus monkey studies - suggests that pleasant tactile sensation is important in attachment.
Erikson's Theory of Personality Development
In contrast to Freud, Erikson viewed personality development as continuing throughout the lifespan and as a being influenced primarily by social factors. Each of Erikson's 8 stages is characterized by a different psychosocial conflict.
Information Processing Theory of Dev
In contrast to Piagetians, IP theorists believe that the same cognitive abilities are present at all ages, but in different amounts. Focus on abilities such as memory, attention, etc. rather than tasks.
Sexual Activity in Late Adulthood.
In general decreases with age. Similar to level of sexual activity when adult 18-59 Barriers to activity are physical conditions for men and lack of partner for women Most said that current sex life is more satisfying or no different as was in younger years
Child-directed speech
In interactionist Theory, strategy used by parents to foster lang dev; involves talking in simple sentences at a slow pace, speaking in a high-pitched voice, + frequently asking questions and repeating words; associated w faster lang acquisition
Synaptogenesis
Increase of connection between neurons
Prolonged emotional stress in expectant mother linked to:
Increased crying + irritability in the newborn
Teratogens: Effects of cocaine
Increased risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth; high risk of sudden infant death syndrome; seizures, low birthweight, reduced head circumference
Stranger anxiety
Infant becomes anxious or fearful in the presence of a stranger, especially when the caregiver is not nearby or when the caregiver does not respond positively to the stranger; by 8-10 months, continues to 2 years and then diminishes
Sensiormotor stage & substages
Infant learns through sensory information. There are several substages: 1) Reflexive schemas (birth - 1 month) - infant uses their reflexes 2) primary circular reactions (1 - 4 months) the infant tries to repeat body movements for pleasure (sucking thumb) 3) secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) - tries to repeat actions involving people and objects 4) coordinated secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) - more complex, multi-step 5) Teritiary circular reactions (12-18 months) - deliberately varies actions to see results 6) Mental representation (18-24 months) - infant thinks about actions, varying, possible consequences in their head
Social referencing
Infant looks to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous situations; begins 6 months of age
Pain perception in newborns
Infants are sensitive to pain Early pain impacts later reaction to an coping with pain. e.g., infants circumcised without anesthesia are more likely to vocalize and cry during vaccines
Cocain in utero
Infants can be born addicted high risk of spontaneous abortion and stillbirth, SIDS, seizures, low birth weight, decreased head circumference, cognitive and behavioral problems
Stages of language acquisition: Crying
Infants initially produce a basic hunger cry, an anger cry, and a pain cry; by 1-2 months of age, they also produce a fussy cry
Audition
Infants only slightly less sensitive to sound than adults.
Effects of Cocaine on Prenatal Development
Infants whose mothers regularly use cocaine during pregnancy may be born addicted to the drug and are at risk for a variety of problems including pre-maturity, low birth weight, and certain physical defects including eye, bone, kidney, and heart deformities. These babies tend to be excessively irritable and difficult to soothe and they may have abnormally shrill, piercing cries. In elementary school, they are at high risk for reduced attention and alertness, deficits in visual-motor skills, and behavioral problems.
Information Processing Theories & Neo-Piagetiam Theories
Information Processing theories - Suggest that cognitive development is more like a computer program. -Increasing information processing capacity and efficiency... its the same but differ in terms of extent. (e.g., memory - just has more "space") Neo-piagetiam - combine information processing and Piaget. Agree thats biological maturation and experience matter, and propose that individuals actively construct their own knowledge. BUT focus more on developmental changes within cognitive domains, and impact of context (like information processing)
Neo-Piagetian theories are often classified as a type of:
Information-processing theory; combines info-processing + Piagetian approaches and focus on development within specific domains of knowledge and skills
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Mesosystem
Interactions between components of the microsystem (e.g., influence of family factors on child's behavior at school)
According to Vygotsky, teaching is optimal when:
It occurs within the learner's zone of proximal development (ZPD); defined by what child can currently accomplish alone and what he/she can do w assistance from an adult or more experienced peer
By 48 months (4 years old) , a child...
JUMPS with both feet Rides tricycle Can dress self with simple clothing Stable preference for right or left hand
Behavioral inhibition
Kagan found evidence of both a biological contribution and stability for the temperament traits of behavioral inhibition. Stable from 21 months to 5 and 7 years Level of inhibition is related to physiological responsivity
Interactionist theories of language
Lang dev result of interactions bt biological + environmental factors; bio factors provide foundation for lang acquisition, + that social context explains indiv + group diffs in lang use
Coercive Family Interaction Model (Patterson)
Families of aggressive boys have coercive interactions & poor parental monitoring Kids initially learn agg bx from prents who rarely reinforce prosocial bx, use harsh discipline, & reward kid's agg Over time agg prent-child interactions escalate
Disorganized/Disoriented
Fear M, dazed or confused face, other disorganized attachment bx greet M when she returns, but then turn away. 80% were mistreated by caregiver
Teratogens: Alcohol
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: a range of irreversible physical, behavioral, and cognitive abnormalities. Fetal alcohol syndrome is the most severe, is caused by heavy drinking, and results in facial abnormalities, retarded growth, heart, liver, and kidney issues, cognitive and behavioral deficits.
Alcohol during utero
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder- Range of disorders, FAS is the most severe form Associated with facial abnormalities slowed physical growth, heart kidney liver problems, vision hearing problems, cognitive problems, behavior problems Most vulnerable between the third and the sixth week
nicotine in utero
Fetus death and stillbirth Higher risk of low birth weight, sids, respiratory diseases, emotional and social problems, cognitive deficits
infantile amnesia
Few episodic memories prior to age 4 because areas responsible for episodic memory are not fully developed.
Peer status: neglected children
Fewer-than-average interactions with peers and rarely engage in disruptive behaviors
Post-Conventional Level of Moral Development
Final level proposed by Kohlberg. At this level, moral judgments are based on consideration of abstract moral principles and values. A person at the post conventional level might say it's acceptable for Heinz to steal the drug because life is more important than property rights.
Autobiographical Memory Research
Finally, a number of researchers interested in memory have focused on autobiographical memory which refers to memory for personally experienced events. Their studies have shown that early autobiographical memories, especially for events that occurred prior to age 3 or 4 are often not recalled later in life. While a 3 year old may recall an event she experienced when she was 2, when she is 9 or 10, it is unlikely she will remember the event.
In re: gender diff in motor skills, girls are superior on tasks requiring:
Fine motor skills, flexibility, agility, + balance (hopping + skipping)
Autosomes
First 22 chromosomes.
Kohlberg's Preconventional Level
First level; indiv has not internalized social conventions; 1) punishment + obedience stage: obey rules to avoid punishment; 2) instrumental hedonism stage: obey rules to obtain concrete rewards
Germinal Stage
First two weeks fertilized ovum called a zygote
First-borns vs later-borns
First-borns: more rapid language acquisition, higher grades and IQ, more achievement oriented and conscientious Later-borns: less cautious, more rebellious, have better peer relationships, more confident in social situations
Early reflex: Moro reflex
Flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support
Moro (Startle) Reflex
Flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support.
Gilligan's theory of moral development: From goodness to truth
Focus is on coordinating one's responsibilities to self and others
Gilligan's theory of moral development: Orientation of individual survival
Focus is on what is best for oneself
evolutionary psychology
Focus on how mental and emotional adaptations helped our ancestors to survive and reproduce.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Focused on social roles, focuses on the ego and superego more than the id, and assumes that people behave rationally. Stages are based on tasks commonly encountered as one progresses through life.
Evolutionary psychology
Focuses on how natural selection predisposes organisms toward certain behaviors, focusing on how mental and emotional adaptations help ancestors survive and reproduce
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
Focuses on social influences; eight stages that extend throughout the entire lifespan; personality outcomes are related to how the crisis at each stage is resolved
Significant brain dev (esp of cerebral cortex) occurs:
Following birth; due to increase in size of existing cells, growth of new dendrites, + increased myelinization
Diminished capacity to parent
Following divorce, parents are emotionally distressed and struggle more with parenting
Research conducted on "storm and stress theory" of adolescence largely refuted this claim and found that:
For the large majority of indivs, adolescence is not a time of sig "storm and stress;" while adolescents may exhibit greater emotional lability, only abt 10-20% of adolescents exhibit some type of severe emo turmoil, which is approx same percent as in adult pop
In re: gender diff in motor skills, boys are superior on tasks requiring:
Force + power
Marcia's Four Identity Statuses
Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement. Marcia concluded that identity formation can be described in terms of four categories or statuses with each category representing a different combination of identity crisis and identity commitment.
Propositional reasoning
Formal operational stage; ability to evaluate the logic of a proposition or verbal statements without a concrete example; enables a person to understand that when certain premises or assumptions are true, a particular conclusion must also be true
Developmental milestones (4-6 months)
Four - roll from tummy to back Five - set on lap, reach, grasp Six - sit alone, stand with help 6-9 - first teeth
Genetic syndromes associated with autism
Fragile X Syndrome, Tuberous Sclerosis, Phenylketonuria (PKU), Chromosome 15q maternal duplication
Virginia Longitudinal Study of Divorce and Re-Marriage
Frequency of contact with non-custodial fathers is by itself not strongly predictive of children's outcomes. However, a greater frequency of contact is associated with better outcomes, especially for boys when two conditions are met: First: there is a cooperative relationship between the parents and second: the non-custodial father has an authoritative style.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud viewed personality as related to the ways conflicts related to sex drive or libido in early childhood. According to his psychosexual theory of development, sexual impulses shift their focus to different parts of the body during five stages of sexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. For optimal development to occur at each stage, parents must provide their child with the right amount of gratification of his/her needs.
Oral Stage
Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center. Under gratification of the child's oral needs may cause thumb sucking or nail biting in childhood and may result in a bitingly critical or sarcastic personality in adulthood. Alternatively, over-gratification of needs may cause the child to become fixated in the oral stage and become a compulsive eater or smoker in adulthood.
Genital Stage
Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).
Phallic Stage
Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals. Children in the phallic stage are resolving the Oedipus/Electra complex.
How do gender roles change into adulthood?
From early adulthood to middle age, gender roles may become more polarized (e.g. when a couple marries and has a first child, women are still usually caretakers). But beginning in middle age, there is more gender-role reversal.
Learning Theory of Language Development
From the perspective of learning theory, language is acquired just like any other behavior, that is through imitation and operant conditioning. In other words, children acquire language by copying the speech of others and being reinforced for doing so.
Sibling relationships
Gets worse in middle childhood More distant but less emotionally intense in adolescence Same-sex siblings between one and three years apart fight more Close siblings as children become close as adults
Gilligan's relational crisis
Girls around 11-12 years, in response to increasing pressure to fit cultural stereotypes about the perfect good woman, disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others
Achievement in girls vs boys
Girls do better with VERBAL abilities. Boys do better with VISUAL-SPATIAL and MATH skills There are significant environmental factors...Gaps have been closing over time. Parents who support girls in traditionally male-dominated fields rise to meet those challenges.
Sleeper effect
Girls don't experience negative consequences until adolescence -noncompliance, decreased self-esteem, and sexual promiscuity
Relational crisis (Gilligan)
Girls experience this at about 11 or 12 years old in response to increasing pressure to fit cultural stereotypes about the "perfect good woman." As a result they: → Disconnect from onseself in order to maintain relationships with others (e.g., adolescent girls experience a "loss of voice" when they realize that women's opinions are not highly valued) Consequences of a relational crisis include a drop in academic achievement, loss of self-esteem, and increased vulnerability to psychological problems Task for parents, teachers, and therapists to combat this? Help girls maintain a "healthy resistance to disconnection" *Males experience a similar relational crisis in early childhood
Relational crisis (Gilligan)
Girls experiences this at about 11 or 12 years old in response to pressure to fit into cultural stereotypes about the "perfect good woman." → Disconnect from onseself in order to maintain relationship with others → Loss of voice when they realize one's opinions are not valued → Poor life functioning - Lower academic achievement, lower self-esteem, more psychological problems. How to combat this? Help girls maintain a healthy Resistance to disconnection
Gender Differences in Motor Dev.
Girls more developed in speed, balance, etc. by middle childhood. By adolescense, boys are notably more advanced in their motor ability.
sexual activity in late adulthood
Sexual activity midlife is a predictor Those who remain active reports similar frequencies But more people report inactive due to physical health problems, no partner 43 to 61% said more or just as satisfying, more men say this than women
Marital satisfaction is linked to what factors?
Similarity and age, SES, education, religion. Marrying after age 23. Dating for at least 6 months prior to marriage. Waiting at least one year to have children.
Phonemes
Smallest units of sound that are understood in a language
Morphemes
Smallest units of sound that convey meaning
Speech Sounds: Phonemes
Smallest units of sound understood in language.
Social Relationships in Adulthood
Social Emotional Selectivity Theory - addresses motivations underlying changes in quality and quantity of relationships - 2 goals of relationships - knowledge and emotional regulation - Time unlimited (young) = knowledge primary and new relationships are goal - Time limited (old) = emotional goals are primary
Attachment: Signs of Attachment
Social Referencing - 6 months - Looks at caregiver to determine how to respond in situation. Separation Anxiety - 6-8 months of age and peaks at 14-18 months. Distress at separation. Stranger Anxiety - 8-10 months - anxious and fearful in the presence of a stranger. continues to age 2 and should diminish.
Kohlberg's postconventional level of moral dev characterized by:
Social contracts, democratically accepted laws, and indiv principles of conscience
Ego integrity vs. despair
Social influence Robbins to include all humankind Wisdom develops, and integrity in order to come to terms with mortality
Erikson's Ego Integrity v. Despair (Maturation/Old Age)
Social influence broadens to include all of "humankind." The development of wisdom (an informed, detached concern with life in the face of death) and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one's limitations and mortality.
Early signs of attachment
Social referencing, separation anxiety, + stranger anxiety
Signs of attachment
Social referencing-looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new situations Separation anxiety- distress that occurs when child was separated from their caregiver. starts at 6 to 8 months, peaks at 14 to 18 months Stranger anxiety - 8 to 10 months, infants become anxious and fearful in the presence of a stranger, continues until age 2 and then decreases
The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen) states that...
Social relationships have 2 functions: - acquisition of knowledge - prioritized when time is perceived as Unlimited - regulation of emotion - prioritized when time is perceived as Limited. (THINK: Johnny Carson is a social butterfly, but why?)
Critical Periods
Specific predetermined periods of time in biological development that are sensitive to stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development. EX: imprinting in birds
Critical periods
Specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development
Perception in newborns
Studied several ways: High-amplitude sucking (1-4 months), reaching (12 weeks an older), head turning (5.5 - 12 months), and heart and respiration rates.
Kohlberg's conventional level of moral dev characterized by:
Support for and adherence to existing social rules and laws
Language Structure
Surface (organization) and Deep (meaning)
Malnutrition is most significant when
THIRD trimester, different than normal teratogens. Especially protein deficiency, because it hurts the brain.
Hostile attribution bias
Tendency to misinterpret the positive or ambiguous acts of others as intentionally hostile
Horizontal decalage
Term used by Piaget to describe gradual development of skills within stages (e.g., conservation)
Freud's Phallic Stage (third stage)
Libido centered in the genitals; primary task is resolution of Oedipal or Electra conflict, marked by desire for opp-sex parent + a view of the same-sex parent as a rival; feelings of guilt arise during this stage as superego emerges and conscience develops
Latency stage
Libido energy is diffused, emphasis on developing social skills
Freud's Genital Stage (12+ years)
Libido is again centered in the genitals, and a successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships.
Levinson's Seasons of Life: Four lifespan periods, transitions
Lifespan periods: infancy, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood Transitions: early adult transition, age 30 transition, mid-life transition
Early reflex: Stepping reflex
Makes coordinated walking movement when held upright with feet touching flat surface
Stepping (Walking) Reflex
Makes coordinated walking movement when held upright with feet touching flat surface.
Gender differences in biological vulnerability
Males are biologically more vulnerable than females, including: - higher stillbirth or spontaneous abortion - more vulnerable to disorders linked to biological factors
Adult Physical Changes - Adution
Many have problems by age 40. 50% of people between 75 and 79 have deficits that interfere with daily life. biggest problem is with high frequency.
Identity Moratorium
Marcia's stage in which adolescents are delaying making the commitment expected of adult through trial and error experiment with different identities. They are looking actively but have not found it yet.
6 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CHILDHOOD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Marital discord low SES large family size parent criminality parent psychopathology outside placement
Symbolic (representational) thought
Marks end of sensorimotor stage; involves ability to use images, gestures, + words to represent objects + experiences
Ego Integrity v. Despair
Maturation/Old Age: social influence includes humankind, developing wisdom, & integrity
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model (In order)
Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem
Interpersonal Accord and Conformity
Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
Assimilation
Occurs when a child applies an existing cognitive structure or schema to a new object. Example: When a child knows what a dog is and then sees a cat for the first time and calls it a doggie, he has assimilated cats into his existing dog scheme.
Accommodation
Occurs when a child creates a new schema or modifies an existing one to fit a new object. Example: When the child's interactions with cats makes him realize that cats differ from dogs and he begins calling them cats instead of dogs, the child has accommodated by creating a new cognitive schema for cats.
Evocative genotype-environment correlation
Occurs when a child's genetic make-up evokes reactions from parents and others that reinforce his/her genetic make-up (e.g., preschool children genetically predisposed to be cooperative/attentive will have more positive instructional interactions)
Types of recessive gene Disorders
PKU, Tay-Sachs disease, + sickle-cell disease (indivs must be homogenous aka have two rec genes to have disorder)
Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development
PRECONVENTIONAL (Punishment & Obedience; Instrumental Hedonism) CONVENTIONAL (Good Boy/Good Girl; Law & Order) POSTCONVENTIONAL (Morality of Contract, Indiv Rights, Democrat Accepted; Morality of Indiv Principles of Conscience)
Play - Social
Parallel - shares toys but no interaction Associative - interacting and sharing but no common goal Cooperative - interactive and sharing with goal
Coercive family interaction model
Patterson Proposes that children learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforced pro social behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward children aggressiveness with approval and attention Overtime, aggressive parent child interactions escalate
Emotions: Aggression
Patterson (1992) Coercive Family Interaction Model - Parents who rarely reinforce prosocial B, are harsh, and reward aggression will lead to escalating aggression.
Erikson's Identity v. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence. A positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and direction for the future.
Adaptation, Assimilation, and Accommodation
People construct knowledge through both biological maturation and environment Seeking equilibrium, learn through adaptation: - Assimilation - incorporation of new knowledge into existing schemas - Accommodation - modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Stages of grief (5) (Kubler-Ross) and what the research says about them
People progress through the stages when faced with their own death or other important loss: 1. Denial and isolation ("This isn't happening to me") 2. Anger ("Why me?") 3. Bargaining ("Yes, it's happening, but not before my grandchild is born") 4. Depression ("Yes, me") 5. Acceptance ("My time is close and that's alright") Research shows that these stages don't necessarily occur in this order and that stages may be repeated
Instrumental aggression
Performed to obtain a desired reward or advantage
Stages of language acquisition: Grammatically correct sentences
Period form 2.5 to 5 years of age is marked by increasing sentence complexity, grammatical accuracy, and continued vocabulary growth; increasing use of questions, negatives, and passive voice
Personality in Adulthood
Personality becomes relatively stable after age 30. Greatest changes occur in young adulthood. Agreeableness, social dominance, conscientiousness, and emotional stability increase over the lifespan.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. He distinguished between two stages of moral development: Heteronormous morality and autonomous morality.
Erikson: Basic trust vs basic mistrust
Positive relationship with one's primary caregiver during infancy results in sense of trust and optimism
Emotions: Early Emotions
Primary emotions emerge at birth - interest, sadness, disgust, and distress. 6-8 months also display anger, joy, surprise, and fear 18-24 months begin to display self-conscious emotions
Brain development - prefrontal
Primary motor and sensory areas are first cortical regions to dev., the prefrontal cortex continues to dev into mid 20's
Adolescent Identity Crisis
Primary task in adolescent dev. is to achieve an identity (Erikson). 4 identity statuses that reflect the degree to which a person has experienced an identity crisis. 1. Identity Diffusion - not experienced a crisis and are uncommitted to an identity. 2. Identity Foreclosure - not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity that has been imposed 3. Identity Moratorium - experiences identity crisis and actively explores identities. Results in confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness. 4. Identity Achievement - resolved identity crisis and committed to identity.
Moral Development: Kohlberg - Preconventional
Punishment and Obedience Orientation: Goodness or badness of an act depends on the punishment Instrumental Hedonism: Still act around avoiding punishment but more oriented toward rewards.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 2
Punishment is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid. Children are no longer so impressed by any single authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to make deals and exchange favors with others.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 1
Punishment is tied up in the child's mind with wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. Children think of what is right as that which authority says is right. Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment.
Temperament refers to
Quality + intensity of a child's reactions to unusual events, emotional stimuli, + his/her own impulses; has strong genetic component + may contribute to adult personality
Memory Research Methods in Infancy
Researchers investigating memory in infancy have relied primarily on three techniques; habituation; operant conditioning; and deferred imitations.
Kohlberg's Conventional Level
Second level; accepts social conventions abt what is right + wrong; 1) good girl/boy stage: obey rules + laws to obtain approval and acceptance; 2) law and order stage: obey rules + laws to show respect for authority and maintain the social order
Industry vs. inferiority
School-age -people in neighborhood and the school are important, Child must master social and academic skills such to feel competent
Attachment: Patterns
Secure: Explores and plays in mother's absence. Mildly upset when mother leaves and actively connects when she returns. Insecure (Anxious/Ambivalent): Becomes very distressed when left alone with stranger. Is ambivalent when mother returns (alternates between anger and clingy). Insecure (Anxious/Avoidant): Shows little distress when mother leaves. Avoids/ignores mother when she returns. Disorganized: Exhibit fear of their caregivers. Appear confused. 80% of mistreated infants are categorized this way.
Children w insecure/avoidant attachment
Seem oblivious to their mother's presence; they don't cry when mom leaves and avoid/ignore her when she returns; dislike being held, but dislike being put down even more; respond to mother + stranger in similar ways
Social cognitive factors of aggression
Self efficacy beliefs (say they can't control impulses) Beliefs about the outcomes of their behaviors (rewarded) Less regret or remorse Hostile attribution bias
Personal Speech (Vygotsky)
Self-Directed Private speech allows children to regulate and organize their behaviors. Late becomes internalized as inner silent speech.
What effect was witnessed with regard to teachers' expectations about student achievement?
Self-fulfilling prophecy effect (Rosenthal): when teachers were told that randomly selected students were actually academic "bloomers," the students selected actually demonstrated unusual gains in IQ scores (due to subtle differences in how the teacher treated them)
Strongest evidence of success in reducing teen pregnancy rates
Service learning programs (e.g., Teen Outreach) and comprehensive multi-modal programs (i.e., the Children's Aid Society-Carrera Program)
Authoritative
Set high standards; expect compliance, seek children's input, warm & nurturing, kids are independent and confident
Bilingualism/bilingual education
Several benefits including higher cognitive flexibility, complexity, analytical reasoning, and metalingualistic awareness. Inconsistent results in the research regarding outcomes Overall conclusion is that children who participate in programs acquire English and knowledge of subjects as well or better than those who have English only programs
Signs of attachment: Separation anxiety
Severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from his or her primary caregiver
Separation anxiety
Severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from the primary caregiver; begins 6 months of age, peaks in intensity at 14-18 months, then gradually declines
Sexual activity in late adulthood - predictors of it, why it might decline, satisfaction levels
Sexual activity in midlife and earlier predicts sexual activity in late adulthood. Both men and women say declines in sexual activity are due to men's health problems. Women also report a lack of a sexual partner. Overall, there is an improvement in sexual satisfaction as one ages, with larger effects for men than women.
Sensory Motor Stage (0-2 years)
The child learns about objects through the sensory stimulation they provide (e.g., taste, look, feel, etc.). 6 sub-stages that progress from reflexive learning to the development of mental representations.
Pre-Conventional Level of Moral Development
The first level of moral development proposed by Kohlberg. At this level, moral judgments are based on concerns related to punishments and rewards. In response to the Heinz dilemma, a child at the pre-conventional level might say that Heinz should not steal the drug because if he's caught, he will go to jail.
In re: divorce, long-term consequences worse for children who:
Were in elementary school when their parents divorced
Resilience Factors
Werner & Smith 1982: Found that high risk babies outcome could be mediated by resilience factors.
Neurogenesis
The formation of new synaptic connections and neural pathways by creating new neurons (happens in order to compensate for neuronal loss)
Latency Stage
The fourth psychosexual stage (6-puberty), in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills.
Reminiscence Bump
The greater memory for events that occurred during the early teens to the late 20's. Although the reason for the reminiscence bump is not yet clear, some suggest it may be due to the fact that biological, cognitive, and environmental factors during adolescence caused personally relevant events to be more efficiently encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Erikson's Intimacy v. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
The main task during early adulthood is the establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship. If such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result.
Erikson's Industry v. Inferiority (School Age)
The most important influences at this stage are people in the neighborhood and the school. To avoid feelings of inferiority, the school-age child must master certain social and academic skills.
Freud's Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
The mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation, and weaning is the primary source of conflict. Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits (smoking, nail biting, overeating, etc.)
Effects of Divorce on Child Development
The negative effects of divorce for children are usually most severe during the first year of divorce, after which children begin to return to their pre-divorce levels of adjustment. The effects are mediated by several factors. One of the most significant factors is the extent to which children are exposed to intense conflict between their parents after the separation. The greater the conflict, the worse the outcomes.
Catch-Up Growth
The occurrence of rapid growth in children who have experienced growth deficits as a way to catch up to the genetically programmed growth course.
Leading causes of death: 45-64 age group
The onset of chronic diseases becomes the leading cause of death. The prevalence of chronic conditions rises consistently with age, which raises overall death rates significantly.
Erikson: Generativity vs stagnation
The people one lives and works with are most important during this stage; generative person exhibits commitment to the wellbeing of future generations
Erikson's Generativity v. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
The people one lives and worth with are most important during this stage. A generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations.
Embryonic Period
The period from two/three to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.
Phenotype
The physical traits that appear in an individual as a result of its genetic make up.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 4
The respondent becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 6
The respondent has a clearer and broader conception of universal principles, which includes justice as well as individual rights e.g., philosophers Kant and Rawls & great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 5
The respondent is working toward a conception of the good society. A smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. Less concerned with maintaining society for it own sake and more concerned with the principles and values that make for a good society.
Theories of Language Development: Behavioral Theories
The result of classical & operant conditioning & imitation, motherese, and recasting
Speech Sounds: Morphemes
The smallest units of sound that convey meaning - Made up of one or more phonemes
microsystem
The social environment that directly surrounds the person, represents the most primary level. Examples of the microsystem include: the classroom, family, or a sports team.
Concrete Operational Stage
The stage of cognitive development (~ 6 or 7 to 11 yo) when children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; As a result of the development of perspective-taking and a decline in egocentrism, the child is better able to consider the consequences of his/her actions and how others will respond to those actions i.e., the development of a "reflective self" Decentration occurs. Conservation occurs.
Kohlberg's view on how one progresses through stages of moral development
The stages emerge from our own thinking about moral problems. Social experiences do promote development, but they do so by stimulating our mental processes. As we get into discussions and debates with others, we find our views questioned and challenged and are therefore motivated to come up with new, more comprehensive positions. New stages reflect these broader viewpoints (Kohlberg et al., 1975).
Semantic Bootstrapping
The use of one's knowledge of a word to infer it's syntactical category (e.g., grammatical category - non, verb, etc.)
Syntactic Bootstraping
The use of one's syntactic (grammatical) knowledge of a word to learn the meaning of a word.
Teratogens - what are they? when are they most impactful?
They are substances that cause birth defects - e.g. drugs, chemicals, maternal conditions. They are most impactful during embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) because they change structures, like the central nervous system.
Teratogens: What are they? When are they most impactful?
They are substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus (e.g., drugs, chemicals, certain maternal conditions) They are most impactful when exposure occurs during embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) because they cause structural abnormalities, such as to the central nervous system
Rooting Reflex
Turns head in the direction of touch applied to cheek
Early reflexes: Rooting reflex
Turns head in the direction of touch applied to the cheek
Children's understanding of death: nonfunctionality
Understanding that life involves thinking, breathing, eating, and other essential functions that cease at death
Self-awareness
Understanding that one is separate from others
Prenatal and perinatal stress, and positive outcomes
Werner and Smith 1982 - found that high risk infants do okay if: - fewer stressors after birth - easy temperament and social responsibility, -good communication skills, -consistent eating and sleeping patterns, and -stable support from caregivers
Secure-Autonomous
Value attachment relationships, integrate positive and negative childhood experiences
Empathy
Vicarious experiencing of another person's feelings
Late physical maturation boys
Viewed as more childish, engage in more attention seeking B, lower self-confidence, more susceptible to depression.
Types of Chromosomal alterations
What are you deletion- part of a chromosome is missing e.g. prader-Willi - intellectual disabilities obese OCD behaviors Translocation - transfer of assessment to another chromosome, sometimes Downs syndrome has segment of 21 attached to another Inversion - chromosome breaks, flips, and reattaches taxes. No known impacts on phenotype.
Television Neg. Impact
Viewing violent programs is associated with aggression. More TV = more sex-stereotyped roles, reduced activity, weight gain, less reading, poor school performance, less creativity, and less familial interactions.
physical changes in adulthood
Vision - another card Auditory -many people experience problems by 40 years, most not until 75 years or older 75 to 79 years - 50% hearing deficits that interfere with functioning Strength, coordination, and reaction time all decrease
Vision in newborns
Vision lease developed sense at birth- can see at 20 feet how adults see at 200 to 400 feet Buy six months, almost like an adult Limited colors @ two months, depth by 4 to 6 months Newborns prefer faces by two months, newborns prefer mom's face over strangers face First respond to kinetic cues, binocular cues, pictorial cues
Least developed sense at birth
Vision; At birth, newborn sees at 20 ft what normal adult sees at 200-400ft
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky discrepancy between child's current developmental level and level of development that is just beyond their current level but can be reached with some help Symbolic play provides this zone
Internalization is a key concept in _____'s theory of cog dev:
Vygotsky; involves an internal reconstruction of an external operation; speech first serves a social fx (social speech); is then used to direct, plan, + eval one's one actions (private speech); and then acts as a tool for thinking (internal speech)
Permissive (indulgent)
Warm & caring, but few demands & non punitive Allow kids to make decisions about what chores to do, when to go to bed Kids are immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, low in achievement & independence
Infantile Amnesia
We don't remember stuff before age 3. Perhaps don't have enough brain power (related to memory, prefrontal cortex not developed yet)
Alterations in chromosome structure: Deletion
When part of a chromosome is missing
Increasing Age and Memory
a greater negative impact on explicit memory than implicit memory. Ex. Older Adults will have more trouble recalling what they need at the grocery store than remember a familiar song while singing.
Childhood Amnesia
aka infantile amnesia The phenomenon that most adults can't recall events experiences prior to the age of 3 or 4. Why? Area of the brain needed for memory of events, especially prefrontal lobes, are not sufficiently developed prior to age 4. Another theory: absence of language abilities needed to encode information.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
all learning as socially mediated cognitive development is first INTERPERSONAL (child's interactions with others) then INTRAPERSONAL (child internalized what they have learned).
Ainsworth Insecure (Anxious)/Ambivalent Attachment
alternates between clinging and resisting their mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, and is ambivalent when the mother returns and may become angry and resist the mother's attempt at physical contact. Mother's of these children are often moody and inconsistent in their caregiving.
habituation/dishabituation
an experimental technique that allows researchers to measure recognition in babies
Behavioral Inhibition in Early Childhood
associated with an increased risk for social anxiety in adolescence and with a less active social life in early adulthood.
Secular trends
differences in timing of physical changes that are found in children belonging to different cohorts e.g., age of menarche
Self-Description (Stipek 1990)
emerges between 19 and 30 months of age when children use both neutral terms (Brown hair) and evaluative terms (Good Girl) to describe themselves.
Easy Children
even-tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new situations and people and a preponderance of good moods.
Physical self-recognition (Stipek 1990)
evident by 18 months of age when infants begin to recognize themselves in the mirror and pictures.
Baumrind Authoritarian Parents
exhibit a high degree of demandingness and low responsivity. They impose absolute standards of conduct, stress obedience, and use physical punishment, threats, deprivation, and other power assertive techniques to gain compliance. Their offspring are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent and have limited sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement.
Baumrind Rejecting-Neglecting Parents (uninvolved)
exhibit low levels of responsivity and demandingness, and they may be overtly hostile toward their children. Offspring of these parents have low self-esteem and poor self-control and are often impulsive, moody and aggressive. The characteristics of rejecting-neglecting parents resemble those predictive of juvenile delinquency. Research has found that adolescent delinquency is associated with a lack of parental warmth, a lack of supervision, and inconsistent or harsh punishment. Worst outcomes, prone to Substance Abuse and Antisocial Behavior.
Synchrony Effect
for older adults peak arousal and task performance levels occur in the morning, while younger adults have higher levels of both in the evening.
Early Recognition and Recall Memory Barr Study
found that 75% of the 6 month, 9 month, and 12 month infants in their study successfully imitated a sequence that involved removing a mitten from a puppet, shaking the mitten, and then replacing the mitten on the puppet after a delay of two days.
Grammatically Correct Sentences
from about 2 1/2 to 5 years of age child creates sentences of increased complexity, grammatical accuracy, and continued vocab growth with about 50 coming each month.
Holophrastic Speech
from one to two years of age, children use single words that express whole phrases and sentences. involves using gestures and intonation to turn a single word into a comment, question or command.
Embryonic Stage
from the 3rd week to the 8th week
Sensory abilities: 2-3 months
full color vision
mesosystem
functions like links in a chain; Connects various elements of the microsystem together. For instance, a parent-teacher conference could act as a mesosystem, connecting the child's teachers and parents.
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism; an organism's combination of alleles
Auditory localization in newborns
hears in utero last few months Auditory localization - shortly after birth, disappears at 2 to 4 months, reappears after that Three months - infants distinguish and prefer voices
Mesosystem
connections between microsystems (how family members impact childs behavior at school)
Epigenesis
development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment
Sensiomotor - object permanence and other stuff
object permanence - substage 4, knowing things exist even when out of sight - also being to understand causality, deferred imitation, and make-believe (symbolic) play
Interactionist Approach to Language Acquisition
obtained to a combination of biological and environmental factors. social-communications version. in some cultures parents use "child-directed" speech where they speak slowly, use shorter and simpler sentences, exaggerate and repeat most important words, and frequently ask questions.
Turner Syndrome
occurs in females and caused by the presence of a single X chromosome
Klinefelter Syndrome
occurs in males and due to the presence of two or more X chromosomes along with a single Y chromosome.
Overextension
occurs when a child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events that is appropriate. (ex. any four legged animal as doggie.)
Underextension
occurs when a child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations. (ex. Use dish to refer only to the dish that child uses.)
Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlation
occurs when a child's genetic make-up evokes reactions from parents and others that reinforce his or her genetic make-up.
inversion
occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places and the segment formed by the breaks inverts and reattaches to the chromosome.
Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation
occurs when children inherit genes from their parents that predispose them toward particular traits, and the parents provide the children with environments that encourage the development of those traits.
deletion
occurs when part of the chromosome is missing (Prader-Willi Syndrome)
Montessori Method
originally designed for IQ disabled children. child-centered learning. based on the assumption that learning is based on sense perception and therefore learning that enhances sense discrimination is most helpful.
Critical periods exist for ___ development vs. while most ___ development has sensitive periods.
physical; social-emotional (e.g. attachment, language)
Critical periods exist for ___ development while most ___ development has sensitive periods.
physical; social-emotional (e.g. attachment, language)
Failure to Thrive
infants and children who do not grow at expected rates; Describes stunted growth, weight loss, and delays in cognitive and socioemotional development in infants.
Chomksy proposes that an _______________________ makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it
innate language acquisition device
Scaffolding
instruction, assistance, and support and is most effective when it involves modelling, providing cues, and encouraging the child to think of alternative plans of action.
Symptoms of Prader-Willi Syndrome
intellectual disability, obese and may exhibit obsessive-compulsive behaviors.
Mesosystem
interactions between components of the microsystem, such as the influence of family factors on the child's behavior at school.
Difficult temperament
irritable, active, irregular schedules
Difficult Children
irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, and have unpredictable habits and perponderance of negative moods.
The prompt and consistent response of a mother to her infants cries.
is associated with a decrease in the frequency and duration of crying in subsequent months as well as with greater reliance on gestures, facial expressions, and other types of vocalization as a form of communication (Bell and Ainsworth 1972)
Phenylketonuria
lack of enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid found in milk, eggs, bread and other foods.
Family factors related to delinquency: (3)
lack of parental warmth, lack of supervision, inconsistent or harsh discipline
Sensory abilities: newborns
limited visual acuity, within days prefer facial images
relationship between children and step-mothers
more frequent interactions, often harsh
Children who are older when their parents divorce tend to experience
more long-term consequences e.g., lasting painful memories, fear in their own ability to be happily married
Children who are preschool-aged when their parents divorce tend to experience...
more short-term consequences e.g., self-blame, immature behavior, separation anxiety
First Words
most often nominals and refer to dynamic objects (Dog, car) or objects the child uses (spoon).
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
the children exhibit fear of their caregivers, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors. (Greeting mom when she returns but then turn back)
Levinson The Age 30 Transition Age 28 to 33
the life structure built in the 20's is not adequate, a sense of urgency is developed to fully enter into the adult world and followed by a period of "settling down".
Self-Awareness (Stipek 1990)
the understanding that one is separate from others. it becomes apparent during the second year of life.
canalization
used to describe characteristics in which genotype restricts phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes.
Heritability index
used to estimate degree to which a characteristic is attributed to genetic factors
Chomsky and the Nativist Approach
proposes that an innate language acquisition device makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it. Supported by research showing children master the basics of language between the ages of 4 and 6 regardless of the complexity of their native language.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development and major contributions/challenges in each stage:
sensorimotor - object permanence preoperational - precausal reasoning (not understanding cause & effect, which leads to MAGICAL THINKING, ANIMISM) concrete operational - conservation, horizontal decalage (=gradual acquisition of conservation abilities within a specific stage of development) formal operational - adolescent egocentrism - personal fable - "I'm unique and not subject to the same laws that govern others." - imaginary audience - "I am always the center of attention."
Separation Anxiety
severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from their primary caregiver. It begins at about 6 to 8 months of age, peaks at about 14 to 18 months of age, and then gradually declines.
Rutter's Indicators (of child psychopathology)
severe marital discord low socioeconomic status overcrowding or large family size parental criminality maternal psychopathology placement of the child outside the home.
Symptoms of Turner Syndrome
short in stature drooping eyelids webbed neck absent of secondary sex characteristics cognitive deficits
Signs of attachment and at what age they occur
social referencing - where the infant takes cues from other people, especially caregivers (begins 6 months of age) separation anxiety (begins 6 months of age, peak intensity 1.5 years) stranger anxiety (8 months to 2 years)
Babbling
starts between 6 to 8 weeks of age when they are happy. at 4 months involves the simple repetition of a simple consonant or vowel sound. early babbling = all languages 9-14 months of age babbling = native language
Patterson's theory re: coercive fam interactions takes into account reciprocal influences of parent and child; views coercive discipline as being more likely in presence of:
stressful life events, certain personality characteristics in parents, and a temperamentally difficult child
Early Recognition and Recall Memory
studies using habituation as the research methodology have found that, by three months of age, infants demonstrate recognition memory for a stimulus for up to 24 hours following exposure to that stimulus.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
symbolic (semiotic) function: extension of representational thought and permits the child to learn through the use of language, mental images and other symbols and can solve problems mentally.
Episodic Memory: Childhood (Infantile) Amnesia
- inability to remember events they experienced prior to age 3 or 4 - could be due to lack of brain development (e.g., prefrontoal lobes) in areas important for memory - could also result from lack of language abilities that are necessary to encode information
Formal Operational Stage: Adolescent Egocentrism
- inability to separate one's own abstract thoughts from the thoughts of others
Slow-to-Warm Up Temperament
- inactive and somewhat negative in mood - take time to adjust to new stimuli
Teratogens: Cocaine
- increases the risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth - high risk for SIDS, seizures, low brithweight,a nd reduced head circumference - cognitive and behavior problems may persist at least into the early school years
Erickson: Basic Trust vs Mistrust
- infancy - a positive relationship with one's primary caregiver during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism
Heterzygous
- inhereted the gene from only one parent (e.g., 1 dominant gene, 1 recessive gene)
Simple Social (Associative) Play
- involves engaging in similar activities while interacting through physical contact, smiling, and talking
Nativist View of Language and Thought
- language and thought are independent
Deletion
- occurs when part of a chromosome is missing - ex. Prader-Willi syndrome
Preoperational Stage: Egocentrism
- refers to the child's inability to separate his perspective from that of others - inability to imagine another person's point of view
Developmental milestones: 10-12 months
-At 10-11 months: stands alone, walks with help -At ~12 months: takes first steps alone
Cognitive Equilibrium
- according to Piaget, the motivation for cogntiive development - a discrepancy between reality and the person's current understanding of the world upsets this and leads to development
Gender-Role Identity: Social Learning Theory
- acquire identity as a result of a combination of rewards and punishments and modeling and imitation
Behavioral Approach to Language
- acquired like any other behavior through imitation and reinforcement
Thomas and Chess's Termperment Qualities
- activity level, rhythmicity, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, threshold of responsiveness, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, distractibility, and persistence
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 1 - Reflexive Schemas
- birth-1 month - the infant exercises her reflexes
Most children use sentences of 3+ words by about:
24-36 months of age
Developmental milestones (25-48 months)
30 months - jumps with both feet, good hand-finger coordination 36 months - tricycle, dresses and undresses, usually completely toilet trained 48 months - stable hand preference
rapid vocab growth
30-36 months three word sentences
Developmental Milestones 25-48 months
-Jumps with both feet & good hand-finger coordination -Rides tricycle, dresses & undresses usually toilet trained -Stable hand preference
What are phonemes? What are morphemes?
-Phonemes: the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language (e.g., English has 45; b, p, f, v, th...) -Morpheme: the smallest units of sound that convey meaning; made up of one or more phonemes (e.g., -ing, do, go, un-, -ed)
Family characteristics which increase risk for child matreatment
-Poverty -Unemployment -Social isolation -Marital instability -Domestic violence -Lack of access to medical care and social services -Crowded living conditions
Emotional contagion and signs of it
1. Ability of infants to detect emotions in others 2. Infant spontaneously crying in response to the cries of another infant; infant's reaction to the facial expressions of caregivers
Physical Developmental Milestones: 1-3 months
1. Able to raise chin from ground and turn head from side to side 2. By third month, can play with hands and fingers and brings objects in hand to mouth
Gender identity development according to cognitive development theory
1. Acquisition of gender identity involves a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development: i. Gender identity ii. Gender stability iii. Gender constancy
Physical self-recognition: definition and at what age is it evident
1. Recognizing oneself in picutres/mirrors 2. About 18 months
Piaget's tertiary circular response can be viewed as:
A "miniature experiment;" involves engaging in specific actions to observe their consequences (substage 5)
Lev Vygotsky's view of cog dev is best described as:
A contextual approach; emphasizes social and cultural influences; focused on specific contexts in which cog dev occurs
Research on Gay and Lesbian Parents
A criticism of the existing research is that much of it has included small, non-representative samples. However, given this limitation, the best conclusion that can be drawn from the studies is that there are no significant differences between children from heterosexual or gay/lesbian families in terms of social/emotional well-being and gender identity, sex role behaviors, and sexual orientation. Factors other than the parent's sexual orientation, such as their child-rearing skills and attitudes seem to be more important determinants of children's outcomes and the research has found that heterosexual and gay/lesbian parents do not differ significantly in terms of these factors.
Hostile aggression
Angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person
Disorders due to variation in genes
Down Syndrome Klinefelter Syndrome Turner Syndrome
Disorders due to chromosomal anomalies
Down Syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turners syndrome, Fragile X
Disorders due to variation in number of chromosomes
Down syndrome (extra 21st chrom); Klinefelter, Turners
According to Piaget, animism and magical thinking are attributable to precausal reasoning that, in turn, is due to:
Egocentrism, which underlies many of the limitations of the preoperational stage
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
Moro (startle) reflex
Flings arms and legs in response to loud noise or sudden loss of support.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Formal operational stage; ability to test hypotheses by varying one aspect of the situation at a time while holding all other aspects constant
Representational (Symbolic) Thought
Forming internal representations that allow the child to think about absent objects and past events and to anticipate consequences of an action..
Marcia's Identity Statuses
Identity Diffusion, Identity Foreclosure, Identity Moratorium, Identity Achievement
Identity Strauses (Marcia)
Identity diffusion - not committed to identity, not experienced crisis or exploring alternatives Identity foreclosure - no crisis, adopted an identity that has been imposed on them Identity moratorium - identity crisis, exploring alternative identities, higher confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness during this time Identity achievement-resolved identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity- Identity achieved
Children begin to use memory strategies regularly:
By age 9 or 10; start w rehearsal, then organization + elaboration; uses more deliberately in adolescence
recessive gene disorders
Caused by the inheritance of a pair of recessive genes. Ex: is PKU
Dominant Gene Disorder
Caused by the inheritance of one gene. Ex: Hunnington's
Factors that contribute to inability to conserve in the preoperational stage
Centration + irreversibility
Least well-developed part of central nervous system at birth:
Cerebral cortex (so newborn bx are primarily reflexive, i.e., mediated by lower centers of brain)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Challenges Piaget's theory; Emphasizes the role of interpersonal interactions in cognitive development and proposes that learning occurs on two levels. First, between the child and another person and then within the child. In other words, learning is social and then individual. Example: If a teacher gives a child verbal instructions on how to complete a task, the child will subsequently use similar self-instructions to guide herself through the task. Vygotsky believed that because of the interpersonal nature of learning, cognitive development always reflects the particular cultural, social, and historical circumstances in which it occurs.
chronosystem
Includes the passage of time and events in history
Vocabulary Growth
at about 18 months of age, the vocabulary of the child begins to grow with the fastest growth from 30 to 36 months. At 36 months, the child's vocabulary contains about 1000 words and they are using sentences that contain 3 or 4 words.
Adolescent Egocentrism
cannot separate one's own abstract thoughts from the thoughts of others
Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation
children inherit genetic tendencies from their parents, and parents also provide an environment that matches their own genetic tendencies. The impact is greatest in infancy and early childhood.
Code-Switching
common among bilinguals and involves alternating between languages during a conversation and appears to serve several functions. (better express themselves or to `establish rapport)
Interactionist approach to language development
Language development is attributable to a combination of biological and environmental factors
Language Development: Behaviorist
Language is acquired just like any other behavior: through imitation and reinforcement.
Behaviorist approach to language development
Language is acquired like any other behavior through imitation and reinforcement
Language Development: Interactionist
Language is developed through a combination of biological and environmental factors.
Erikson's Industry vs. Inferiority corresponds to Freud's
Latency Stage
Goodness-of-Fit
Maladjustment is the result of a poor fit between a child's temperament and environment i.e., the parents' response pattern. More appropriate fit leads to a better adjusted child
Gender differences in biological vulnerability
Males are more vulnerable than girls More stillborn for boys, more infant boys die, have physical illnesses, etc.
Gender difference in biological vulnerabilities
Males are more vulnerable to still birth, spontaneous abortion, etc. Also more vulnerable to heart disease, cancer, diabetes, etc.
Turner syndrome
Occurs in females; caused by presence of single X chromosome; short in stature, dropping eyelids, webbed neck, and other characteristic physical features; slowed or absent dev of secondary sex characteristics, may have hearing + vision probs, and LD
Klienfelter's Syndrome
Occurs in males. Caused by the presence of one or more additional X chromosomes in addition to a Y chromosome. Results in a small penis and testes, breast dev., sterility, and LD.
Klinefelter syndrome
Occurs in males; due to presence of two or more X chromosomes along w single Y chromosome; smaller than normal genitalia, dev of breasts during puberty, infertility, long legs w short trunk, and in some cases, LD + bx probs
Vision
Preference for faces 5 days after birth. Preference for mom's face.
Irreversibility
Preoperational Stage: do not recognize that actions can be reversed.
Centration
Preoperational Stage: focus on the most noticeable features of objects. Unable to conserve.
Egocentrisim
Preoperational Stage: inability to separate his or her perspective from that of another.
Precasual (transductive) reasoning
Preoperational Stage: reflects an incomplete understanding of cause and effect.
Animism
Preoperational Stage: tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects.
Freud's Stages
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital orangutans always play (with) little gorillas
Freud's stages of psychosocial development
Oral (birth -1 year) Anal (1-3 years) Phallic (3-6 years) Latency (6-12 years) Genital (12+ years)
Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust corresponds to Freud's
Oral Stage
Psychoanalytic theory describes the attachment of an infant to his/her mother as the consequence of ______________, while learning theory regards it more generally as the result of ________________
Oral gratification; reinforcement
Complications during birth that impact infant development
Prolonged anoxia-oxygen storage Delayed motor and cognitive milestones, intellectual disability, cerebral palsy Herpes- can transfer during delivery and cause death brain damage blindness C-sections are common practice
Developmental milestones (1-2 months)
Raise chin, turn head Three months - play with hands, bring objects to mouth
Developmental Milestones 1-3 months
Raise head from ground and turn it side to side. Can play with hands/fingers and bring objects to mouth.
By 2 months, a baby...
Raises chin from ground TURNS head from side to side Brings objects in hand to mouth
Unoccupied play
Random movements that do not seem to have a goal
Peer and Social Relationships: Peer Status
Rejected & Neglected Children - Rejected-Aggressive = hostile, hyperactive, impulsive, and difficulty regulating neg. affect - Rejected-Withdrawn = social ANX, submissive, neg. expectations, unsure about others treatment of them. - Neglected Children = alone but fine with it Being actively rejected = worse outcomes
Parenting factors related to child aggression
Rejecting Lack of warmth Permissive or indifferent Power-assertive discipline
adolescent egocentrism
Renewed egocentrism of adolescence that includes personal fable and imaginary audience.
Echolalia and expressive jargon
Repeating others speech Jargon - sounds like expressive language but meaningless
Children 2-5 years of age view death as ________
Reversible and temporary; perceive death as separation or abandonment
Developmental Milestones 4-6 months
Rolls from abdomen to back. Can sit on lap, reach, and grasp. Can sit alone and stand with help. First teeth 5 - 9 months.
Self-fulfilling prophecy effect
Rosenthal effect Expectations about student achievement are predictive of their actual achievement-likely due to the way they are treated
Diseases in moms that impact fetus development
Rubella Herpes -cytomegalovirus HIV/Aids Malnutrition Stress
Decentration
The ability to focus on more than one aspect of an object at the same time.
Freud's Anal Stage (1-3 years)
The main issue during this stage is control of bodily wastes, and conflicts stem from issues related to toilet training. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive behavior) or anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness.)
Scaffolding
Vygotsky's theory that asserts that the process of teaching at a rate neither provides too much nor too little direction to the student
Who talks about the goodness of fit model?
Thomas and Chess
Autonomy vs. shame
Toddlerhood- A sense of self develops
Autonomy v. Shame
Toddlerhood: sense of self (autonomy) develops from +interactions with caregivers
Babinski
Toes fan out and up when soles tickled
Early reflexes: Babinski reflex
Toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled
Babiniski Reflex
Toes fan out and upward when soles of the feet are tickled.
Babinski reflex
Toes fan out and upward when the soles of the feet are touched.
Anal stage
Toilet training Anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, OCD behaviors) and anal explosiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness)
Young people begin to describe themselves in terms of personality attributes - e.g., "I'm smart, friendly, shy" etc:
Toward end of middle childhood (ages 10-12);
Children's understanding of death: irreversibility
Understanding that a living being cannot physically return from death
Females
XX
stepping reflex
a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking
Nativist Approach to Language Acquisition
due to biological mechanisms and stresses universal patterns of language development.
Microsystem
the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment (siblings, school, parents, etc)
Epigenesis
process by which relationship between environment and genetics is bidirectional and ongoing
Chomsky (1957) Deep Structure
refers to underlying meanings of sentences.
Prosodic Bootstrapping
refers using the pitch and rhythm (etc) to an utterance to determine meaning.
Critical Periods
specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development.
Preoperational Stage: Animism
- teh tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects
Genotype
Genetic inheritance
Retention Function
Greater recall of recent events in the last 20yrs in adults aged 50+
Infant mortality rate in the United States
about 7 out of 1,000 live births
Proximal Development
Can perform task with assistance but not alone
Fetal Stage
from the 9th week to birth
Heterozygous
inherited a gene from one parent
Vision
least developed sense at birth. becomes normal by 6 months.
Rutter's indicators (6)
zero risk factors - 2% chance of developing psychiatric issues four or more risk factors - 21% of developing psychiatric issues Six accurate predictors of child psychopathology are: serious marital discord Low SES Overcrowding or a large family size Parental criminality Maternal psychopathology Child placement outside of the home
Object Permanence
Recognition that things continue to exist when they are out of sight
Reflexes (Piaget)
"Building blocks" of cognitive development from birth to one month
Freud oral stage
(birth to 18 months) Relief from anxiety through oral gratification of needs
Active Genotype-Environment Correlation
"Niche Picking" children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions.
Patterns of attachment
(Ainsworth) Secure - mild distress when mother leaves, seek mother when she returns - Mother is emotionally responsive to baby's cues. Insecure (Anxious)/Ambivalent - alternates between cleaning and resisting mother. - Mother is Moody, inconsistent. Insecure (Anxious)/Avoidant - interacts very little with mother, little distress when she leaves the room. - Mother is impatient ORprovides too much stimulation. Disorganized/Disoriented - fear, confusion in response to caregiver - 80% of infants have been mistreated show this pattern
Coercive Family Interaction Model ...and associated intervention
(Patterson 1992) 1. At first, children learn aggressive behaviors from parents - no reinforcement of prosocial behaviors, harsh discipline, reinforcement of aggression with approval and attention 2. Then, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. As there is more stress, there is more coercive discipline. What to do about this? Oregon Model of Parent Management Training (PMTO) - parenting skills - parental therapy to cope with stress
Coercive Family Interaction Model ...and associated intervention
(Patterson 1992) 1. At first, children learn aggressive behaviors from parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward aggressiveness with approval and attention 2. Then, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. As there is more stress, if the parents have certain personality characteristics, or if the child has a difficult temperament, the likelihood that parents will use coercive forms of discipline increases What to do about this? Oregon Model of Parent Management Training (PMTO) -Teaches parenting skills (limit setting/discipline, monitoring/supervision, problem solving, positive involvement, skill encouragement) -Provides parents with therapy to cope more effectively with stress
Gilligan's theory of moral development
(Rebuttal to Kohlberg, who only did research on males. She did research on females.) Level 1 - orientation of INDIVIDUAL SURVIVAL (focus on what's best for self) Transition 1 - from selflessness to RESPONSIBILITY (recognition that one is connected to OTHERS) Level 2 - goodness as self-SACRIFICE (sacrificing one's own desires for those of others) Transition 2 - from goodness to TRUTH (focus is on coordinating one's responsibilities to self and others) Level three - morality of NONVIOLENCE (foremost consideration is avoiding harm to self and to others)
Gilligan's theory of moral development
(Rebuttal to Kohlberg, who only did research on males. She did research on females.) Level 1: Orientation of INDIVIDUAL SURVIVAL (focus on what's best for oneself) • Transition 1: From selfishness to RESPONSIBILITY (recognition that one is connected to OTHERS) Level 2: Goodness as SELF-SACRIFICE (sacrificing one's own desires for those of others) • Transition 2: From goodness to TRUTH (focus is on coordinating one's responsibilities to self and others) Level three: Morality of NONVIOLENCE (foremost consideration is avoiding harm to self and to others)
Types of temperament (3) How far into life does temperament predict adjustment?
(Thomas and Chess) Easy Difficult Slow to warm up Later adjustment could be predicted into young adulthood.
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Anal
- 1-3 years - control of bodily wastes and toilet training is the primary conflict - fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, OCD behaviors) or anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness)
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 2 - Primary Circular Reactions
- 1-4 months - the infant attempts to repeat pleasurable events involving his own body (e.g., thumbsucking)
Piaget: Autonomous Morality
- 11+ years - morality of cooperation - view rules as arbitrary and as being alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change - focus more on the intention of the actor than on the act's consequences
Formal Operational Stage
- 11+ years - person is able to think abstractly and capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Gilligan's Relational Crisis
- 11-12 years - a response to increasing pressures to fit cultural stereotypes of the "perfect good woman" - disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others and experience drop in academic achievement, loss of self-esteem, and vulnerability to psychopathology - try to help girls maintain a "healthy resistance to disconnection"
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Genital
- 12+ years - libido is centered in the genitals and a successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 5 - Tertiary Circular Reaction
- 12-18 months - the infant deliberately varies an action or action sequence to discover the consequences of doing so (e.g., drops a toy from different heights)
Levinson: Early Adult Transition
- 17-22 years - entails leaving the world of childhood and forming the initial foundation of life in the adult world - tasks involve becoming independent from parents and getting involved in college, military, entry level job etc - leads to the formation of The Dream, which is an image of an ideal life that guides on's decisions and choices
Stages of Language Acquisition: Telegraphic Speech
- 18-24 months - string two or more words together to make a sentence - usually only contain nouns, verbs, and adjectives at first (me go)
Stages of Language Acquisition: Telegraphic Speech
- 18-24 months - string two or more words together to make a sentence - usually only contain nouns, verbs, and adjectives at first (me go) - add prepositions around 27 months and then vocabulary is around 300-400 words
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 6 - Mental Representation
- 18-24 months - the infant develops representational (symbolic) thought, which involves forming internal representations that allow her to think about absent objects and past events and to anticipate the consequences of an action
Preoperational Stage
- 2-7 years - a key characteristic is the symbolic (semiotic) function, which is an extension of representational thought and permits the child to learn through the use of language, mental images, and other symbols - can engage in symbolic play and solve problems mentally
Stages of Language Acquisition: Grammatically Correct Sentences
- 2.5-5yrs - increased sentence complexity, grammatical accuracy, and continued vocabulary growth - about 50 new words per month - temporary overgeneralization of grammatical rules is common
Levison: The Age 30 Transition
- 28-33 years - realize that the life structure built during one's 20s is not adequate - a sense of urgency to fully enter the adult world develops - usually involves a period of settling down
Children's Understanding of Death
- 3-4 years: don't understand death is irreversible and believe the dead retain some of the capacities they had while alive - 5-9 years: understand that death is universal and irreversible, but tend to personify it (witch, boogeyman) - 10+: understand it is a biological process and is not due to an outside force - research suggests children are starting to understand death at younger ages (due to tv, exposure)
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Phallic
- 3-6 years - sexual energy is centered in the genitals and the primary task is the resolution of the Oedipal conflict - a successful outcome results from identification witht eh same-sex parent and development of the superego - fixation can lead to sexual exploitation of others
Sensorimotor Stage: Substage 3 - Secondary Circular Reactions
- 4-8 monthts - the infant attempts to reproduce pleasurable events involving other people or objects (e.g., shakes a rattle)
Levison: The Mid-Life Transition
- 40-45 years - a time of significant stress and reorganization - deflation of the Dream as one realizes that one's goals are not really satisfying and/or will not be fully accomplished - shift perspective from time since birth to time until death as a result of increasing awareness of mortality
Understanding of Race
- 6 months: aware of racial differences - 3-4 years: can label people in terms of racial groups - 10 years: understand the social connotations of differences
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Latency
- 6-12 years - libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body - emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratificaiton
Stages of Language Acquisition: Cooing and Babbling
- 6-8 wks of age, sounds that are mainly vowels and emitted when the baby is happy and contented - followed by repetition of simple consonant and vowel sounds around 4 months - 9-14 months sounds correspond to native language
Piaget: Heteronomous Morality
- 7-10 years - morality of constraint - believe rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable - the greater the negative consequences of an act, the worse the act
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
- addresses the motivational processes that underlie changes in teh quality and quantity of social relationships over the lifespan and predicts that social motives correspond to perceptions of time left in life as being limited or unlimited - social goals function to gain knowledge and recognize emotions
Extension of Child Language
- adds information to the child's statement child: Mommy bye-bye parent: Yes, Mommy is going to work now
Expansion of Child Language
- adds to the child's statement, but retains the child's word order child: Mommy bye-bye parent: Yes, Mommy is going bye-bye
Erickson: Identity vs. Identity Confusion
- adolescence - peers are the dominant social influence - a positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and direction for the future
Adolescent Identity Crisis: Identity Moratorium
- adolescent expieriences a crisis and actively explores alternative identities - teens exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness
Prolonged Separation from Primary Caregiver
- adoption before 3 months has few consequences - after 9 months: exhibit moderate to extreme reactions, including feeding and sleeping problems, social withdrawal, increased stranger anxiety, and physical rejection or clingingness to mother - early institutionalization has the most negative impact during the second half of the first year of life - late adoptees have higher-than-normal rates of emotional and behavioral problems - children raised in institution can develop close bonds as long as adopted before 6 years
Patterns of Attachment: Insecure (Anxious) / Ambivalent
- alternates between clinging and resisting his mother - becomes very disturbed when left alone with stranger - ambivalent when mother returns and may become agnry and resist her attempts at physical contact - mothers are often moody and inconsistent in caregiving
Premature or Preterm
- an infant borth less than 37 weeks after conception - increased risk with low SES, teen mothers, malnutrition, and drug use - often catch up to their non-premature peers in terms of cognitive, language, and social skills by 2-3 years of age
Conventional Morality: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
- around 10 years - the right action is the one that is liked or approved of by others
Stages of Language Acquisition: Echolalia and Expressive Jargon
- around 9 months, children imitate adult speech and sounds without understanding their meaning - this followed by vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning
Postconventional Morality: Morality of Contract, Individual Risghts, and Democratically Accepted Laws
- around late adolescence or adulthood - right action is the one that is consistent with democratically determined laws which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights
Heinz Dilemma (Kohlberg)
- asks a participant to explain why he believes it is better to steal a drug to save a person's life or to obey the law by not stealing the drug
Strange Situation (Ainsworth)
- assesses the nature and consequence of attachment - several phases in which the mother leaves the infant alone in a room with a stranger and then returns
Teratogens: Maternal Malnutrition
- associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight - may result in suppression fo the immune system, MR, and other serious problems - during 3rd trimester is particularly detrimental for the developing brain and can lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelinization, and neurotransmitter abnormalities - a lack of folic acid can result in spina bifida or other neural tube defects
Teratogens: Nicotine
- associated with placental abnormalities that can cause fetal death and stillbirth - higher risk for low birthweight, SIDS, and respiratory disease - may have emotional and social disturbances and cognitive deficits
Brain Development
- at birth, brain is 25% of adult weight - at two years, about 80% - around age 16, full adult weight - cerebral cortex is last to develop and reflects head to extremities pattern that characterizes all growth - around age 30, brain starts to shrink as a result of loss of neurons - age 60, acceleration of brain atrophy
Gender-Role Identity: Gender Schema Theory (Bem)
- attibutes the acquisition of identity to a combination of social learning and cognitive development - children develop conceptual frameworks of masculinity and femininity as a result of their sociocultural experiences and these frameworks are used to organize how the individual perceives the world
Nativist Approach to Language
- attributes acquisition to biological mechanisms and stresses universal patterns of language development - children from all cultures pass through the same stages of language development
Gilligan: Level 3 - Morality of Nonviolence
- avoiding harm to oneself and others is the foremost consideration
Patterns of Attachment: Secure
- baby explores the room and plays with toys while mother is present - midly upset when mother leaves - actively seeks contact with her when she returns - mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive to baby's cues - related to positive social and academic interactions in children and high self-esteem and sense of personal identity in adults
Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage
- birth to 2 years - a child learns about objects and other people through the sensory information they provide and the actions that can be performed on them - develop object permanence, begin to understand causality, and deferred imitation and make-believe play emerge
Audition
- can hear sounds in the uterus during the last months of development - ability to orient toward the direction of sound is evident shortly after birth, disappears between 2-4 months, then reappears and improves during the rest of the first year - by 3 months, prefer mother's voice
Self-Awareness: Emotional Response to Wrongdoing
- children have an adverse reaction to a caregiver's disapproval - signals the beginning of the development of sense of consience
Coercive Family Interaction Model (Patterson et al.)
- children learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward their children's aggressiveness with approval and attention - over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
Parenting Style: Authoritative
- combine rational control with responsivity - set clear rules and high standards, rely on reasoning, praise, explanations, and other inductive techniques to gain compliance - offspring tend to be assertive, socially responsible, and achievement oriented - offspring have high self-esteem, are self-confident, and usually obtain high grades in school
Neo-Piagetian Theories
- combine the information processing and Piagetian approaches - recognize the role of biolgoical maturation and experience in cognitive development and propose that indivduals actively construct their own knowledge - focus more on developmental changes with specific cognitive domains and on the impact of the context in which development occurs - unevenness in development across domains and contexts is considered normal
Androgyny
- combines masculine and feminine characteristics and preferences - related to higher self-esteem
Ecological Model: Macrosystem
- comprised of overarching environmental influences such as cultural beliefs and practices, economic conditions, and political ideologies
Preconventional Morality: Instrumental Hedonism
- consequences are still important - focus is more on obtaining rewards and satisfying personal needs than on avoiding punishment
Ecological Model: Exosystem
- consists of elements of the broader environment that affect the child's immediate environment - includes parent's workplace, the school board, community agencies, mass media
Ecological Model: Chronosystem
- consists of environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on the person's circumstances and developmental stage - long term effects of change in family structure, SES
Stages of Grief (Kubler-Ross)
- denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance - staes may not occur in order and may be repeated
Gender-Role Identity: Psychodynamic Theory
- depends on successful resolution of the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage of development, which results in identification with the same-sex parent
Concrete Operational Stage: Conservation
- depends on the operations of reversibility and decentration - understand that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions - develops in numbers first, then liquid, length, weight, and then displacement volume
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model
- describes development as involving interactions between the individual and his context or environment - includes 5 systems
Self-Conscious Emotions
- develop in second year of life - relfect the child's ability to use social standards and rules to evaluate their own behaviors - 18-24 months: jealousy, empathy, embarrassment - 30-36 months: shame, guilt, and pride
Information Processing Theories
- developed out of research on functioning of computer programs - describes cognitive development as involving increasing information processing capacity and efficiency - cognitive abilities are similar at all stages of development but differ in terms of extent - focus on cognitive domains: attention, memory, and reasoning - view cognitive abilities as task-specific
Interactionists Approach to Language
- development is attributable to a combination of biological and environmental factors
Gender-Role Identity: Cognitive Development Theory (Kohlberg)
- develops parallel to cognitive development - 2-3 years: gender identity which recognizes they are male or female - gender is stable over time - 6-7 years: gender is constant regardless of situation and external appearance or behavior
Erickson: Initiative vs Guilt
- early childhood - favorable relationships with family members result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others
Stages of Language Acquisition: Metalinguistic Awareness
- early school years - ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and on themselves as language users - 6-7 years can begin to use words in humorous and metaphoric ways
Reciprocal Teaching Method
- emphasizes a child's ability to learn through social interaction and has been applied to reading instruction - teacher initially leads the instruction and models the appropriate kinds of questions to ask to foster understanding of the text, then student's take over teacher's role
Easy Temperament
- even-tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new sitautions and people, and have a preoponderance of positive moods
Patterns of Attachment: Disorganized / Disoriented
- exhibit fear of their caregivers, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors (e.g., greeting mother when she returns and then turning away from her) - about 80% of infants who have been mistreated develop this pattern - may also result from maternal psychopathology, contradictory parent attitudes, and poor quality of caregiving - related to aggression in children
Effects of late maturation in adolescence for females
- experience some adverse effects as the result of being treated like "little girls" - Often dissatisfied with their physical appearance - Tend to outperform peers in terms of academic achievement
Gilligan's Loss of Voice
- experienced during relational crisis when girls realize that women's opinions are not as highly valued
Pain
- exposure to severe pain as a newborn can impact later reactions, such as heightened responsivity to pain
Parenting Style (Baumrind)
- famework for understanding the impact of parenting on development - combines parenting responsivity (acceptance and warmth) with demandingness (control) - can interact with child's temperament and culture to impact long term outcomes
Prenatal Development: Germinal Stage
- first 2 weeks - the fertilized ovum is called a zygote
Cooperative Play
- first observed around 2 years - characterized by adopting roles, collaborating, and coordinating activities
Gilligan: Transition 2 - From Goodness to Truth
- focus is on coordinating one's responsibilities to self and others
Preoperational Stage: Centration
- focus on the most noticeable features of objects so that they don't undrestand that changing one dimension of an object does not change another dimension
Gilligan: Level 1 - Orientation of Individual Survival
- focus on what is best for oneself
Early Physical Maturation in Adolescence
- for boys, has benefits including better adjustment, greater popularity with peers, and superior athletic skills - for girls, more likely to have negative consequences including poor self-concept, dissatisfaction with physical development, lower academic achievement, sexually precocious behavior, drug and alcohol use, and increased risk for depression and eating disorders
Late Physical Maturation in Adolescence
- for boys, more childish, exhibit more attention-seeking behaivors, and have less confidence - for girls, suffer adverse effects of being treated like "little girls" and tend to be dissatisfied with their appearance
Adult Attachment: Autonomous
- give coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with their parents - tend to have children who exhibit a secure attachmetn style
Episodic Memory: Reminiscence Bump
- greater recall of events that occurred from about age 10-30 - may be due to larger proportion of novel experiences during this period of time or that encoding is most efficient during this time or that people develop their sense of personal identity during this time
Episodic Memory: Recency (or Retention) Effect
- greater recall of very recent events
Physical Maturation in Adolescence
- growth spurt begins around 11 to 12 for girls and 13 to 14 for boys - lasts for about 3-4 years and signals the beginning of puberty, during whicht he primary sex organs enlarge and become functional and the secondary sex characteristics appear
Rejected-Withdrawn Children
- have a high degree of social anxiety, tend to be submissive, have negative expectations about how others will treat them, and are often teh victims of bullies
Neglected Children
- have fewer than average interactions with peers and rarely engage in disruptive behaviors - may prefer to be alone
Adolescent Identity Crisis: Identity Foreclosure
- have not experienced a crisis, but have adopted an identity that has been imposed the same-sex parent or other person
Adolescent Identity Crisis: Identity Diffusion
- have not yet experienced a crisis or explored alternatives and are not committed to an identity
Teratogens: Maternal Stress
- higher risk for miscarriage, painful labor, and premature delivery - baby is mroe likely to have low birthweight, be hyperactive and irritable, and exhibit irregular feedgin, sleeping, and bowel habits
Giftedness
- higher scores on measures of self-concept - process information more quickly, use more effective learning strategies, and may have better metacognitive skills
Teratogens: Maternal Rubella
- if it occurs, especially during first trimester, the infant is at risk for heart defects, blindness, deafness, and MR
Preoperational Stage: Irreversibility
- inability to recognize that actions can be reversed
Bowlby's Ethological Theory
- proposed that exposure of an infant to his mother during a critical period results in a bond betwen them - infants are born with a biological predisposition to form attachments (e.g., infants cry, smile) - stages of attachment include: preattachment, attachment-in-the-making, clearcut attachment, and the formation of reciprocal relationships
Ethological Theory
- proposes that humans and other organisms have a biological tendency to form attachments because they help guarantee infant survival - supported by Lorenz's research on imprinting
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorf)
- proposes that language actually determines the nature of thought and predicts that cultures have different ways of thinking about the world because they have different languages
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
- proposes that the id's libido (sexual energy) centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development and that personality results formt eh ways in which conflicts at each stage are resolved - failure to resolve a conflict often stems from excessive or insufficient gratifcation of the id's needs and can result in fixation at that stage
Adult Attachment: Dismissing
- provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, but the descriptions are either not supported or contradicted by specific memories - tend to have children who exhibit avoidant attachment patterns
Stages of Language Acquisition: First Words
- receptive vocabulary preceeds productive vocabulary - around 13 months, understand about 50 words - speak first word between 10-15 months, and by 18 speak about 50 words
Gilligan: Transition 1 - From Selfishness to Responsibility
- recognition that one is connected to others
Semantic Bootstrapping
- refers to a child's use of his or her knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their syntactical (grammatical) category
Syntactic Bootstrapping
- refers to a child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words - helps children narrow the possible meanings of words rather than teach them the precise meaning of words
Scaffolding
- refers to instruction, assistance, and support and is most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues, and encouraging the child to think about alternative plans of action
Ecological Model: Mesosystem
- referst ot ineractions between components of the microsystem, such as the influence of family factors on the child's behavior at school
Adolescent Identity Crisis (Marcia)
- reflect the degree to which the indivdiual has experienced or is experiencing a crisis and is committed to an identity - based on Erickson's stage where the primary task is the achievement of a coherent identity
Adolescent Identity Crisis: Identity Achievement
- resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity
Birth Defects: Chromosomal Disorders
- result from inheritance of a single dominant gene or two recessive genes or a chromosomal abnormality - human cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs - 22 pairs are autosomes and the 23rd paris is the sex chromosomes (XX, XY)
Preoperational Stage: Magical Thinking
- result of incomplete understanding of cause and effect - the belief that thinking about something will actually cause it to occur
Postconventional Morality: Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience
- right and wrong are determined on the basis of broad, self-chosen universally applicable ethical principles
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- risk is greatest and symptoms most severe when the mother drinks heavily every day during pregnancy or engages in binge drinking in the early stages of pregnancy - facial abnormalities, retarded physical growth, heart, kidney, and liver defects, visual and hearing impairments, mental retardation, and behavioral problems - brain regions most likely to be affected include: corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and frontal lobes
Milestones: 4-6 Months
- rolls from abdomen to back - stis on lap and reaches and grasps - sits alone and stands with help - first teeth start to appear
Milestones: 16-24 Months
- runs clumsily, walks up stairs with hand help, and can use spoon - goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns pages of book - 50% use toilet during the day
Gilligan: Level 2 - Goodness as Self-Sacrifice
- sacrifice of one's own desires for those of others
Erickson: Industry vs. Inferiority
- school age - most important influences are people in the neighborhood and school - child must master certain social and academic skills
Behavioral Inhibition
- set of behavioral traits including shyness, fearfulness, irritability, cautiousness, and introversion; behaviorally inhibited children tend to avoid or withdraw from novel situations, are clingy with parents, and become excessively aroused when exposed to unfamiliar situations
Milestones: 7-9 Months
- shows increasing coordination - sits alone without support and begins crawling and creeping - pulls self to standing by holding furniture
Primary (Basic) Emotions
- soon after birth, infants express interest, sadness, disgust, and distress through facial expressions - 6-8 months express anger, joy, surprise, and fear
Chomsky's Notion of Transformational Grammar
- speaking involves transforming deep structure (meaning) into surface structure (grammatical sentences) - listening entails transforming surfgace structure into deep structure
Stages of Language Acquisition: Crying
- start with basic hunger cry, anger cry, and pain cry - 1-2months develop fussy (irregular) cry - adults respond with changes in heart rate and skin conductance
Children say their first words at about:
12 mos of age; most often labels for familiar people, objects, or events
Personality in Adulthood
- studies that examine the relative strength (ranking) of personality traits within individuals find stability in personality, especially after age 30 - research suggests the greatest changes occur during young adulthood, but that agreeableness and conscientiousness continue to increase over the lifespan, while social vitality (extraversion) and openness to experience decline after age 55
Buffering Hypothesis
- subjective perception of social support is more critical than actual support for alleviating feelings of loneliness, reducing effects of stress, and risk for coronary heart disease
Rejected-Aggressive Children
- tend to be hostile, hyperactive, and impulsive and have difficulty regulating negative emotions and taking the perspective of others
Heritability Estimate
- the extent to which phenotype varies within a group of people as the result of differences in genotype
Preconventional Morality: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
- the goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences - children attempt to avoid punishment
Concrete Operational Stage: Horizontal Decalage
- the gradual acquisition of conservation abilities
Contact Comfort (Harlow)
- the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft cuddly parent - supports learning theories of attachment which focus on attachment as a result of reinforcement
Morphemes
- the smalles units of sound that convey meaning - do, go, un, -ed
Phonemes
- the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language - p, b, th
Translocation
- the transfer of a chromosome segment to another chromosome - ex. Down Syndrome
Self-Awareness
- the understanding that one is separate from others - becomes apparent during second year of life - develops through childhood and adolescence: concrete characteristics, competencies, personality traits and emotions, abstract inner thoughts and feelings
Erickson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- toddlerhood - a sense of self develops out of positive interactions with one's parents and other caregivers
Levinson's Season's of a Man's Life
- trasitions from one period to the next are particularly stressful and it is during these times that major changes in a person's life structure usually occur - not supported by research
Reflexes
- unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment - babinski, rooting, moro (startle), stepping (walking)
Holophrastic Speech
- used from 1-2 years - use a single word that expresses a whole phrase or sentence through addition of gestures and intonation
Cognitive Training (Zahavi & Asher)
- used to decrease aggression in preschool boys - teach boys that aggression hurts others and doesn't solve problems - teach them that conflicts can be resolved in other ways - (build empathy)
Habituation
- used to evaluate the perception, memory, and other abilities of newborns (e.g., with sucking, reaching, head turning) - occurs whent he infant's response to a stimulus decreases when the stimulus is repeatedly presented
Hostile Aggression
- used to harm another person
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
- views all learning as socially mediated and proposes that cognitive development is first interpersonal and then intrapersonal - cognitive development is facilitated when the instruction and other environmental demands fall within the child's zone of proximal development
Milestones: 13-15 Months
- walks alone with a wide-based gain - creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously, and uses cup well
Parallel Play
- when a child plays alone but exhibits a strong interest in what another child is doing
Erickson: Intimacy vs. Isolation
- young adulthood - main task is establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship - without such bonds, self-absorption and isolation can result
Children separated prior to ___ of age don't show any negative consequences. Moderate to extreme reactions occur when children are separated at the age of ___ or older. Children who are adopted by ___ of age are able to develop a close bond with their adoptive parents.
-3 months -9 months (feeding and sleeping problems, social withdrawal, increased stranger anxiety, physical rejection of the new mother or excessive clinging to her) -6 years *The most negative impact results when mother and infant are separated during the second half of the first year of life (infant may develop anaclitic depression, which involves developmental delays, unresponsiveness, and withdrawal) *Late adoptees have higher-than-normal rates of emotional and behavioral problems, but may be able to develop close bonds if adopted younger than 6
Identity vs. Role Confusion (age, description, virtue)
-Adolescence (12-18 years) -Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence; a positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and a direction for the future -Virtue: fidelity
Nature of friendships over the lifespan (Damon)
-Ages 4-7: friends are playmates -Ages 8-10: friends are a source of help and support; trust and assistance are critical -Age 11: friends do not deceive, reject, or abandon you; intimacy and loyalty are important -Adulthood: quality of friendships trumps quantity -Females more drawn to emotional and intimate aspects of friendships, have more exclusive friendships, engage in more intimate self-disclosure than males (in school years) -Males place greater emphasis on shared interests and activities, have a larger number of friends, spend more time participating in large groups
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
-All learning is socially mediated -Cognitive development is first interpersonal then intrapersonal (child internalizes what he or she has learned) -Cognitive development is facilitated when instruction and environmental demands fall within a child's zone of proximal development
Risk factors for adolescent substance use
-As early as age 7: sense of alienation, impulsivity, indecisiveness, subjective distress -Male gender, low SES, physical or sexual abuse, low parental warmth and involvement
Maternal Malnutrition - effects
-Associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight, decreased immune functioning, intellectual disability -Protein deficiency in the 3rd trimester affects brain development (may lead to a reduced number of neurons, reduced myelination, and NT abnormalities) -Low folic acid --> spina bifida, neural tube defects
Impact of nicotine during pregnancy?
-Associated with placental abnormalities that can cause fetal death and stillbirth -Infants are at higher risk for low birthweight, SIDS, and respiratory diseases -Possible emotional and social disturbances and cognitive deficits
Developmental milestones: 25-48 months
-At 30 months: jumps with both feet, has good hand-finger coordination -By 36 months: rides tricycle, dresses and undresses with simple clothing, is usually completely toilet trained -By 48 months: exhibits stable preference for right or left hand
Infant vision development
-At birth, newborn sees 20ft what adults see at 200-400ft -By 2 to 5 days, prefer looking at faces -By 2 months, limited color vision. Also, preference for mom's face -By 4-6 months, some degree of depth perception -By 6 months, vision is close to that of a normal adult -Newborns prefer to look at high-contrast patterns; preference for more complex patterns increases with age
Authoritarian parenting style
-Authoritarian: ↑ Demands ↓ Responsivity Impose absolute standards of conduct, stress obedience, and use physical punishment, threats, deprivation, and other power assertive techniques to gain compliance Offspring are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent and have a limited sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement (John Bender)
Authoritative parenting style
-Authoritative: ↑ Demands ↑ Responsivity Combine rational control with responsivity Set clear rules and high standards for their children but rely on reasoning, praise, explanations, and other inductive techniques to gain compliance; they encourage independence Offspring tend to be assertive, socially responsible, achievement oriented, have high self-esteem, self-confident, and usually obtain high grades in school
Implications of bilingualism
-Bilingual children do as well or better than monolingual children on tests measuring language and cognitive skills -Bilingual children may initially have smaller vocabularies in each language than monolingual children, though the total vocabulary is similar or larger -Bilingual children tend to score higher than monolingual children on measures of cognitive flexibility, cognitive complexity, analytical reasoning, working memory capacity, attentional control, and metalinguistic awareness
How do teachers respond differently to students of different genders?
-Boys are more likely than girls to be corrected, criticized, praised, and helped -Boys are more often criticized for: BEHAVIOR, neatness of their work, inattention -Boys are more often praised for: intellectual ACCOMPLISHMENTS and task related behaviors -Girls are more often criticized for: lack of ability, inadequate intellectual PERFORMANCE -Girls are more often praised for: effort, COOPERATION, dependent behaviors → Girls are more likely than boys to view their failures of the result of a lack of ability
Developmental milestones: 13-15 months
-By 13-14 months: walks alone with a wide-based gait -By 15 months: creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously, uses a cup well
Developmental milestones: 16-24 months
-By 18 months: runs clumsily, walks up stairs with hand held, can use a spoon -By 24 months: goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns pages of a book, 50% of children use the toilet during the day
Developmental milestones: 4-6 months
-By 4 months: rolls from abdomen to back -At 5 months: sits on lap, reaches, grasps -At 6 months: sits alone, stands with help -First teeth appear at 5-9 months
Parental conflict
-Children with divorced parents or unhappily married parents do not differ with regard to behavioral problems -Conflictual intact families are more detrimental to a child's well-being than a stable single-parent or stepparent family -Children of high pre-divorce conflict parents are psychologically better off after divorce than children of low level pre-divorce conflict parents -Lack of parental conflict following divorce is more important for adjustment than frequency of contact with the noncustodial parent *Parental conflict increases the risk for adverse outcomes for children, not divorce
Ages and characteristics of Cooing and babbling
-Cooing: 6-8 weeks; mainly vowels, when infant is happy and contented (THINK: coo like 8 on its side) -Babbling: 4 months; repetition of simple consonant and vowel sounds; early babbling includes sounds from all languages, but narrows to sounds from native language between 9-14 months
What are the stages of language acquisition?
-Crying -Cooing -Babbling -Echolalia -Expressive jargon -First words -Holophrasic speech -Telegraphic speech and vocabulary growth -Grammatically correct sentences -Metalinguistic awareness
Types of alterations in chromosome structure
-Deletions: part of a chromosome is missing (e.g., Prader Willi- some intellectual disability, obesity, and possible obsessive-compulsive behaviors) -Translocations: transfer of a chromosome segment to another chromosome (e.g., some cases of Down syndrome involve the extra part of chromosome 21 attaching to another chromosome) -Inversions: a chromosome breaks in 2 places and the broken segment turns upside down and reattaches to the chromosome; may be inherited but usually doesn't affect phenotype
Information processing theories
-Describe cognitive development as involving increasing information processing capacity and efficiency -View cognitive abilities as similar at all stages of development but differ in terms of extent (e.g., improvements in memory are due to increased memory capacity, enhanced processing speed, and greater automaticity -Focus on development within specific cognitive domains such as attention, memory, and reasoning; view cognitive ability as task specific
Intimacy vs. Isolation (age, description, virtue)
-Young adulthood (18-40 years) -The main take during young adulthood is the establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship; of such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result -Virtue: love
Initiative vs. Guilt (age, description, virtue)
-Early childhood (3-5 years) -Favorable relationships with family members result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others -Virtue: purpose
Effects of early physical maturation in adolescence
-Early maturation for boys → greater popularity with peers, superior athletic skill, dissatisfaction with body image, increased risk for substance use, delinquency, depression -Early maturation for girls → poor self-concept, unpopular with peers, dissatisfied with physical development, low academic achievement, more likely to engage in sexually precocious behavior and substance abuse, increased risk for developing depression or eating disorder Note: consequences are most severe when adolescents perceive themselves as different from peers; most adverse effects largely dissipate by adulthood
Ages and characteristics of echolalia and expressive jargon
-Echolalia: 9 months; child imitates adult speech sounds and words without understanding of their meaning (THINK: 9 is like "nein" or like "no") -Expressive jargon: follows echolalia; vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning
Explicit vs. Implicit Memory
-Explicit (declarative): conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts; divided into episodic and semantic memory) -Implicit (procedural): unconscious memories such as skills (e.g. knowing how to get dressed, eat, drive, ride a bicycle without having to re-learn the skill each time)
Ages and characteristics of first words
-First words: usually between 10-15 months; speak ~50 words by 18 months; most often are nominals (labels for objects, people, events) but can be action words, modifiers, and personal-social words (THINK: 1st & 10 both have 1's) -In infancy: receptive vocabulary exceeds productive vocabulary; by 13 months, infants understand ~50 words -From 1-2 years: children use single words to express whole phrases and sentences (holophrastic speech); involves using gestures and intonation to turn a single word into a comment, question, or command -By 18-24 months: telegraphic speech (2 or more words strung together to make a sentence [e.g., me go]); initially nouns, verbs, and adjectives -By 27 months: child's vocabulary contains 300-400 words; prepositions and pronouns added -Most rapid vocabulary growth at 30-36 months; 1,000 word vocabulary and 3-4 word sentences by 36 months (THINK: tree, rapidly growing)
Sexual activity in late adulthood - predictors of it, why it might decline, satisfaction levels
-Frequency of sexual activity in midlife and earlier predicts sexual activity in late adulthood -Number of older adults identifying themselves as sexually active decreases with increasing age -Both men and women say lack of sexual activity is primarily due to men's physical health problems -Women also report a lack of a sexual partner (women outlive men, fewer mate choices) -Overall improvement in physical and emotional sexual satisfaction with increasing age (compared to midlife), with more men viewing positive changes than women [-43% of all respondents (60+) and 61% of respondents with current sex partners rate their current sex life as physically more satisfying or unchanged compared to when they were in their 40s (somewhat larger percentage of men than women express these positive views) -50% of all respondents (60+) rate current sex like as more emotionally satisfying or unchanged compared to when they were in their 40s (larger percentage of men than women expressing these positive views)]
Achievement in girls vs. boys
-Girls do better with VERBAL abilities. -Boys do better with VISUAL-SPATIAL and MATH skills *These gender differences are small -There may be environmental factors influencing achievement (when parents do not have stereotyped beliefs about gender roles, daughters are less likely to experience declines in math and science achievement)
Benefits of popularity with peers
-Good social and communication skills -Regularly engage in prosocial behaviors (i.e., often empathize, share, and cooperate with others) -Self-confident -Happy -Enthusiastic
Parent characteristics which increase risk for child matreatment
-History of maltreatment as a child -Alcohol or drug abuse -Psychopathology -Reliance on harsh discipline -Unreasonable expectations for the child -Low education level -Younger age (under 30) -Poor impulse control
Behavioral inhibition is stable at what age? What are the implications for life outcomes? Can this be modified?
-How outgoing or reserved children are has some basis in biology and is relatively stable -Level of inhibition identified at 21 months is maintained at 5.5 years and 7.5 years; related to physiological reactivity (inhibited children demonstrate higher heart rate, greater pupillary dilation, and larger changes in blood pressure in unfamiliar situations than uninhibited children) -Inhibition in early childhood is associated with increased risk for social anxiety in adolescence and less positive and active social life in early adulthood -Warm, supportive parenting can reduce physiological reactions of inhibited children; cold, intrusive, or overprotective parenting can intensify reactions (Kagan; Kaginihibition)
Negative effects of television viewing
-Increased aggressive behavior and tolerance for aggression (when viewing violent TV shows) -Reinforcement of traditional sex-role stereotypes -Reduced physical activity -Excessive weight gain -Less time spent in other activities, resulting in less reading, poorer academic performance, less creativity, less family interaction
Effects of maternal depression
-Increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems (nature and severity of problems depend on genetic predisposition, presence of other risk factors, nature of mother's symptoms) -Mothers who report chronic symptoms of depression tend to be less positive, sensitive, and engaged with their infants than mothers who report short-term or intermittent symptoms (these parenting behaviors are associated with poorer child outcomes) -Physiological signs of distress in children are apparent by 3 months of age (e.g., elevated heart rate, greater right frontal lobe asymmetry -Toddlers or depressed mothers are passively noncompliant, more aggressive in peer interactions than normal, demonstrate poorer cognitive-linguistic functioning -Linked to insecure attachment in infants and preschoolers
What happens if a mom uses cocaine during pregnancy?
-Increased risk of SAB and stillbirth -Higher risk of SIDS, seizures, low birth weight, reduced head circumference -Often exhibit tremors, exaggerated startle response, high-pitched cry, sleep and feeding difficulties, developmental delays, irritability, difficult to comfort Cognitive and behavioral problems may persist into the early school years
Factors which contribute to age-related changes in memory in childhood
-Increases in speed and capacity of working memory -Expanded knowledge base -Increased use of memory strategies
Effects of age on memory
-Increasing age has a greater negative impact on explicit memory (e.g. items on grocery list) than on implicit memory (e.g. words to a familiar song) -Greatest age-related declines in recent long-term (secondary) memory, then working memory (part of short-term memory) -Unaffected: remote long-term memory, memory span (part of short-term memory), sensory memory -Episodic memory more affected than semantic or procedural memory -Working memory declines: primarily due to reduced processing efficiency (AEB perceptual speed), reduced ability to prevent irrelevant information from entering working memory -Long-term memory declines: primarily due to less effective encoding strategies
Developmental Milestones 7-9 months
-Increasingly good coordination -Sits alone without support, begins crawling & creeping -Pulls self to standing by holding furniture
Trust vs. Mistrust (age, description, virtue)
-Infancy (birth-18 months) -A positive relationship with one's primary caregiver in infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism -Virtue: hope
Types of cries and adult responses
-Infants produce 3 distinct cries: basic (hunger) cry, anger cry, pain cry -By 1-2 months, they also produce a fussy (irregular) cry -All adults respond with changes in heart rate and skin conductance; pain cry produces the strongest response; pain cry is also most likely to cause anxiety, worry, and an immediate behavioral response in mothers of infants -Most common and successful response is to raise and hold the infant upright on her shoulder to provide close physical contact -Prompt and consistent response from a mother in the first few months results in a decrease in frequency and duration of crying in subsequent months, greater reliance on gestures/ facial expressions/ other vocalizations to communicate
Scaffolding
-Instruction, assistance, and support which is provided to a child for tasks beyond their level of independent functioning -Most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues, and encouraging the child to think about alternative plans of action -Symbolic play provides a child with a ZPD to practice behaviors informally
Family factors related to delinquency: (3)
-Lack of parental warmth -Lack of supervision -Inconsistent or harsh discipline
Effects of late physical maturation in adolescence
-Late maturation for boys → viewer by others as "more childish," more attention-seeking behaviors, less self-confidence, more susceptible to depression -Late maturation for girls → treated like "little girls," dissatisfied with physical appearance, outperform peers academically Note: consequences are most severe when adolescents perceive themselves as different from peers; most adverse effects largely dissipate by adulthood
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (age, description, virtue)
-Maturation/old age (65+ years) -In this final stage, social influence broadens to include all of "humankind," the development of wisdom (am informed, detached concern with life in the face of death) and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one's limitations and mortality -Virtue: wisdom
Generativity vs. Stagnation (age, description, virtue)
-Middle adulthood (40-65 years) -The people one loves and works with are most important during this stage; a generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations -Virtue: care
Hearing changes in adulthood
-Most adults experience problems with hearing by age 40 -Majority do not have significant hearing loss until after age 75 (among 75-79 yr olds, >50% have hearing deficits which interfere with daily functioning) -Biggest problem is decreasing ability to perceive high-frequency sounds (occurs earlier in men than in women, may make it difficult to understand speech, especially in environments with competing noise)
Theories of language development
-Nativist approach (Chomsky): language acquisition is due to biological mechanisms (we have an innate language acquisition device [LAD], so we can acquire language through exposure); there are universal patterns of language development -Behaviorist approach: language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement -Interactionist approach: language development is due to combination of biological and environmental factors
Effect of having gay or lesbian parents
-Nature of the patent-child relationship is more important than parental sexual orientation -No significant differences between children of gay/lesbian parents and children of heterosexual parents -Gay/lesbian parents may even exhibit superior parenting skills
Infant hearing development/ auditory localization
-Newborn can orient toward the direction of sound (auditory localization) shortly after birth; seems to disappear between 2-4 months; reappears and improves during the rest of the first year -A few days after birth, can distinguish between vowels "a" and "i" -By 2-3 months, can distinguish between similar consonant sounds -By 3 months, can distinguish between different voices and show preference for mom's voice
Bilingual education
-Non-English-speaking children are initially instructed in academic subject areas in their native language and are slowly taught English -When language-minority children participate in high-quality Bilingual programs, they acquire academic English and subject matter knowledge as well as or better than students in immersion programs
What does the research say about birth order? What does the research say about the spacing between siblings as well as family size and academic achievement?
-Oldest: more rapid language acquisition, higher IQ, higher achievement, more conscientious -Younger: less cautious, more rebellious, better peer relationships, more confident in social situations Lower academic achievement is associated with larger family size and smaller gaps between children
Types of social play (Parten)
-Parallel play: child plays alongside other children and shares the same toys but does not interact with them -Associative play: interacting with other children and playing with the same toys, but without organization or shared goals -Cooperative play: organized group interactions for the purpose of achieving common goals *Older children are more likely to participate in social play
Permissive (indulgent) parenting style
-Permissive: ↓ Demands ↑ Responsivity Warm and caring but make few demands and are non-punitive Allow their children to make their own decisions about what chores to complete, when to go to bed, etc. Offspring tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence
Child characteristics which increase risk for child matreatment
-Premature birth -Low birthweight -Difficult temperament -Chronic illness or disability -Younger age (children under 3 are at highest risk for sexual abuse) -Gender (girls are at greater risk than boys for sexual abuse)
Memory strategies in childhood: preschoolers, early elementary, early adolescence, adolescence
-Preschoolers: use of incidental mnemonics (non-deliberate memory strategies); used ineffectively -Early elementary: often distracted by irrelevant information; can apply rehearsal and other memory strategies to an immediate situation but not in new situations -Early adolescence (9-10 years old): use memory strategies regularly (first rehearsal, then organization, then elaboration) -Adolescence: memory strategies are "fine-tuned" and used deliberately and selectively *Note that memory differences between younger and older children/adults are also related to improvements in metacognition and metamemory
Cerebral cortex development after birth
-Primary motor and sensory areas of the cortex develop substantially during first few months -Prefrontal cortex continues to mature (may not be fully developed until early- or mid-20s) -Cortical and all physical growth progresses head to tail, center to extremities -By age 30, brain begins to shrink due to neuron atrophy (accelerates after 60) (most apparent in frontal lobes, then parietal and temporal lobes, then occipital lobes) -Aging results in senile plaques, enlargement of ventricles, reduced blood flow to the brain, decrease in some NTs -Brain attempts to compensate for neuronal loss by creating new synaptic connections and neural pathways, and neurogenesis in the hippocampus
Developmental Milestones 1-3 months
-Raise chin from ground & turn head from side-to-side -Play with hands & fingers & bring objects in hand to mouth
Developmental milestones: 1-3 months
-Raises chin from ground -Turns head from side to side -By 3 months: plays with hands and fingers, brings objects in hand to mouth
Brain Development
-Rapid during prenatal period -At birth the brain is 25% of its adult weight -80% of adult weight by age 2 (this growth is due to increased interconnections between neurons, known as synaptogenesis, and formation of glial cells, which are responsible for myelination of nerve fibers -Brain reaches full adult weight before or by age 16 -Unused synapses are eliminated by pruning -Lower centers of the brain are developed at birth to control life-maintaining reflexes -Cerebral cortex (responsible for higher level cognitive functions, language, spatial skills, complex motor activities) is almost completely undeveloped
Types of rejected and neglected children
-Rejected-aggressive children: hostile, hyperactive, impulsive; difficulty regulating negative emotions and taking the perspective of others -Rejected-withdrawn children: high social anxiety, submissive, have negative expectations of how others will treat them, often the victims of bullies *Note: outcomes are worse for children who are actively rejected by their peers (greater loneliness, peer dissatisfaction, less likely to experience an improvement in peer status when they change social groups) -Neglected children: fewer-than-average interactions with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors, desire being alone, do not report being particularly lonely or unhappy
Rejecting-neglecting (uninvolved) parenting style
-Rejecting-neglecting: ↓ Demands ↓ Responsivity Exhibit low levels of responsibility and demandingness; may be overtly hostile toward their children Offspring have low self-esteem, poor self control, are impulsive, moody, and aggressive. Characteristics of rejecting-neglecting parents resemble characteristics which are predictive of juvenile delinquency (adolescent delinquency has been associated with lack of parental warmth, lack of supervision, inconsistent or harsh punishment)
Effects of divorce on children based on gender
-Research shows inconsistent results -Sleeper effect: if divorce occurs in preschool or elementary school, girls do not show negative consequences until adolescence (noncompliant behavior, decreased self-esteem, sexual promiscuity); as young adults these girls have higher risks for psychosocial functioning (high risk for experiencing depression and intense anxiety about betrayal and abandonment in romantic relationships, choosing a husband who is psychologically unstable, getting divorced)
Gender differences in effects of remarriage on children
-Research yields inconsistent results -Most studies indicate girls have more adjustment problems than boys; among these, girls in early adolescence and those with a stepfather have the most problems -Having a stepfather may be beneficial for boys, especially during preadolescence
Developmental Milestones 4-6 months
-Rolls from abdomen to back -Sits on lap & reaches & grasps -Sits alone & stands with help -First teeth appear
Developmental Milestones 16-24 months
-Run clumsily, walk up stairs with hand & uses spoon -Goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns pages of book, & 50% of kids use toilet during the day
Industry vs. Inferiority (age, description, virtue)
-School age (5-12 years) -The most important influences at this stage are people in the neighborhood and school; to avoid feelings of inferiority, the child must master certain social and academic skills -Virtue: competency
Semantic and syntactic bootstrapping refers to...
-Semantic bootstrapping: using the meaning of words to infer their syntactical (grammatical) category; acquiring knowledge of the syntactical categories of words allows children to eventually understand syntactical rules and construct grammatically correct sentences -Syntactic bootstrapping: using syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words (this does not explain how children learn the precise meanings of words, but only how children narrow the possible meanings) [prosodic bootstrapping is using prosody (e.g., pitch, rhythm, etc.) of an utterance to make inferences about syntax; morphological bootstrapping is using knowledge of morphemes to deduce syntax (e.g., -ing indicated an action word)]
Piaget's stages of cognitive development and major contributions/challenges in each stage:
-Sensorimotor (birth-2 years): child learns through sensory information from people and objects, as well as the actions that can be performed on them → accomplishment is object permanence (people and objects continue to exist even when out of sight); begin to understand causality; demonstrate deferred imitation and symbolic play -Preoperational (2-7 years): child learns through use of language, mental images, and other symbols; child can engage in more sophisticated symbolic play and solve problems mentally → limited by precausal (transductive) reasoning (not understanding cause and effect) which leads to magical thinking (belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur) and animism (tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects) -Concrete Operational (7-11 or 12 years): child capable of mental operations (logical rules for transforming and manipulating information); can classify, seriate, understand part-whole relationships in relational terms, and conserve → conservation (depends on reversibility and decentration [able to focus on details or smaller parts of objects?]; conserve number> liquid> length> weight> then displacement volume → horizontal decalage: gradual acquisition of conservation abilities within a specific stage of development -Formal Operational (11 or 12 years+): person able to think abstractly and is capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning (can identify competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing them) → adolescent egocentrism characterized by personal fable (belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others) and the imaginary audience (the belief that one is always the center of attention) *Cognitive development occurs in a predictable sequence; stages are never skipped, but ages at which children reach each stage may vary
Effects of stress on pregnancy
-Severe or prolonged stress creates higher risk for miscarriage, painful labor, premature delivery, low birthweight, hyperactivity, irritability, irregular feeding/sleeping/bowel habits -Effects may be reduced when there is adequate personal and social support prior to and during pregnancy
Effects of divorce on children based on age
-Short-term consequences worse for younger children (preschool) (likely due to misunderstanding reasons for divorce, self-blame, and fear of abandonment) -Long-term consequences worse for older children (early elementary, 6-8 years old)
Developmental milestones: 7-9 months
-Shows increasingly good coordination -At 8-9 months: sits alone without support, begins crawling and creeping -At 9-10 months: pulls self to standing by holding furniture
Child maltreatment statistics
-Slight decline in child maltreatment from 2008-2012 (~9 of every 1,000 children) -Neglect: 78.3% -Physical abuse: 18.3% -Sexual abuse: 9.3% -Psychological abuse: 8.5% -80.3% of perpetrators were parents; 88.5% of those were biological parents
Signs of attachment and at what age they occur
-Social referencing: infant looks to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous situations; begins 6 months of age -Separation anxiety: severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from the primary caregiver; begins 6 months of age, peaks in intensity at 14-18 months, then gradually declines -Stranger anxiety: infant becomes anxious or fearful in the presence of a stranger, especially when the caregiver is not nearby or when the caregiver does not respond positively to the stranger; by 8-10 months, continues to 2 years and then diminishes
Vision changes in adulthood
-Some inability to focus on close objects (presbyopia) around age 40 -After age 65, most experience visual changes that interfere with daily life E.g., loss of visual acuity, reduced perception of depth and color, increased light sensitivity, deficits in visual search, dynamic vision (perceiving details of moving objects), speed of visual processing)
At what ages do emotions emerge
-Soon after birth: primary (basic) emotions (interest, sadness, disgust, distress) -6-8 months: anger, joy, surprise, fear -2nd year: self-conscious emotions, which reflect children's ability to use social standards and rules to evaluate their own behaviors -18-24 months: jealousy, empathy, embarrassment -30-36 months: Shane, guilt, pride *Infants can detect emotions in others and respond (emotional contagion) within the first few weeks of life
Developmental Milestones 10-12 months
-Stands alone & walks with help -Takes 1st steps alone
Effects of late physical maturation in adolescence for males
-Tend to be viewed by others as more childish - tend to exhibit more attention-seeking behavior and have less self-confidence - more susceptible to depression than on-time maturing peers
Authoritative parenting style: characteristics and outcomes on children
-combine rational control with responsivity -set clear rules and high standards, rely on reasoning, praise, explanation, and other inductive techniques to gain compliance, encourage independence -children tend to be assertive, socially responsible, and achievement oriented
Effects of compensatory preschool programs (e.g., Head Start) are more pronounced when...
-There is high parental involvement in the program -There is high intensity/more time spent in the program -There is coordination with wraparound services (e.g., health, housing, social services, etc.) -Participation in the program is followed by academic support in elementary school
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (age, description, virtue)
-Toddlerhood (18 months-3 years) -A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one's parents or other caregivers -Virtue: will
Types of nonsocial play (Parten)
-Unoccupied play: random movements that do not seem to have a goal -Onlooker play: a child watches other children play and may make comments but doesn't participate -Solitary play: child plays alone and independently of others *Younger children are more likely to engage in nonsocial play
Developmental Milestones 13-15 months
-Walks alone with wide gait -Creeps up stairs, scribbles, & uses cup
Physical Developmental Milestones: 13-15 months
1. By 13-14 months, walks alone with a wide-based gait 2. By 15 months, creeps up stairs, scribbles spontaneously, uses cup well
Authoritarian parenting style: characteristics and outcomes on children
-high degree of demandingness and low responsivity -impose absolute standards of conduct, stress obedience, use physical punishment/threats to gain compliance - children are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent and have a limited sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement
Rejecting-neglecting parenting style: characteristics and outcomes on children
-low responsivity and demandingness, may be overtly hostile toward children - children tend to have low self-esteem, poor self-control, and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive
Empty nest syndrome
...is a myth! -Marital satisfaction actually increases (for women, increase is related more to an increase in the quality of interactions with their partner than the quantity of time spent together)
Empty nest syndrome
...is a myth! Marital satisfaction actually increases
Freud: Anal Stage
1 - 3 Years The main issue is control of bodily waste. Conflict stems from toilet training. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (selfishness, obsessiveness) or anal explosiveness (cruelty, desctructive, messy)
Prevalence of Down's Syndrome
1 out of 800 births. More common among older mothers
Autonomy vs shame and doubt stage (Erikson) occurs from:
1 to 3 years of age ("toddlerhood")
Physical Developmental Milestones: 16-24 months
1. By 18 months, runs clumsily, walks up stairs with hand held, and can use a spoon 2. By 24 months, goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, turns pages of a book, and 50% of children use the toilet during the day
Physical Developmental Milestones: 4-6 months
1. By 4 months, rolls from abdomen to back 2. At 5 months, sits on lap and reaches and grasps 3. At 6 months, sits alone and stands with help
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1) Sensiomotor (birth -2 years) 2) Preoperational (3-7years) 3) Concrete operational (7-11/12 years) 4) Formal operation (11-12+ years)
Werner's longitudinal study w high-risk infants concluded that resilience is most associated w:
1) fewer stressors following birth, 2) stable support from parent or other caregiver, 3) an easy temperament
Cooing
1-2 months Vowel-like sounds
Freud's anal stage: age, body part, conflict, fixation implications
1-3 years; issue is control of bodily wastes Primary source of conflict: issues related to toilet training Fixation results in: anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive behavior) or anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness)
Anal
1-3yrs Control of bodily wastes Toilet training Anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive bx), or Anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness)
Piaget's Formal Operational Stage: Age range and definition
1. Age range: 11 or 12+ years 2. Able to think abstractly, capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning; renewed egocentrism in adolescence
Piaget's Preoperational stage: age range, definition
1. Age range: 2-7 years 2. Child learns through use of language, mental images, and other symbols, children engage in more sophisticated symbolic play and can solve problems mentally
Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage: Age range and definition
1. Age range: 7 to 11 or 12 years 2. Children are capable of mental operations (logical rules for transforming and manipulating information); are able to seriate, understand part-whole relationships, and conserve
Piaget's Sensorimotor stage: age range, definition, important accomplishments
1. Age range: Birth to 2 years 2. Child learns about objects and other people through sensory info they provide 3. Object permanence, causality, deferred imitation, symbolic play
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development
1. All learning is socially mediated 2. Cognitive development is first interpersonal (child's interactions with others) and then intrapersonal (occurs when child internalizes what he or she has learned)
Active genotype-environment correlation
1. Also called niche-picking 2. Occurs when children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions
Physical Developmental Milestones: 10-12 months
1. At 10-11 months, stands alone and walks with help 2. At about 12 months, takes first steps alone
Physical Developmental Milestones: 25-48 Months
1. At 30 months, jumps with both feet and has good hand-finger coordination 2. By 36 months, rides tricycle, dresses and undresses with simple clothing, usually completely toilet trained 3. By 48 months, exhibits a stable preference for the right or left hand
Twenty-two pairs of chromosomes are referred to as _______, while the 23rd pair contains the _______
1. Autosomes 2. Sex chromosomes
According to Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory, the 3 stages of gender identity development are:
1. Basic gender identity. The child knows that he/she is a male/female, but the child fails to realize that gender is a constant attribute. Most 3 year olds had reached this stage. 2. Gender stability. The child knows that their gender is stable over time. i.e., boys will grow up to be men & girls will grow up to be women. 3. Gender consistency. The child knows a person gender stay the same regardless of changes in the person's activities or appearance. e.g., a 6 or 7 year old who has reached this stage knows a person's gender stays the same when a person dresses up like a member of the other sex or when a person does cross-sex activities.
List Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
1. Basic trust vs basic mistrust 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt 3. Initiative vs guilt 4. Industry vs inferiority 5. Identity vs role confusion 6. Intimacy vs isolation 7. Generativity vs stagnation 8. Ego integrity vs despair
Significant gender differences in language style
1. Boys rely more on language strategies that establish dominance, gain attention, give orders vs girls more likely to use language in ways that provide support and demonstrate attentiveness 2. Males talk for longer intervals than females do and are more likely to interrupt when someone is talking vs females more likely to ask questions and attach tag questions (e.g., you're going, aren't you?)
Ethology: Definition and assumptions
1. Branch of zoology dedicated to the study of animal behavior in natural habitats 2. All animal species are born with a number of biologically programmed behaviors that are: i. products of evolution ii. adaptive in that they contribute to survival
Three types of genotype-environment correlation
1. Passive genotype-environment correlation 2. Evocative genotype-environment correlation 3. Active genotype-environment correlation
Elkind: Personal fable and Imaginary Audience
1. Personal fable: belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others 2. Imaginary audience: belief that one is always the center of attention
Three stages of self-awareness development
1. Physical self-recognition 2. Self-description 3. Emotional responses to wrongdoing
Piaget's Preoperational stage: Limiting factors
1. Precausal treasoning (incomplete understanding of cause and effect, e.g., magical thinking) 2. Animism (tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects) 3. Egocentrism (inability to separate his/her perspective from that of others) 4. Irreversibility (Not recognizing that actions can be reversed) 5. Centration (focusing on most noticeable features of objects)
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
1. Preconventional a. Punishment and Obedience Orientation - the right thing to do is whatever avoids PUNISHMENT. b. Instrumental Hedonism - moral decisions are based more on obtaining REWARDS than on avoiding punishment 2. Conventional (starts age 11) a. Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation -The right thing is whatever gets APPROVAL by others. b. Law & Order orientation - moral decisions are based on rules and laws established by AUTHORITY. 3. Post conventional (starts late adolescence) a. Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, Democratically Accepted Laws - the right thing to do is whatever is consistent with DEMOCRATICALLY determined laws b. Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience - moral decisions are based on SELF-CHOSEN ethical principles
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
1. Preconventional a. Punishment and Obedience orientation b. Instrumental Hedonism 2. Conventional (begins around ages 10-11) a. Good Boy/Good Girl orientation b. Law & Order orientation 3. Post conventional (starts late adolescence/adulthood) a. Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, Democratically Accepted Laws b. Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience
List three stages of Kohlberg's theory of moral development
1. Preconventional morality 2. Conventional morality 3. Postconventional morality
List three stages of Piaget's theory of moral development
1. Premoral stage 2. Heteronomous morality 3. Autonomous morality
Piaget's theory of moral development
1. Premoral stage (before age 6): children exhibit little, of any, concern for rules 2. Heteronomous morality (ages 7-10): children believe that rules are set by AUTHORITY figures and are unalterable; judgement about whether an act is right or wrong is based on whether a rule has been violated and the degree of CONSEQUENCE 3. Autonomous morality (11+): view rules as arbitrary and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them; judging an act depends on the INTENTION of the actor
Piaget's theory of moral development
1. Premoral stage - before age 6 2. Heteronormous morality - 7 to 10. Rules are set by AUTHORITY figures. What matters is CONSEQUENCES. 3. Autonomous morality - 11 and on. Rules are arbitrary and alterable. What matters is INTENTIONS.
Sequence of emotion emergence in infancy
1. Primary emotions (soon after birth) 2. Self-conscious emotions (2 years)
Bjorklund and Pellegrini (2002): Proposed hypotheses about human evolution
1. Prolonged juvenile period evolved because humans require extended time to develop large brain capable of learning complexities of human society 2. Many childhood bx selected cause they prepared children for adulthood 3. Some childhood bx selected to be adaptive at specific points in development 4. Many psych mechanisms are domain-specific and selected to help ancestors deal with specific problems they encountered in environment' 5. Evolved bxs that were adaptive for our prehistoric ancestors may not be adaptive in contemporary society
Kohlberg: Preconventional morality
1. Punishment and obedience orientation (goodness/badness of act depends on its consequences) 2. Instrumental hedonism (consequences guide moral judgments, but judgments are based more on obtaining rewards/satisfying personal needs than on avoiding punishment
List Ainsworth's Patterns of Attachment
1. Secure attachment 2. Insecure/ambivalent attachment 3. Insecure/avoidant attachment 4. Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Physical Developmental Milestones: 7-9 months
1. Shows increasingly good coordination 2. At 8-9 months, sits alone without support and begins crawling and creeping 3. At 9-10 months, pulls self to standing by holding furniture
Teratogens: Definition and overarching types
1. Substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus 2. Drugs, chemicals, maternal conditions
Erikson's stages of development
1. Trust vs mistrust (think "one is a bun" - have to trust someone to accept food) 2. Autonomy vs. shame (think "two is a shoe" - need shoes to be independent) 3. Initiative vs. guilt (think "three is a tree" - tree grows up from roots, taking initiative) 4. Industry vs. inferiority (think "four is a door" - an industrial door) 5. Identity vs. role confusion (think "five is a hive" - need to identify with, belong to a hive) 6. Intimacy vs. isolation (think "six is sticks" - love hurts, like being poked by sticks) 7. Generativity vs. stagnation (think "seven is heaven" - vvvvv like the sound of electricity generating) 8. Integrity vs. despair (think "eight is a gate" - inte-gate-y) (Think: Erickson has 8 letters in his name. The 'k' looks like a balance - between 2 tasks.)
Self-description: definition and when it emerges
1. When children both use neutral terms and evaluative terms to describe themselves 2. Between 19 - 30 months
Levinson's "seasons of a man's life"
1. early adult transition (17 to 22) - become independent. The Dream is formed - image of an ideal life that guides decisions. 2. age 30 transition - sense of urgency to fully enter the adult world because of realization that structure of life during the twenties is inadequate 3. midlife transition (40-45) - deflation of The Dream with realization that initial goals are not satisfying or will not be accomplished. Shift from thinking about time-since-birth to time-left-to-live because of increasing awareness of mortality.
Five components of Egan and Perry's multidimensional model of gender identity development
1. membership knowledge 2. gender typicality 3. gender contentedness 4. felt pressure for gender conformity 5. intergroup bias
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
1. trust vs. mistrust - infancy 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt - toddlerhood 3. initiative vs. guilt - early childhood 4. industry vs. inferiority - school age 5. identity vs. role confusion - adolescence 6. intimacy vs. isolation - young adulthood 7. generativity vs. stagnation - middle adulthood 8. integrity vs. despair - mature/old age
4 types of infant crying
1.) Basic 2.) Anger 3.) Hunger 4.) Fussy (by 1 or 2 months of age)
Kubler-Ross 5 Stages of Grief
1.) Denial and Isolation (no, this isn't happening to me.) 2.) Anger (Why me?) 3.) Bargaining (Ok but wait until my grandchild is born) 4.) Depression (Yes, me.) 5. ) Acceptance (My time is close and that's ok.)
Cognitive Development Theory and Gender Identity
1.) Gender Identity-by age 2 or 3 children recognize they are either male of female. 2.) Gender Stability - children realize gender identity is stable over time 3.) Gender Constancy - by age 6 or 7 children begin to understand gender is constant and it can't be superficially changed.
Levinson's "Seasons of a Man's Life" 4 Stages
1.) Infancy through Adolescence 2.) Early Adulthood 3.) Middle Adulthood 4.) Late Adulthood
The Baumrind Framework
1.) Responsivity (acceptance and warmth) 2.) Demandingness (Control)
Signs of Attachment
1.) Social Referencing 2.) Separation Anxiety 3.) Stranger Anxiety
Thomas and Chess 9 Basic Temperament Qualities
1.) activity level 2.) rhythmicity 3.) approach/withdrawal 4.) adaptability 5.) threshold of responsiveness 6.) intensity of reaction 7.) quality of mood 8.) distractibility 9.) persistence
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
1.) stresses the role of social factors (v. sexual factors) and his stages of development each involve a different psychosocial crisis. 2.) places a greater emphasis on the ego than the ID and he assumes that people are basically rational and behavior is largely due to ego functioning. 3.) personality growth throughout the lifespan.
Gender differences in motor development
1.Girls are more physically mature than same-aged boys; superior in skills requiring flexibility, agility, and balance 2. Boys are superior in physical skills requiring strength and gross-motor abilities
Developmental milestones (10-12 months)
10 to 12 months - stands alone, walks with help 12 months - first steps alone
First words
10-15 months, usually noun 50 words by 18 months Holophrastic speech - one word to communicate entire expression (w/ gestures, intonation, etc)
1st words
10-16 months Nouns of change events (up, more, bye)
Most children do not understand that death is universal and irreversible and involves the station to biological function until about age ___. In an adult, anxiety about death is generally greatest in ___.
10; middle age
Most children do not understand that death is universal and irreversible and involves the station to biological function until about age ___. In an adult, anxiety about death is generally greatest in ___.
10; middle age.
When a newborn's weight is below the ______ percentile of his/her gestational age, the infant is small-for-gestational age
10th
Relational Crisis (Gilligan)
11 or 12 Girls experience a relational crisis in response to pressure to fit stereotype. Associated with drop in academic performance and loss of self-esteem.
Physical maturation in adolescence
11-12 for girls and 13-14 for boys
Symbolic play (pretend that wood cylinder is a cup) begins around age:
11-12 months
Babies uses holophrases between ages:
12 and 24 months; single words that express an entire idea
Death and Dying: Children
3 stages of understanding 1. Nonfunctionality - living involves breathing, eating, etc. 2. Irreversibility - death cannot be reversed (5-9) 3. Universality - all things die (10)
Phallic
3-6yrs Genitals Oedipal conflict Identification of same-sex parent & dev of superego Phallic character (sexual exploitation of others)
Developmental Milestones 25-48 months
30 months, jumps, has good finger coordination. By 36 months rides tricycle, dresses and undresses, and is completely toilet trained
Most risk for teratogens on children during birth
3wks-8wks
Peer and Social Relationships: Adolescence
4 - 7 = Friends are playmates 8 - 10 = Friends are source of support 11 = Intimacy and loyalty become important Girls = more intimacy, exclusiveness, and disclosure Boys = more about shared interest Adults = Quality > Quantity - Buffering hypothesis
Age that children express more favorable attitudes toward members of their own ethnic or racial group than toward members of other groups
4 years old
Theory of mind; children begin to understand that another person's actions depend on that person's beliefs (which may be false) rather than on reality of situation by age:
4-5 years
Babbling
4-6 months Repetition of consonant-vowel combos
Babies have some depth perception by:
4-6 months of age
According to Levinson, the mid-life transition (transition bt early and middle adulthood) occurs bt ages of:
40-45; as result of increasing awareness of mortality, marked by shift in awareness from "time-since-birth" to "time-left-to-live; contrary to pop belief, research suggests that mid-life is not a time of crisis for most people
Gender Identity: Multidimensional Model
5 component model of gender identity 1. membership knowledge 2. gender typicality 3. gender contentedness 4. felt pressure for conformity 5. intergroup bias
Freud: Latency Stage
6 - 12 years Energy is diffuse. Emphasis is on social tasks rather than gratification of drive.
Research using elicited imitations tasks (w puppet) indicate that for most infants, the onset of ability to recall the past occurs between:
6 and 12 months of age; neural mechanisms required for LTM recall undergo sig dev during the second half of the first year of life
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)
Social referencing begins at about
6 months of age; sign of attachment in babies; babies begin to "read" the emotional reactions of caregivers (esp in uncertain situations) and then use that info to guide their own bx
Separation anxiety begins between ages
6 to 8 months; peaks in intensity bt 14-18 months, gradually declines over next two to three years; sign of attachment
Industry vs Inferiority stage (Erickson) occurs from:
6-11 years of age ("school age")
Freud's latency stage: age, body part, conflict, fixation implications
6-12 years; libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on one area of the body Emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification
Stages of language acquisition: Cooing and babbling
6-8 weeks of age, infants produce simple cooing sounds; at 4 months of age, begin to babble; between 9-14 months of age, narrow their repertoire of sounds to those of their native language
Stages of Language Acquisition: Cooing/Babbling
6-8 weeks: cooing sound that consists mainly of vowels - happy/content 4 months: babbling - which involves the repetition of simple vowels of consonants. Between 9 and 14 month, babbling sounds are narrowed down to native language sounds
Babies don't show clear signs of attachment to caregiver until about:
6-mo of age
According to Piaget, children begin to intentionally lie at about _____ years of age
7 or 8
Children begin to understand that characteristic on TV are actors who are playing roles by ages:
7 to 9 years; children ages 3-4 think people on TV can see into their homes, and believe that people who die on TV are really dead
At what age can children distinguish between fantasy and reality of TV?
7 years old
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL- (the base of the Eiffel tower is made of CONCRETE blocks, Smokey the bear (conservation) is standing next to the tower looking confident bc conservation tasks are easier now))
7-11/12 Conservation (Depends on reversibility & decentration . 1st conservation of number, liquid, length, weight)
Object permanence (the object concept) begins to develop bt:
8 and 12 months of age
Stages of Language Acquisition
8 main stages
Stranger anxiety begins at about
8 to 10 months; peaks at 18 months then declines; sign of attachment; strong neg reaction to strangers esp when caregiver is not nearby
Babbling narrows to include only sounds of baby's native language at about:
8 to 9 mos
By age __ or ___, children begin to regularly use rehearsal, organization, and elaboration memory strategies
9 or 10
Child Maltreatment
9 out of every 1000 - most abusers are parents neglect = most common (78%), followed by physical abuse (18%), sexual (9%), and psychological (8%). Child sexual abuse outcomes are largely the same btw males and females - with girls having slightly worse outcomes. Less severe when abuse is from a stranger.
Children typically pull themselves to standing position by holding onto furniture by age:
9-10 months
Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlations
A child's genetic makeup evokes reactions from parents and others in the environment to encourage genetic abilities (e.g., children predisposed to be cooperative and attentive will have more positive instructional interactions with teachers than children who are uncooperative and inattentive will)
Klinefelter's Syndrome
A chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXy condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility
Androgyny and its impact
A combination of masculine and feminine characteristics and preferences Androgyny (and masculinity to a lesser degree) is associated with self-esteem than femininity Benefits of androgyny include greater flexibility when coping with difficult situations, higher levels of life satisfaction, greater comfort with one's sexuality
Klinefelter Syndrome
A condition in which males receive an extra X chromosome, resulting in a combination of XXY instead of XY. This disorder results in men having small testicles, which may result in low levels of testosterone during puberty.
Turner X Syndrome
A condition which occurs only in females and results from a missing X chromosomes resulting in XO (Turner Syndrome) instead of XX.
Dominant Genes
A gene that will be expressed whether inheritance is homozygous or heterozygous. E.g. brown eyes, dark hair, etc.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A genetic disorder that leads people to have difficulty metabolizing phenylalanine, an amino acid; caused by 2 recessive genes.
Internal working model (Bowlby)
A mental representation of self and others that influences the child's future relationships, develops as a result of attachment experiences early in life
Terotogen
A harmful substance (e.g., drug, chemical, or other environmental agent) that crosses the placental barrier and results in defects in the fetus.
Fragile X Syndrome
A hereditary mental disorder, partially explained by genomic imprinting and the addition of nucleotides to a triplet repeat near the end of an X chromosome.
Down Syndrome
A human genetic disease caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21--Trisomy 21--; characterized by mental retardation, heart and respiratory defects, a broad skull, blunt facial features, and short stature.
Conservation
A key accomplishment of the concrete operational stage; the ability to recognize that the quantity of a substance remains the same when its outward appearance changes as long as nothing new is added to or subtracted from it. Example: Recognizing that pouring a liquid from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat glass doesn't change the amount of liquid. The ability to conserve depends on two operations: decentration and reversibility.
Temperament
A person's basic disposition, which influences how he or she responds to situations -Can be predictive of later personality when measured after 3 years of age -Possible genetic contribution based on studies that identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins with regard to temperament
Temperment
A person's basic disposition. Evidence for genetic loading from twin studies that show monozygotic twins to be more similar in temperament than fraternal twins.
Genotype-environment correlations
A person's genetic makeup influences the environments which the person is exposed to, and the environment influences their genetic makeup. 3 types: -Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation -Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlation -Active Genotype-Environment Correlation (AKA niche-picking)
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
A range of conditions resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure and causing a range of conditions involving largely irreversible physical, behavioral, and/or cognitive abnormalities. Includes FAS, alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD), and other forms of FASD
Prevalence of Prader-Willi Syndrome
A recessive disorder that occurs in about 1 of 10,000 to 15,000 people.
Critical period
A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned more relevant in animals
Identity Achievement
A stage in Identity development in which a person has committed to an occupational direction and made decisions about important life questions.
horizontal decalage
A term used by Piaget to describe children's tendency to understand certain types of conservation before other types.
Conservation
Ability for a child to understand that the underlying properties of an object may not change just because its physical appearance has.
Self Awareness: Self Description
Ability to describe self develops at 19 to 30 months. This lead to emotional responsiveness to wrong doing.
Theory of Mind
Ability to make inferences about another's representational states and to predict behavior accordingly
Theory of Mind
Ability to make inferences about other's thoughts in order to predict behavior.
Auditory localization
Ability to orient toward direction of a sound; Evident soon after birth, disappears bt 2-4 mo, then reappears and continues to improve through rest of 1st yr
Auditory localization
Ability to orient toward the direction of a sound
Formal Operational Stage (11/12+)
Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically develops. Consider multiple solutions to the same problem.
Turner Syndrome
Abnormal number of sex chromosomes Females, only one X Short stature, drooping eyelids, webbed neck, retarded or absent development of secondary sex characteristics, may have cognitive impairments
Klinefelter syndrome
Abnormality in # of sex chromosomes A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY. May result in small penis and testes, development of breasts in adolescence, limited interest in sex, often sterile, may have learning disabilities
Prevalence of Turner X Syndrome
About one in 2,500 to 3,000 live female births are diagnosed with Turner Syndrome.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL- (The coliseum in Rome, built of lEGOS (egocentrism is back) Four male gladiators (FOUR MALES) are standing around the coliseum playing OPERATION. They have great ABS (abstract thinking) and their shields have the number four because it's the 4th stage. )
Abstract thinking & hypothetic-deductive Adolescent Egocentrism
Formal operational stage
Abstract thinking, deductive reasoning Can identify hypothesis and tests to confirm Egocentrism reemerges
In re: remarriage, children living w parent and stepparent tend to have worse outcomes in terms of
Academic performance, social rx, + mental and physical health (but differences bt this group and group w both parents are small, and neg outcomes reduced when SES and pre-existing adjustment probs are controlled)
Bem's gender schema theory states that...
Acquisition of gender identity is due to a combination of social learning and cognitive development; children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity as a result of their sociocultural experiences. The schemas organize how the individual perceives and thinks about the world THINK: Beam of light from a laser - like in a computer
Gender identity development according to social learning theory
Acquisition of gender identity is the result of a combination of differential reinforcement and observational learning
Kohlberg's cognitive development theory states that...
Acquisition of gender identity occurs in stages which parallel cognitive development: -By age 2 to 3: children recognize their GENDER IDENTITY -Shortly after: recognize GENDER STABILITY over time -By age 6 or 7: children recognize GENDER CONSTANCY over different situations and that people cannot change gender by changing external appearance THINK: Kohl's - where women shop --> gender identity
Circular Reactions
Actions that are performed in order to reproduce events that initially occurred by chance.
Adaptation
Adjusting schemas in response to the environment; A key concept in Piaget's theory which consists of two complimentary processes: assimilation and accommodation.
Scaffolding
Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance
Identity vs. role confusion
Adolescence -peers are dominant social influence, positive outcome when one develops personal identity and direction
Identity v. Role Confusion
Adolescence: peers=influence, positive is sense of identity & future direction
Marcia: Identity moratorium
Adolescent experiences identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities
Marcia's Identity Foreclosure
Adolescents are manifesting foreclosure when they have not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity (occupation, ideology, etc) that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or some other person.
peer pressure in adolescence
Adolescents most pressured toward prosocial B when younger peaks at age 14-15 Although compliance with peer pressure decreases as children age, teenagers feel most pressure to drink, smoke and have sex Peers have more influence on day-to-day activities while parents = more influential in core beliefs.
Marcia: Identity achievement
Adolescents resolve identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity
Masculinity, Femininity, and Adrogyny & Self-Esteem
Adrogyny is asociated with the highest levels of self-esteem in both boys & girls; while masculinity is associated with higher levels of self-em than femininity in both girls and boys
Gender Roles in Adulthood
Adult men and women tend to take on more stereotypical gender roles when they get married and have children. Some amount of reversal in middle adulthood with men being more sensitive.
Some neurogenesis occurs in:
Adulthood, esp in hippocampus
Retention Function
Adults 50+ tend to recall recent events (within the last 20 years)
Childhood/Infantile Amnesia
Adults cannot typically recall events they have experienced prior to the age of 3 or 4 Explanations: -Areas of the brain needed for memory of events, especially prefrontal lobes, are not sufficiently developed prior to age 4 -Absence of language abilities needed to encode information for later retrieval
Emotional response to wrongdoing: definition
Adverse reactions to caregiver's disapproval
Premature births are more likely amongst this racial/ethnic group:
African American mothers
differences in Life Expectancies among various racial and ethnic groups
African Americans have a significantly lower Life Expectancy than European Americans with a 68-year Life Expectancy for African-American males and a 75-year Life Expectancy for females.
Significant hearing loss usually doesn't occur until:
After age 75
Piaget's theory of moral development: Premoral stage
Children exhibit little concern for rules (prior to age 6)
Children do not deliberately use memory strategies prior to:
Age 5 or 6
Heteronomous Morality (Piaget)
Age 6-10; morality of constraint; rules are set by authority and are unalterable. Think the worse the consequences the worse the act
Levinson: Early adult transition (age range and description)
Age range: 17-22 - entails leaving the world of childhood and forming the initial foundation for life in adult world -formation of the Dream (image of ideal life)
Levinson: Age 30 transition (age range and description)
Age range: 28-33 -realization that life structure built during 20s is not adequate -sense of urgency develops as result of pressure to fully enter adult world
Levinson: Mid-life transition (age range and description)
Age range: 40-45 -time of significant stress and reorganization - deflation of the Dream -increasing awareness of one's mortality
Primary circular reactions (Piaget)
Ages 1-4 months; involve simple motor habits that center around baby's own body (e.g., thumb sucking)
Stages of development of self-awareness (Damon & Hart) (4 by grade level)
Ages 2 to 6 - descriptions of self focus on OBSERVABLE characteristics and behaviors as well as preferences. (THINK: before first grade) Ages 6 to 10 - descriptions of self focus on COMPETENCIES (THINK: elementary years) Ages 10 to 12 - descriptions of self focus on PERSONALITY and EMOTIONS directed toward them (THINK: middle school years) Adolescents - descriptions of self focus on INNER thoughts and feelings, acknowledge INCONSISTENCIES (THINK: high school years)
Secondary circular reactions (Piaget)
Ages 4-8 months; actions involving other people or objects; grabbing rattle w hand and shaking produces interesting noise
Instrumental/proactive aggression
Aggression performed in order to obtain a desired reward or advantage
Hostile attribution bias (Dodge et al.)
Aggressive children are likely to misinterpret the ambiguous bx of others as intentionally hostile
Social cognitive factors of children that contribute to their aggression (3)
Aggressive children are more likely to... • Have more SELF-EFFICACY about using aggression, less self-efficacy around inhibiting aggressive impulses • Have BELIEFS about the outcome of their behavior - that they will be positive • Show less REMORSE after being aggressive
Social cognitive factors of children that contribute to their aggression (3)
Aggressive children are more likely to... • Have more SELF-EFFICACY about using aggression, less self-efficacy around inhibiting aggressive impulses • Have BELIEFS that their behavior will be followed by positive consequences • Show less REMORSE after being aggressive
Emotions: Aggression - Social Cog. Factors
Aggressive children differ in their self-efficacy beliefs, beliefs about the outcome of their behaviors, and level of regret/remorse
Longitudinal research has shown that the "Big 5" personality trait are stable from mid-life until later adulthood; when individuals reach their 80's/90's, 3 of the 5 traits shift, specifically:
Agreeableness & acceptance of change increase, while sociability decreases
Patterns of attachment
Ainsworth -Secure -Insecure (Anxious)/Ambivalent (AKA insecure/resistant) -Insecure (Anxious)/Avoidant -Disorganized/Disoriented
Patterns of attachment
Ainsworth Secure attachment Insecure/ambivalent attachment Insecure/ avoidant attachment Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Insecure (Anxious)/Ambivalent attachment features
Also referred to as insecure/resistant Child alternates between clinging to and resisting his/her mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger; reacts ambivalently when the mother returns and may become angry and resist her attempts at physical contact *Mothers of these children are moody and inconsistent in caregiving
Active genotype-environment correlation
Also referred to as niche-picking. Occurs when children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic make-up. Impact is greates when children become more independent.
Insecure/ambivalent attachment
Alternates between clinging to and resisting mother Distressed when mother leaves, ambivalent when she returns Mothers are moody and inconsistent
Code switching
Alternating between languages during a conversation
Development of the Brain - Continued
Although the greatest amount of growth of the cortex occurs during the first two years of life, cortical development continues into adolescence with the frontal lobes which are responsible for judgment, planning, and other higher order cognitive functions not being fully developed until the late teens or early 20s. Beginning at about age 30, the brain starts to gradually shrink as a result of a loss of neurons and a reduction in the connections between neurons.
Anxious/Resistant
Always anxious, distress when mom leaves ambivalent when mom returns, wary of strangers "when reunited with his mother he will hit or push his mother when she approaches & continue to cry after she picks him up" Moms are inconsistent
Compensatory Preschool Programs
Among low risk children preschool and no preschool are largely equivalent. High risk (e.g., head start) children show long-term benefits of better attitude toward school, less likely to be held back or in spec ed., less drop out and more college. Also lower pregnancy, drug use, and delinquency later in life. Parental involvement bolsters impact of compensatory programs.
Elkind's Imaginary Audience
An adolescent's feeling of always being on stage.
Object Permanence
An important accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence or the object concept which is the understanding that people or objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen.
Effects of Divorce on Child Development - Continued - Continued
An important contributor to the positive adjustment of children and adolescents following the divorce of their parents is effective parenting. In a study of 8-15 year olds whose parents had divorced within the previous 2 years, those who had parents who had an authoritarian style, who were warm and consistent in their use of discipline, had the fewest adjustment problems. The importance of authoritative parenting has also been demonstrated by studies showing that the frequency of contract with the non-custodial father is by itself not strongly predictive of children's outcomes. However, a greater frequency of contact is associated with better outcomes especially for boys when two conditions are met. First: There is a cooperative relationship between the parents and second: the non-custodial father has an authoritative parenting style.
Critical period
An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. A limited time span when an organism is biologically prepared to acquire certain traits. Environmentally appropriate stimuli must be present.
Correspondence of Freud's Psychosexual Stages to Erikson's Stages of Development
Anal stage corresponds to autonomy vs. shame and doubt; Phallic stage corresponds to initiative vs. guilt; Genital stage corresponds to identity vs. identity confusion; Latency stage corresponds to industry vs. inferiority.
Effects of Divorce on Child Development - Continued
Another factor is the child's gender. Earlier research found that boys tended to display more behavioral problems, especially aggression and other acting out behaviors, immediately after the divorce and in subsequent years. However, more recent studies also indicate that girls also experience immediate negative effects but that these effects are often less noticeable behaviors such as depression, withdrawal, and low self-esteem. In addition, some girls exhibit a sleeper effect. That is, girls who were in pre-school or elementary school at the time of the divorce may not show substantial problems until adolescence or early adulthood. As adolescents, these young women are prone to low self-esteem, non-compliant behaviors, sexual promiscuity, and other problems and as adults, they're often unable to commit to a romantic relationship, fear betrayal by a romantic partner, and question their own capacity for marriage.
Symbolic or Representational Thought
Another important accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage which is the use of images, gestures, and words to represent objects and experiences. Symbolic thought underlies the emergence of several abilities including deferred imitation. Examples: A stick becomes a sword or a bath towel becomes a cape; using sounds or gestures to refer to other people; writing words, drawing pictures, acting in plays, and singing songs.
Children w insecure/ambivalent attachment
Anxious even before mother leaves and are very upset when she does; however, ambivalent when mom returns, first seek, then resist contact with her, and are not easily comforted by mom or stranger
The baby of a mother who is either impatient/non-responsive or is overly responsive, involved, and stimulating may respond to the "strange situation" in ways consistent with the ______________ attachment pattern.
Anxious/Avoidant
Language Acquisition: Overextension
Applies a word too broadly - e.g. all things with 4 legs are horses.
Language Acquisition: Underextension
Applies a word too narrowly - E.g., only their dog is a dog
Overextension
Applies word to wider than appropriate-all 4 legged animals are dogs
Underextension
Applies word too narrowly (dish) only to bowl he uses
Bruner's Constructivist Theory
Asserts that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon their current knowledge. Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond the information they have been given to discover the key principles by themselves
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Assistance provided by another person within the ZPD; most effective when it emphasizes prompts + feedback (rather than providing correct answers and solutions)
Teratogens: Effects of Lead
Associated with low birthweight and intellectual disability
What happens if a pregnancy is exposed to lead?
Associated with low birthweight and intellectual disability
Maternal Conditions: Malnutrition
Associated with miscarriage, still birth, low BW, suppression of the immune system, and ID. Most damaging in the 3rd trimester - effects number of neurons, reduces myelination, and causes neurotransmitter abnormalities.
Teratogens: Effects of Nicotine
Associated with placental abnormalities that can cause fetal death and stillbirth; higher risk for low birth weight, SIDS, respiratory diseases, cognitive deficits
Age at which infants first demonstrate recognition memory...at which they demonstrate long-term (2 days) recall of past events
At 3 months of age, they can recognize something for up to 24 hours At 6-12 months of age, they can imitate a sequence 2 days after exposure to a model sequence of events
Stages of language acquisition: Vocabulary growth
At about 18 months of age, children begin to exhibit a rapid increase in vocabulary, fastest rate occurring between 30-36 months
Brain development (weight and process)
At birth - brain weighs 25% of adult weight At two years -80% of adult weight-due to increases of interconnections but between nerve runs and development of glial cells Before age 16 - full adult weight Synaptic pruning- Unused synapses are eliminated
Infant vision development
At birth, 20ft of vision. By 2 to 5 days, prefer looking at faces. By 2 months, limited color vision. Also, preference for mom's face. By four to six months, depth perception. By 6 months, vision is close to that of a normal adult.
Vision at Birth
At birth, vision is the least developed sense. The vision of newborns is somewhat fuzzy and blurred and the distance vision of newborns is 10-30 times poorer than that of the average adult. Within several days following birth; however, infants prefer human faces over other objects. By one month, they can distinguish the face of their mother from the face of strangers. By 6 months, a baby's visual acuity is similar to a normal adult.
Young people begin to describe themselves in terms of their physical competencies - e.g., "I'm good at....":
At the beginning of middle childhood (ages 7-8)
Conventional Level of Moral Development
At this level, moral judgments are based on concerns about conforming to existing rules and laws in order to gain social approval to maintain the social order. Children at the conventional level might say Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is against the law and people must always obey the law.
Nativist approach to language development
Attributes language acquisition to biological mechanisms and stresses universal patterns of language development
Infant hearing development
Auditory localization evident after birth, disappears between 2 and 4 months, reappears and improves during the rest of the first year. A few days after birth, can distinguish between vowels "a" and "i." By two to three months, can distinguish between consonant sounds. By 3 months, preference for mom's voice.
What are the parenting styles? Who is responsible for researching them?
Authoritarian - ↑ Demands ↓ Responsivity Authoritative - ↑ Demands ↑ Responsivity Permissive - ↓ Demands ↑ Responsivity Rejecting-neglecting - ↓ Demands ↓ Responsivity (Baumrind)
Parenting styles (Baumrind)
Authoritarian: high demandingness, low responsivity; children are irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, dependent, unresponsible, low self-esteem, low academic achievement Authoritative: high and demandingness, high responsivity Children are assertive, socially responsible, achievement oriented, high self-esteem, confident, high grades Permissive: low demands, high responsibility Children are immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, low in achievement and independence Rejecting - neglecting: low responsivity and demandingness Children have low self-esteem, poor self-control, moody, aggressive
Parenting styles
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Uninvolved
Adult Attachment Interview outcomes
Autonomous: coherent descriptions of their childhood relationship with their parents → securely attached children Dismissing: provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, which do not match/are contradicted by specific memories → avoidant children Preoccupied: become angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parents or seem passively preoccupied with a parent → resistant/ambivalent children
Huntington's disease
Autosomal dominant condition characterized by a combination of psychiatric, cognitive, and motor symptoms
What type of chromosomal disorder is Huntington's Disease?
Autosomal dominant gene disorder
Huntington's disease is a type of:
Autosomal dominant gene disorder (not on a sex chromosome)
Autosomal vs sex-linked chromosomal disorders
Autosomal: when disorder is carried on an autosome Sex-linked: when disorder is carried on a sex chromosome
Gilligan's theory of moral development: Morality of nonviolence
Avoiding harm to oneself and to others is the foremost consideration
Theory of mind at age 2-3
Awareness of other people's mental state, begin to understand that others have different emotions , perspectives that influence their actions
Theory of mind at age 2-3
Awareness of other people's mental state, begin to understand that others have different perceptions, emotions, and desires that influence their actions
Parental Conflict
B problems exist in children in both conflictual families and divorced families, suggesting that conflict is the main issue. Intact conflictual families are harder on children than stable single parent households
Memory strategies in childhood
BABIES can show memory via habituation (slower sucking), recall a sequence after 2 days (6-12 month olds) CHILDHOOD - slowly becomes more effective. Rehearsal -- organization -- elaboration. Fine tune strategies in adolescence. Metacognition - related to memory ability
Theories of Language Development: Cognitive
Babies are motivated to express meaning
Goodness of Fit
Babies rated as difficult were shown to be maladjusted at age 3. Degree of match between parents and child's temperament best predict outcomes.
Newborn physical abilities - early reflexes
Babinski - toes fanout and up when feet are tickled rooting - based turns towards touched cheek Moro/Startle-fling arms/legs up and then towards body when loud sound or loss of physical support Stepping/walking- walking movement when held up and feet touch surface
Newborn reflexes (4)
Babinski reflex - when soles of the feet are tickled, toes and out and upward (THINK: Babinski --> Bobo the clown --> silly tickling) Rooting reflex - head turns in the direction of touch applied to the cheek Moro reflex - AKA startle reflex. Arms and legs shoot out words and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support. (THINK: More? Oh... - excitement, then not. Out, then in.) Stepping reflex - when held upright with feet touching flat surface, makes coordinated walking movement
Gender Schema Theory
Bem (1981) Combo of social learning and cognitive development. Children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity through sociocultural experiences.
Newborn reflexes (4)
Babinski reflex - when soles of the feet are tickled, toes and out and upward (THINK: Babinski --> Bobo the clown --> silly tickling) Rooting reflex - head turns in the direction of touch applied to the cheek Moro reflex - AKA startle reflex. Arms and legs shoot outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support. (THINK: More? Oh... - excitement, then not. Out, then in.) Stepping reflex - when held upright with feet touching flat surface, makes coordinated walking movement
Ainsworth: Insecure/Ambivalent attachment
Baby alternates between clinging and resisting higher mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, and is ambivalent when the mother returns and may become angry/resist her attempts at physical contact
Ainsworth: Insecure/avoidant attachment
Baby interacts very little with his/her mother, shows little distress when she leaves the room, avoids or ignores her when she returns; reacts to mothers and strangers in similar manner
Social Referencing
Baby's ability to read the emotional reactions of a caregiver in uncertain circumstances and then use that information to guide his/her behavior. A baby is exhibiting social referencing when he checks his mother's reaction to a stranger before he reacts himself.
Parenting Styles: Authoritative
Balance of demand and responsiveness Children tend to be assertive, responsible, achievement oriented, and have high self-esteem.
Repeated exposure to alcohol during prenatal dev most likely to negatively impact:
Basal ganglia, hippocampus, + frontal lobes
Freud: Psychosexual Dev.
Based on Freud's theory that the Id's libido is channeled through different physical regions at different ages. Successful navigation of conflicts regarding gratification = successful development. Unsuccessful navigation of conflict = fixation.
Gagne's Conditions of Learning Theory
Based on a hierarchy of intellectual skills organized according to complexity that can be used to identify prerequisites necessary to facilitate learning at each level. Instruction can be made more efficient by following a sequence of nine instructional events defined by the intellectual skills that the learner is required to learn for the specific task at hand
Montessori Method
Based on assumption that learning stems from sense perception and, therefore, can be maximized by using instructional methods that are designed to enhance sense discrimination
Attachment: Bowlby
Based on ethology and evolutionary theory Exposure of infant to mother during critical period results in bond that helps ensure infant survival. Born with set of behaviors (attachment system) that ensures attachment (crying, etc.) 4 stages of attachment - pre-attachment, attachment in the making, clear-cut attachment, reciprocal relationship Internal working models
Erickson's Stages of Psychosexual Development in Order with Ages
Basic Trust v. Mistrust (Infancy) Autonomy v. Shame (Toddler) Initiative v. Guilt (Early childhood) Industry v. Inferiority (School Age) Identity v. Role Confusion (Ad) Generativity v. Stagnation (Mid Adult) Ego Integrity v. Despair (Maturation/Older)
What are the basic emotions versus self-conscious emotions? At what ages do they develop?
Basic emotions - interest, sadness, disgust, distress. Expressed soon after birth. Self-conscious emotions - jealousy, empathy, embarrassment. 1.5 to 2 yrs.
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Basic trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddlerhood) Initiative versus guilt (early childhood) Industry versus inferiority (school-age) Identity versus role confusion (adolescence) Intimacy versus isolation (Young adulthood) Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood) Ego integrity versus despair (mature/Old-age)
Adults classified as preoccupied on the AAI:
Become v confused or angry when describing their childhood rx w parents and may be preoccupied w parent
Signs of attachment: Stranger anxiety
Becoming very fearful or anxious in the presence of a stranger especially when a caregiver is not nearby or does not respond positively to stranger
Prematurity and small
Before 37 weeks considered premature Often catch up in 2 to 3 years At least 3.3 pounds, likely to survive Small - below the 10th percentile Higher risk of learning disabilities ADHD etc.
Theory of Mind (4-5)
Begin to understand that another person's thoughts may be false.
Stages of Language Acquisition: Echolalia
Beginning at about 9 months, children imitate adult speech sounds. This is followed by expressive jargon that sounds like sentences but has no meaning.
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
Beginning with a theory about the factors that produce a particular outcome and then generating hypotheses that can be systematically tested to evaluate the validity of that theory.
Kohlberg's conventional morality stage
Begins around age 10-11 a) Good Boy/Good Girl orientation: the right thing is whatever gets APPROVAL from others b) Law & Order orientation: moral decisions are based on rules and laws established by legitimate AUTHORITIES
Piaget's Formal Operational Stage
Begins at about age 12 and continues throughout adulthood. People in this stage have the capacity for abstract thinking including hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought.
Kohlberg's postconventional morality stage
Begins in late adolescence or adulthood a) Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, Democratically Accepted Laws: the right thing to do is whatever is consistent with DEMOCRATICALLY determined laws (which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights) b) Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience: moral decisions are based on broad, SELF-CHOSEN universally applicable ethical principles
Theories of Language Development
Behavioral Theories Nativist Theories Cognitive Theories
Effects of Head Start programs found:
Benefits in terms of academic outcomes; social adjustment, and employment; improvements in IQ scores are often not maintained but do lead to higher achievement test scores, less likely to drop out, lower rates of delinquency and unemployment
risk factors of adolescent substance use
Being male, low SES physical/sexual abuse, low parental warmth/Involvement
Play (Vygotsky)
Believed that imaginary play provides a zone of proximal development, as it allows a child to practice a task or goal.
Maternal Employment - Is it a good thing or not?
Benefits outweigh costs for older children: - more egalitarian gender role concepts, more positive use of femininity - daughters have higher self-esteem, independence, academic achievement, treatment motivation, career goals - sons have higher IQ in low SES families (maybe the opposite and high SES families) It's a bad thing when combined with low parental supervision and monitoring for boys.
Maternal Employment - Is it a good thing or not?
Benefits outweigh costs, especially for older children: -More egalitarian gender role concepts, more positive views of femininity -Daughters have higher self-esteem, independence, academic achievement, achievement motivation, and higher career goals -In lower SES families, sons of working mothers score higher on measures of cognitive development (maybe the opposite in high SES families) -Most likely to have negative outcomes for boys when combined with low parental supervision and monitoring (lower school achievement, more behavioral problems, increased mother-child conflict) -Less likely to have a negative impact if both parents have positive attitudes toward it
Heinz Dilemma
Best known Kohlberg scenario used for assessing stages of morality. A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?
Developmental milestones (7-9 months)
Better coordination 8 to 9 months - sits alone without support, crawling 9 to 10 months - whole self to standing by holding furniture
Reminiscence bump
Better recall for events that occurred bt ages of 10 + 30 (due to more novel experiences + dev personal sense of identity + encoding of new info is most efficient during this period)
Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
Beyond a need for individual approval, individuals feel a duty to uphold laws, rules, and social conventions ("What am I supposed to do?")
Epigenesis
Bidirectional and continuous influences of heredity and environment on developmental outcomes
Freud: Oral Stage
Birth - 1 Year Mouth is the primary area of focus. Weaning is the conflict. Fixation results in dependency, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and oral habits (e.g., smoking, eating, etc.).
Leading causes of death: Infants
Birth and congenital abnormalities
SENSORIMOTOR (Statue of Liberty is holding 2 cents (cents-sorimotor) instead of a torch with an ant standing on each cent (object permanence= pair of ants))
Birth-2yrs. Object permanence (object concept) 8-12mo. ppl & objects exist when they are out of sight. Causality Deferred imitation Make-believe (symbolic) play. Learn through circular reactions (doing the same thing to produce what happened by chance)
Brain development over the lifespan (especially cerebral cortex)
Birth: Brain is 25% of adult weight. Cerebral cortex is nearly completely undeveloped. First few months of life: development of primary motor and sensory areas of the cortex, from head to tail and from center to extremities 2 years old: Brain is 80% of adult weight Early to mid 20s: prefrontal cortex fully developed 30 to 60 years of age: gradual atrophy of neurons, especially prefrontal cortex, then parietal and temporal lobes, and then occipital lobe. Development of senile plaques, enlargement of ventricles, reduced blood flow, decrease in some neurotransmitters. The good news:formation of more synaptic connections, neurogenesis in hippocampus. 60 years of age and on: acceleration of neuronal cell death
Nature vs. Nurture
Both genetics and environment are important Environment becomes increasingly important as someone ages
How do teachers respond differently to students of different genders?
Boys are more likely than girls to be corrected, criticized, praised, and helped Boys are more often criticized for: BEHAVIOR, neatness of their work, inattention Boys are more often praised for: intellectual ACCOMPLISHMENTS and task related behaviors Girls are more often criticized for: lack of ability, inadequate intellectual PERFORMANCE Girls are more often praised for: effort, COOPERATION → girls are more likely than boys to view their failures of the result of a lack of ability
School: Gender and Teacher Feedback
Boys are more likely to be corrected, criticized, praised, and helped by teachers Nature of feedback is related to gender - boys are more criticized for misbehavior and unruliness but praised for accomplishments - girls more criticized for lack of ability while praised for cooperation.
Brain Dev. Aging and Compensation
Brain attempts to compensate with aging by forming new synaptic connections, and new neurons in the hippocampus.
Brain Dev. - Aging
Brain begins to shrink at age 30. This process speeds up at age 60. Atrophy is most apparent in the frontal lobes, followed by the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
Brain Dev. Directions
Brain develops in a cephalocaudal (back to front) and proximodistal (center to extremity) manner that is consistent with all physical growth.
Brain at Birth
Brain is aprox. 25% of its adult weight at birth
Brain by age 16
Brain reaches its adult weight at approximately 16.
Theory of mind after age 5
By about age 6, children realize that people's actions are not always consistent with their true thoughts and feelings; people interpret, rather than just record, events and different people may have different interpretations of the same event. In adolescence, recognize that people can have mixed feelings
Brain by age 2
By age 2 the brain is aprox. 80% of its adult weight. This growth is due primarily to the increase in interconnections and glial cells, not additional neurons.
Exosystem
Broader environment that impacts childs immediate environment influence development (e.g., parents work)
macrosystem
Broader environment which includes society as a whole and types of government, such as democratic or socialist.
Ecological model
Bronfenbrenner's model Model describes development as involving interactions amongst the individuals and their various contexts or environments Miniature Mexican eating macaroni and cheese Micro meso exo macro Chrono
Bronfenbrenner's view on human development
Bronfenbrenner's views human development as a dynamic, interactive process that begins with an individual's genetic endowment and unfolds as a result of one's interaction with the immediate environment. Children develop in the context of many systems that are simultaneously at work. The theory underscores the complexity of development and how various systems affect each other. The model also emphasizes the importance of culture upon development
Stages of language acquisition: First words
By 13 months of age, infants understand about 50 words; most speak their first word between ages 10-15 months and, by 18 months, speak about 50 words; first words are most often nominal or labels for objects, people, or events
Developmental Milestones 16-24 months
By 18 months can run, walks up stairs, and uses spoon. by 24 months, kicks ball, turns pages of book, and 50% children use toilet during day.
Stages of language acquisition: Telegraphic speech
By 18-24 months of age, children exhibit telegraphic speech (stringing two or more words together to make a sentence); vocabulary is about 300-400 words
Telegraphic Speech
By 25 months of age, children have a vocabulary of about 200 words and have started using 2 word phrases or telegraphic speech to communicate. Like telegrams, telegraphic speech contains only the most important words, often a noun and verb. For instance, "go car!" "want cookie!" and "mama play!"
Auditory Perception
By 3 months can differentiate voices and prefer mom's voice.
Age at which infants first demonstrate recognition memory...at which they demonstrate long-term (2 days) recall of past events
By 3 months of age, infants can recognize a stimulus for up to 24 hours following exposure By 6-12 months of age, infants can recall past events (2 days delay)
Stages of Language Acquisition: First Words
By about 13 months, most infants understand about 50 words. Most speak their first words between the ages of 10 and 15 months. Nominal - Labels for objects, people or events (generally first words are these)
Kohlberg's cognitive development theory states that...
By age 2 to 3, children recognize their GENDER IDENTITY and recognized GENDER STABILITY over time. By age 6 or 7, children recognize GENDER CONSTANCY over different situations and different external appearances. THINK: Kohl's - where women shop --> gender identity
By 9 months, a baby...
CRAWLS Pulls self to standing by holding on to something
By 15 months, a baby...
CREEPS up stairs Scribbles Uses a cup
Alcohol used by pregnant women:
Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects (FAE) in child; most severe defects when alcohol consumed during first trimester; most sx of FAS persist into adulthood
Early Training
Can help specific skills (e.g., walking), but will not generalize. Training in specific skills (e.g., a musical instrument) will improve later performance.
Concrete operational stage
Capable of mental operations (logical rules for transforming/manipulating information) Conservation - develops gradually, understanding that amount of something doesn't change just because appearance/shape, etc is manipulated
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11/12)
Capable of mental operations which are logical rules for manipulating and transforming information. Children are able to seriate (order items), understand part-whole relations, and conserve.
Fearful children score higher on measures of conscience, and Kochanska found that the rx bt fearfulness + conscience dev is affected by:
Caregiver's socialization practices; among fearful toddlers, conscience dev fostered by "gentle discipline," while in contrast, fearless toddlers dev conscience via secure mother-child attachment + maternal responsiveness
Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV) - causes, prevalence, symptoms
Cause: when herpes is passed on in utero from mother to child. Prevalence: 1% of all births. Out of these, 10% show symptoms at birth. Symptoms: low birthweight, petechial rash, microcephaly (small brain size), enlarged liver and spleen, retinal inflammation, calcium deposits in the brain
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - cause, symptoms (6), brain regions affected (6)
Cause: when mom drinks heavily especially during second half of first trimester (6-12 weeks) Symptoms: - facial anomalies - retarded physical growth - defects in heart, kidney, liver - impairments in vision and hearing - cognitive deficits - behavioral problems (hyperactivity, impulsivity, social withdrawal) (Think: drunk person with a contorted FACE, blurry VISION and hearing, slow PHYSICAL movements, LIVER heart kidney affected, COGNITIVEly not there, BEHAVIOR is erratic) *Note: alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder = cognitive deficits + behavioral problems alcohol-related birth defects = physical defects only Brain regions: corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, frontal lobes (Think: stumbly drunk person --> 2 halves of body interacting independently [corpus callosum], no coordination [basal ganglia, cerebellum], sweating and smelly [hypothalamus], how are you going to get them home? [hippocampus], they won't remember anything the next morning [hippocampus])
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - cause, symptoms (6), brain regions affected (6)
Cause: when mom drinks heavily nearly or every day or engages in binge-drinking, especially during second half of first trimester (6-12 weeks) Symptoms: -Facial anomalies -Retarded physical growth -Defects in heart, kidney, liver -Impairments in vision and hearing -Cognitive deficits -Behavioral problems (hyperactivity, impulsivity, social withdrawal) (Think: drunk person with a contorted FACE, blurry VISION and hearing, slow PHYSICAL movements, LIVER heart kidney affected, COGNITIVEly not there, BEHAVIOR is erratic) *Note: -Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder = cognitive deficits + behavioral problems without prominent facial anomalies, retarded physical growth, or physical deficits -Alcohol-related birth defects = physical defects only (heart/ kidney problems, vision and hearing impairments) without other prominent symptoms Brain regions (depend on amount consumed and stage of pregnancy when exposure occurs) most likely impacted are: corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, frontal lobes (Think: stumbly drunk person --> 2 halves of body interacting independently [corpus callosum], no coordination [basal ganglia, cerebellum], sweating and smelly [hypothalamus], how are you going to get them home? [hippocampus], they won't remember anything the next morning [hippocampus])
Universal Ethical Principles
Characteristic of Kohlberg's stage 6, in which moral reasoning is based on moral principles that apply to all
Adolescent egocentrism
Characteristic of the early formal operational stage; involves an inability to distinguish one's own abstract perspectives from those of others; high degree of self-centeredness; Elkind = imaginary audience + personal fable
Child Maltreatment Contributing Factors
Child Characteristics = premature birth weight, difficult temperament, illness, disability, younger age, gender (girls > boys) Parent Characteristics = Hx of maltreatment, alcohol/substance abuse, psychopathology, harsh discipline, low education, and younger age Family Characteristics = poverty, unemployment, social isolation, martial issues, domestic violence, lack of resources, crowded living conditions
Overextension
Child applies a word to a wider collection of objects or events than is appropriate (e.g., refers to all 4-legged animals as "doggie")
Underextension
Child applies a word too narrowly to objects or situations (e.g., child uses "dish" to refer only to the plastic dish he or she normally uses)
Preoperational stage
Child begins to learn through mental representations of language, mental images, symbols. More sophisticated symbolic play, solve problems mentally Precausal (transduction) reasoning - incomplete understanding of cause and effect - such as magical thinking - believe that thinking something will cause it to occur) animism - tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects (Liam saying couch is mean) Egocentrism - inability to separate perspective from that of others, can't imagine others point of view do not recognize that actions can be reversed and focus on most noticeable features of objects. No sense of conversion
Montessori method
Child center- Materials and environments are designed to fit the child's abilities, Learning is experiential, and move at their own pace
Disorganized/Disoriented attachment features
Child exhibits fear of his/her caregiver, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors (e.g., greeting mother when she returns but then turning away from her) *80% of infants who have been mistreated show this pattern In childhood, children who exhibit a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern as infants are at an increased risk for hostile and aggressive behavior, low self-esteem, and low academic achievement
Secure attachment features
Child explores the room and plays with toys while the mother is present, mild distress when mother leaves; seeks contact with the mother when she returns *Mothers of securely attached children are emotionally sensitive and responsive to her baby's cues Compared to insecurely attached peers, securely attached 4- or 5-year-olds: -Are more curious -Are less dependent on adults At elementary age: -Have more positive social interactions with peers -Engage in more pro social behaviors -Exhibit greater empathy -Perform better academically As adults: -Have high self-esteem -Have a strong sense of personal identity
Insecure (Anxious)/Avoidant attachment features
Child interacts very little with his/her mother, shows little distress when she leaves the room; avoids or ignores her when she returns *Mothers of these children are very impatient and unresponsive OR provide their children with too much stimulation
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Microsystem
Child's immediate environment, includes face-to-face relationships within home, school, and neighborhood (e.g., child's relationships with parents, siblings, teachers)
Semantic bootstrapping
Child's use of his knowledge of meaning of words to infer syntactical (grammatical) category Learning objects/ppl are nouns
Syntactic bootstrapping
Child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn meaning of new words. Learning new word is noun bc of use in sentence
Diane Baumrind and Parenting Styles
Childrearing practices have been extensively studied by Baumrind and her colleagues who distinguish between four parenting styles that differ in terms of two dimensions: demandingness/control and responsiveness/warmth.
Theory of Mind: Major changes during ages 2-3
Children become aware of other people's mental states and begin to understand that people have different perceptions, emotions, and desires that influence their actions
Theory of Mind (2-3)
Children become aware of other's mental states and begin to realize that others have different internal worlds then them.
Theory of Mind (5)
Children begin to realize that other's actions and thoughts are not always consistent. Also realize that people interpret events and that events can be interpreted in different ways.
Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Children believe that behaviors that avoid punishment must be "good" or "right" (level 1)
Piaget's theory of morality development: heteronomous morality
Children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable(7-10 years
Bem's Gender Schema Theory
Children dev schemas of masculinity + femininity as result of their early sociocultural experiences
Gender Schema theory
Children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity as a result of their sociocultural experiences; these schemas then organize perceives and thinks about the world
Ainsworth: Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Children exhibit fear of their caregivers, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors
Transdeductive Reasoning
Children in the pre-operational stage also exhibit pre-causal or transdeductive reasoning which is the tendency to see causal relationships that don't actually exist. One manifestation of pre-causal reasoning is magical thinking or the belief that thinking bad things about someone can actually cause bad things to happen to that person. Another manifestation is animism, which is the attribution of human characteristics to inanimate objects. Example: A child is exhibiting animism when she trips over a toy on the floors and says the toy was mad at her and made her fall.
Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation
Children inherit genes from their parents which predispose them to certain traits, and parents provide environments that encourage development of those traits (e.g. children of athletic parents are likely to be athletic, and parents will provide a sports-oriented environment to kids that encourages interest and participation in sports)
Impact of remarriage on children
Children living with a parent and stepparent demonstrate worse academic performance, social relationships, and psychological and physical health than children living with 2 biological parents
Remarriage
Children living with stepparents have worse outcomes than traditional families - lower academic performance, poorer social skills, and lower psychological and physical health. Effect is very low
Remarriage: Impact of Age & Gender
Children over the age of 9 show worse impact Inconsistent results with gender - some evidence for a worse impact on girls and some evidence that stepfathers are actually beneficial for boys.
Effects of divorce on children based on custody arrangements
Children tend to do better when they live with their same-sex parent (e.g., higher self-esteem, lower anxiety and depression, less antisocial behaviors) In general, adjustment is better when they have frequent, reliable contact with the noncustodial parent (except when the divorce is highly conflictual)
Effects of divorce on children based on custody arrangements
Children tend to do better when they live with their same-sex parent. In general, adjustment is better when they have frequent, reliable contact with the other parent (except when the divorce is highly conflictual).
Piaget's theory of morality development: autonomous morality
Children view rules as arbitrary and as being alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them (after age 11)
Effects of child maltreatment
Children who have been physically abused often have: -Delays In cognitive development -Poor school achievement -Fewer friends -More problems in relationships with teachers and other adults -Aggressiveness and other behavioral problems
Secure attachment
Children who will exhibit some distress when caregiver leaves, but upon return is easily consoled. Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive to their babies cues
Chronic Illness in Children
Children with chronic health difficulties often at higher risk for both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These may be mitigated by the severity of the condition, family, SES, two-parent, and getting accurate dev. appropriate info about condition.
Parental conflict and divorce
Children with divorced parents or unhappily married parents do not differ Parental conflict rather than divorce increases the risk for adverse outcomes
Secure Attachment
Children with secure attachment use their mother as a base from which to explore their environment. They may become upset when their mother leaves the room and are unlikely to be consoled by a stranger. When their mother returns, securely attached children quickly calm down and attempt to make physical contact with her. Mothers of securely attached children are warm, affectionate, and responsive to their children's behavioral cues.
Insecure/Ambivalent
Children with this pattern stay close to their mother and do not explore their environment. They become very upset when their mother leaves the room, but seem ambivalent when she returns and resist attempts at contact. Mothers of ambivalent children are inconsistent in their caregiving, sometimes being enthusiastic but other times indifferent.
Language Development: Nativist
Chompsky Attributes language development to innate biological mechanism (Language Acquisition Device). Evidence for this comes from the reality that children master the basics of language between ages 4-6 regardless of the complexity of the language.
Mother's of children w insecure/avoidant attachment
Chronically unavailable, unresponsive, + impatient, or over-stimulating and intrusive
Thomas & Chess - Temperament
Classify infants as easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up; goodness-of-fit model proposes that maladjustment in childhood is related to a poor fit bt child's basic temperament + his/her parents' bx; while difficult children might be at highest risk for future maladjustment, even easy children can dev bx probs when parents child-rearing practices do not match their child's temperament
Baumrind Authoritative Parents
Combine rational control with responsivity. Although they set clear rules and high standards for their children, they rely on reasoning, praise, explanations, and other inductive techniques to gain compliance, and they encourage independence. The offspring of authoritative parents tend to be assertive, socially responsible, and achievement oriented, have high self-esteem, are self-confident and usually obtain high grades in school.
Sx of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Combo of bx+ cog sx including ID, impaired attention + memory, hyperactivity, impaired motor coordination, impulsivity, and poor judgment; adversely impacts: basal ganglia, hippocampus, frontal lobes, corpus callosum, cerebellum, and hypothalamus
Patterson et al. attribute aggressiveness in children to
Combo of poor parental monitoring and coercive fam interactions (parents act aggressively toward each other + their children) children then imitate parents bx and are reinforced for doing so w approval + attention
Later benefits of secure attachment
Compared to insecurely attached peers, securely attached 4- or 5-year-olds: -Are more curious -Are less dependent on adults At elementary age: -Have more positive social interactions with peers -Engage in more pro social behaviors -Exhibit greater empathy -Perform better academically As adults: -Have high self-esteem -Have a strong sense of personal identity
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Macrosystem
Comprised of such overarching environmental influences as cultural beliefs and practices, economic conditions, and political ideologies
Disorganized/Disoriented
Conflicting response to mother, dazed, confused, apprehensive Maltreated by caregiver
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model: Chronosystem
Consists of environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on his/her circumstances and developmental stage (e.g., immediate and long-term effects of a change in family structure or socioeconomic status)
Nature-nurture debate middle ground suggests:
Contingent rx bt factors; believe that genetic potentials (nature) cannot be realized unless the appropriate environmental experiences (nurture) occur
Authoritarian
Controlling, demanding, punitive; children are insecure, timid, and dependent
Sequence of language development
Cooing Babbling First Words Holophrasic speech Telegraphic speech Rapid vocab growth Complex grammar
Cooing and babbling
Cooing - simple sounds, usually vowels Babbling - 4 months, repetitive simple vowel sounds, all languages, by 9-14 months, only sounds of their native language
Brain Regions Most Likely to be affected by prenatal exposure to alcohol
Corpus callosum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, basal ganglia and frontal lobes
Marcia: Identity Achievement
Crisis experienced, commitment made, introspective, planful, high self esteem. An adolescent in the Identity Achievement category has resolved his or her identity crisis and is committed to a specific identity.
Marcia: Moratorium
Crisis experienced; no commitment; anxious, changes major often, and often dissatisfied. An adolescent in this category is experiencing an identity crisis. This adolescent has not yet committed him or herself to an identity but is actively exploring alternative values, beliefs, career possibilities and so on.
Stages of language acquisition
Crying Cooing and babbling Echolalia and expressive jargon First words Telegraphic speech Vocabulary growth Grammatically correct sentences Metalinguistic awareness
Vygotsky's Social-Cognitive View of Development
Culture greatly influences learning ; social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition; "the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the 'zone of proximal development'; Instruction can be made more efficient when learners engage in activities within a supportive environment and receive guidance mediated by appropriate tools.
Effects of Age on memory
DECLINES - Explicit memory (things need to do), recent long-term (secondary) memory, and working memory, episodic memory DOESN'T REALLY CHANGE - remote long-term memory, memory span, and sensory memory, semantic/procedural memory Changes in working memory may be due to reduced processing speed and worse ability to prevent irrelevant information .
Internal working model (Bowlby)
Develops as a result of experiences during the four attachment stages; internal working model of rx w others; this mental representation then influences future rx; ex: as a result of pos attachment experiences during infancy, person may view him/herself as worthy of love + respect, and other people as trustworthy + dependable + available for support during times of distress
What is presbyopia?
Difficulty focusing on close objects; associated with natural aging process.
Marcia's four identity statuses
Diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, achievement; identity-foreclosed individuals have made a commitment to an identity that has been imposed by parents or other authority figures
Zone of proximal Development (Vygotsky's Sociocultural)
Discrepancy btwn current dev level & level of dev just beyond current level but can be reached when someone provides appropriate scaffolding. Development is helped when instruction & demands falls in this zone
Adult attachment interview (AAI): Adults are classified as ______________ on the AAI when they provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, but the descriptions are either not supported or are contradicted by specific memories
Dismissing
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
Do not seek proximity to their mothers. They are unlikely to cry when she leaves the room and either ignore or avoid her when she returns. They react to a stranger in a similar way as they react to their mother. Mothers of these children are impatient, unresponsive, and emotionally unavailable or at the other end of the extreme provide their children with too much stimulation.
Gay and lesbian parents
Don't differ from kids of heterosexual relationships The same things remain important, for example parenting style
Recessive gene disorders
Due to an inheritance of a pair of recessive genes Examples - cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, tay-Sachs, Phenylketonuria (PKU - people can't metabolize an amino acid that is an lots of food and an early diet can prevent severe intellectual disability that often results from the disorder
Down Syndrome
Due to chromosomal abnormality. The presence of an extra 21st chromosome. Some evidence that risk for down's syndrome increases with the increase in the age of the parents.
Dominant gene disorders
Due to inheritance of single dominant gene Example - Huntington's- psychiatric cognitive and motor problems
Dominant Gene Disorders
Due to inheritance of single dominant gene from one parent
Reaction range
Each person's genetics set up an upper and lower boundary (range) for development of each trait. Environmental factors determine where you fall in that range. The range is larger for those with high genetic endowment.
Bilingualism and Education
Early - believed that it led to cog deficits Later - Do as well if not better than monlingual peers Bilingual initially may have smaller vocabulary in both languages, but total vocab is similar to peers. Greater cog flexibility, complexity, analytical reasoning, attention, and metalinguistic awareness - Results may not persist into adulthood.
Consequences of early and late physical maturation (females)
Early - poor self-concept, unpopular, dissatisfied with physical development, lower academic achievement, more likely to engage in sexually precocious behavior and substance use Late - treated like little girls, dissatisfied with physical appearance/ development Outperform their peers academically
Consequences of early and late physical maturation (males)
Early -greater popularity, superior athletic skills, dissatisfaction with body image, increased risk of substance use, delinquency, depression Late - viewed as childish, more attention seeking behaviors, less self-confidence, higher risk of depression
Initiative vs. guilt
Early childhood- favorable relationships results in the ability to set goals and carryout plans
Initiative v. Guilt
Early childhood: favorable relationships with family result in ability to set goals & devise & carry out plans without infringing on rights of others
Effects of early or late physical maturation in adolescence
Early maturation for boys → increased popularity, better athletic skills BUT body image issues, substance use, delinquency, depression Late maturation for boys → more attention-seeking behaviors, less confidence, depression Early maturation for girls → unpopular, body image issues, low self-esteem, low academics, sexual behaviors, substance abuse, depression or eating disorder Late maturation for girls → body image issues BUT better academic performance Note: most adverse effects largely dissipate by adulthood
Stages of Language Acquisition: Metalinguistic Awareness
Early school years (6-7) begin to realize that speech is a communication tool.
Telegraphic speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs. - small sentences
Gender differences in motor skills apparent by:
Early to middle childhood; become increasingly obvious during adolescence
Temperament Categories
Easy = even-tempered, regular sleep/eat patterns, adaptable, and positive mood. Difficult = irritable, withdraw, unpredictable habits, and negative mood. Slow to Warm = interactive but somewhat negative in mood, and take time to adjust to new stimuli/situations.
MITIGATING FACTORS TO CHILDHOOD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Easy temperament Consistent caregiver
Emotions: Emotional Contagion
Emerges in first week of life - cry when other infants do and react to the facial expressions of caregivers.
Mothers of securely attached children are _______________ and __________ to their' babies' cues
Emotionally sensitive; responsive
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Emphasizing learning through observation, vicarious learning and modeling
Cognitive model of aggression
Encoding social cues, interpretation of social cues, response search, response evaluation, response enactment
Teratogens
Environmental agents that adversely affect prenatal dev; alcohol, cocaine + other drugs, environmental hazards (pollution + radiation); most likely to cause major defect during embryonic period (beginning of 3rd week to end of 8th week after conception)
Chronosystem
Environmental or historical events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on his/her circumstances and developmental stage (e.g., immediate and long-term effects of a change in family structure or SES, war, natural disasters)
Aspect of LTM that is first affected by aging:
Episodic mem
Autonomy vs. Shame
Eric Erickson's 2nd stage of development where we learn to master skills for ourselves. Here is were we learn to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more control over our bodies and learn new skills. It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result. (18 Months to 3 years)
Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson's eighth and last stage. From age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Erikson's fifth stage. From age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.
Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner. The infant's task is to develop a balanced sense of how reliable people are, which means that a child must develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If caregiving from parents is primarily nurturing, consistent, and responsive during this stage, the child develops a realistic sense of trust, hope, and confidence. In contrast, the if the child receives inadequate or inappropriate care, this produces a sense of mistrust and suspicion.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's fourth stage, in which a child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's seventh stage. From age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves. According to Erikson, the psychosocial conflict of adolescence is one of identity vs. identity confusion and unsuccessful resolution of this conflict results in identity confusion or repudiation.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt (1-3 years).
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
Propositional Thought
Evaluating the logic of verbal statements or propositions without a concrete example. Propositional thought allows a person to understand that when certain premises are true, a particular conclusion must also be true. Example: It allows us to understand that all licensed psychologists must pass EPPP and Dr. West is a licensed psychologist, Dr. West has passed the EPPP.
Thomas and Chess: Characteristics of easy children
Even tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new situations and people, preponderance of positive moods
auditory localization
Evident shortly after birth, disappears between 2-4 months, and then reappears.
Auditory localization
Evident shortly after birth, disappears btwn 2-4 months, then reappears and improves during the rest of the first year. Can hear sounds during last mo. of dev in uterus 3 months-distinguish btwn voices and prefer mother's voice. Sensitive to speech sounds & can distinguish between a and I, and by 2-3 months, between similar consonant
Bjorklund and Pellegrini model of human evolution
Evolutionary developmental psychologists. One-a prolonged juvenile period allows development of a complex brain Two - childhood behavior is selected because it prepares us for adulthood Three -some child's behaviors are selected at certain times e.g. infant behavior that fosters bonding For ecological mechanisms help deal with specific problems in the environment such as parenting Five - some behaviors that used to be adaptive are no longer adaptive such as food gorging
Explicit vs. implicit memory
Explicit memory is a memory that can be intentionally and consciously recalled. The other is implicit memory, which is an experiential or functional form of memory that cannot be consciously recalled. This is your memory of how to ride a bike or how to balance.
Increasing age has a greater negative impact on __________ memory vs _______________ memory
Explicit; implicit
Bowlby's Ethological Theory
Exposure of an infant to his/her mother during a critical period following birth produces a bond bt them; identified bt 4 stages of attachment dev that occur during first two years of life
Effects of Alcohol on Prenatal Development
Exposure to alcohol during pre-natal development may cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is characterized by a number of physical, behavioral, and cognitive abnormalities. The extent and severity of FAS symptoms depend on the amount of alcohol the mother consumed during pregnancy.
Marcia's Four Identity Stages
Extended Erikson's ideas abt adolescent identity dev; each stage represents diff combo of crisis + commitment: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, identity achievement
Over-regularization
Extending grammatical rules to words that are exceptions; ex: "I breaked my toy," I have two feets" + "I runned fast"
Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage
Extends from age 7 to 12. Concrete operational children use logical operations or mental activities to think about objects and events. As a result, they are much better than pre-operational children at classifying, working with numbers, understanding causality, and distinguishing reality from fantasy.
Piaget's Pre-Operational Stage
Extends from ages 2-7; Piaget described this stage primarily in terms of its limitations rather than accomplishments. Three limitations of this stage are centration, irreversibility, and egocentricism.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Extra X chromosome in a male - small sexual organs - breasts during puberty - limited sexual interest - sterile - learning disabilities
Down Syndrome - cause, symptoms
Extra chromosome #21. Likelihood increases as parents' ages increase. symtpoms: intellectual disability slower physical growth, motor development more likely to have Alzheimer's, leukemia, heart defects distinct physical facial features
Bem's gender schema theory
Gender develops due to social learning which helps child develops schemas of masculinity and femininity
According to Kohlberg's cog-dev theory, the dev of gender identity involves three stages:
Gender identity (age 2-3), gender stability (age 4-6), and gender constancy (age 6-7)
Gender Identity: Social Learning Theory
Gender identity dev. is the result of a combination of differential reinforcement and observational learning.
Gender Identity: Psychodynamic perspective
Gender identity is a result of resolving the oedipal complex in the phalic stage and identifying with same-sex parent.
Bem's gender theory states that...
Gender identity is formed through a combination of social learning and cognitive development. That is, children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity as a result of their socio-cultural experiences, allowing them to perceive and think about the world through these schemas. THINK: Beam of light from a laser - like in a computer
Reaction Range
Genes determine a "range" of possible development and environmental factors impact where an organisms falls in that range.
Reaction range
Genetically determined limits on IQ or other traits, which may change depending on environment Range of reaction for certain traits status within the range depends on the environment
Phallic stage
Genitals, oedipal conflict (desire for opposite-sex parent). Goal is identification with same-sex parent. Phallic character, sexual exploitation of others
Genital stage
Genitals, sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Genotype vs phenotype
Genotype is genetic inheritance Phenotype is observed to characteristics Phenotype is heritability and environment
Reminiscence Bump
Greater recall of events from about 10-30 yrs of age Explanations: -There are more novel experiences during this period, which are more likely to be remembered -Encoding of information is most efficient during this period -People develop a personal sense of identity during these years, so memories for events during this time which contribute to this sense of self are more easily recalled
Retention Function
Greater recall of recent events (within the last 20 yrs), followed by events from adolescence and young adulthood for adults aged 50+
Physical maturation in adolescence
Growth spurt 11 to 12 - girls, 13 to 14 -boys Lasts 3 to 4 years Signals beginning at puberty
Leading causes of death: Young adults
HIV infection, accidents, and cancers
Memory in Childhood
Habituation - Infants by 3 months can recognize a stimulus after up to a 24 hour delay. Imitation Task - 75% of 6-9 and 12 month babies can remember and imitate a learned task after a 2 day delay.
Behavioral Inhibition
Has a biological contribution & is relatively stable. & it's related to physiological reactivity. Inhibited facing unfamiliar sit. Higher heart rate, greater pupil dilation, & larger BP change. More inhibited at increased risk for anxiety later, & less positive and less active social life Can be modified by parenting (warm & supportive can decrease)
Effects of remarriage on children are best when the stepparent ... Unfortunately, stepfather is...
Has an authoritative parenting Style Is supportive of the biological parents authority Unfortunately, stepfathers tend to be more distant and disengaged then bio fathers.
Effects of remarriage on children are best when the stepparent ... Unfortunately, stepfather is...
Has an authoritative parenting style and is warm, involved, and supportive of the biological parent's authority Unfortunately, stepfathers tend to be more distant and disengaged then bio fathers
Adolescent Drug and Alcohol Use
Has declined in recent years. Children who by the age of 7 exhibit alienation, impulsivity, indecisiveness and subjective distress. Demographic factors such as SES, abuse, parent quality may impact.
Unresolved
Have dysfunctional relationships, experienced trauma or loss as a child that was never mourned, tend to be neglectful of their own children
Infants of mothers who used cocaine during pregnancy often:
Have low birth weight, a piercing cry, and an exaggerated startle response, are irritable and hypersensitive, and do not respond in normal ways to the sound and sight of caregivers
Preoperational children are egocentric, i.e., they:
Have trouble understanding another person's POV: ex: study where children looked at 3D mountain and preop children unable to recognize that another person's view of mountain differed from their own
Identity Foreclosure
Haven't experienced crisis but adopted identity imposed by same sex parent or other person
Identity Diffusion
Haven't experienced i. crisis or explored alternatives & aren't committed to identity
First senses to show age-related to declines in adulthood:
Hearing + vision
Hearing Impairment in Adulthood
Hearing impairments more common than visual impairments, but more subtle and less likely to interfere with daily functioning. The first sign of significant hearing loss does not usually occur until after age 50 and involves a noticeable decrease in ability to hear high frequencies. Over time, this inability extends to other frequencies and by age 70, many adults have trouble hearing the content of emotionally expressive aspects of human speech.
Leading causes of death: adults 65 and older
Heart disease accounts for 35 percent of deaths among adults 65 and older, followed by cancers and cerebrovascular diseases or strokes.
To reduce aggressive bx in highly aggressive preschooler:
Help child recognize consequences of their bx and identify alternative bx
Role of Environment
Heredity accounts for only 50% of the variability in many characteristics.
Piaget's stages of moral development
Heteronomous morality - ages seven through 10- Children believe that rules are set by authority and are unalterable Autonomous morality - age 11-View rules as arbitrary, and alterable, intention of act is more important than consequences
Symptoms of Babies born to mothers who used cocaine
High Risk of SIDS Seizures Low Birthweight Reduced head circumference Tremors Exaggerated startle response High-pitched cry Sleep and feeding difficulties Developmental delays Irritable and difficult to comfort
Authoritarian
High demanding & low responsivity Absolute stds. of conduct, stress obedience Use physical punishment, threats, deprivation, & other power assertive techniques to gain compliance Kids are irritable, aggressive, mistrusting & dependent, & have limited sense of responsibility, low self-esteem, & academic achievement
Parenting Styles: Authoritarian
High demandingness and low responsiveness Children are irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, dependent, have little sense of responsibility, and low achievement academically.
Authoritarian
High in demandingness, but low in responsiveness. These parents are cold and uninvolved with their children and frequently criticize them. They do not consider their children's opinions when making rules, are rigid in the enforcement of rules, and when rules are broken, tend to resort to harsh punishment. Children of authoritarian parents tend to be anxious, moody, apprehensive, withdrawn, and low in sociability and self-esteem. They do poorly in school.
Impacts of Daycare
High quality day-care appears to not have a detrimental impact. May benefit high-risk children by taking them out of the home.
Parenting Styles: Permissive
High responsiveness but low demand Children tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and have low academic achievement.
Teratogens: Effects of Maternal Rubella
High risk for heart defects, blindness, deafness, and intellectual disability
Symptoms of babies born to mothers with rubella
High risk of heart defects Blindness Deafness Intellectual Disability
Perceptual development: With regard to specific types of visual stimuli, newborns prefer to look at ____________ patterns
High-contrast
Effects of daycare
High-quality daycare can have positive benefits, but may be temporary: -Higher IQ test scores -Better creative play -Better language skills Socially, beginning daycare in the first year of life: -Predictive of having more friends -Being more affectionate with friends -Being more assertive in preschool -Higher levels of disobedience, demandingness, and aggression toward other children If children have formed strong parent-child bonds before beginning daycare, receive sensitive caregiving at home, and attend high-quality daycare, they are less likely to exhibit insecure attachment even when daycare is provided more than 20 hrs/week during the first year
Impact of androgyny
Higher levels of self-esteem, greater resilience, higher levels of life satisfaction, greater comfort with one's sexuality.
Symptoms of babies born to mothers who used nicotine
Higher risk for lower birthweight SIDS Respiratory diseases Emotional and social disturbances Cognitive deficits
Marital Satisfaction
Higher satisfaction is related to similar age, SES, education, religion, marrying after 23, dating for 6 months, and 1 year prior to kids Some evidence for dissatisfaction being highest in middle years - but findings are mixed Empty Nest Syndrome - Marital satisfaction increases
Marital satisfaction is linked to what factors?
Higher satisfaction linked to: -Similarity in age, SES, education, and religion -Marrying after age 23 -Dating for at least 6 months prior to marriage -Waiting at least one year after marriage to have children
Reaction of Insecure/ambivalent baby in Strange Situation:
Hit or push mother when she approaches and continue to cry after she picks him up
From one to two years of age, children use single words to express whole phrases and sentences, referred to as:
Holophrastic speech; ex: points to milk and says "milk" meaning I want some milk, later spills milk on shirt and cries and says "milk" meaning I spilled my milk and I'm all wet
Heredity-Environment Interactions
How genes and environment interact.
Nature versus Nurture
Human development is viewed as being due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors are thought to be most important at early stages of development and environmental factors are more important at later stages.
Chromosomal disorders
Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs One pair are the sex chromosomes XX are females, XY are males Problems with these chromosomes cause sex disorder Autosomes- All other chromosome pairs Autosomal disorders are due to inheritance of one dominant gene or two recessive genes, or a chromosomal abnormality
Sx associated w prenatal malnutrition
Hyperactivity, irritability, and irregular sleep and feeding habits
When is an infant considered premature? What is the weight cutoff for survivability? When do they catch up to their normal birth weight counterparts?
If it is born at 37 weeks or less. 3.3 lbs (1500 grams). 2-3 years of age.
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
Id's libido centers on a diff part of the body during each stage of dev; oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development: Overarching Proposal
Id's libido centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development; personality results form the ways in which conflicts at each stage are resolved
Basic Trust v. Mistrust
Infancy: positive relationship with caregiver results in trust & optimism
Microsystem
Immediate environment home, school, neighborhood
Microsystem
Immediate environment; includes face-to-face relationships in the home, school, and neighborhood (e.g., child's relationships with parents, siblings, teachers, peers)
Presbyopia
Impaired vision as a result of aging; first occurs around age 40 and includes a decreased ability to see in dim light, increased sensitivity to glare, and a decline in depth perception.
Mothers of insecure/avoidant children are very ___________ and ___________ or, at the other extreme, provide their children with too much ___________
Impatient; unresponsive; stimulation
Developmental Milestones 7-9 months
Improved coordination. Sits with out support and begins to crawl. Can pull self to stand with use of furniture.
Heteronormous Morality
In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment. Children in the heteronormous stage believe that rules are determined by authorities and are unchangeable and that a violation of rules should lead to immediate punishment. When judging an act, children in the heteronormous stage focus on the act's outcomes. The worse the outcome, the worse the act.
Preoperational Stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Magical thinking predominates; egocentricism weakens; centration and semiotic function
Sensorimotor Stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Children in this stage are egocentric, that is, they can't perceive the world from other's viewpoints.
Formal Operational Stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts hypthetical/deductive reasoning/propositional thought occurs
centration
In Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features; the inability to mentally hold two dimensions at the same time
zone of proximal development
In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction
Ainsworth: Secure attachment
In a strange situation, a securely attached baby explores room and plays with toys while mother is present, becomes mildly upset when she leaves, and actively seeks contact with her when she returns
Hearing and Vision in Adulthood
In adulthood, hearing and vision are the first sense to show declines.
Erikson: Ego integrity vs despair
In this final stage, social influence broadens to include all of humankind; development of wisdom and sense of integrity require coming to terms with one's limitations and mortality
Childhood (infantile) amnesia
Inability of adults to recall few of the events they experienced prior to age 3 or 4; may be due to lack of fully formed prefrontal lobes prior to age 4, or due to lack of language abilities needed to encode info that would enable later retrieval
Egocentrism in teens
Inability to separate ones own thoughts from thoughts of others personal fable (belief that one is unique and not subject to natural laws that govern others) Imaginary audience (belief that others are watching them, always center of attention)
Thomas and Chess: Characteristics of slow-to-warm-up children
Inactive and somewhat negative in mood, take time to adjust to new stimuli
Research on impact of child sexual abuse on adjustment of males and females has produced:
Inconsistent results, with some showing that females have more neg outcomes and others finding similar outcomes for both
Cocaine use when pregnant
Increased risk for: Abortion & stillbirth SIDS Seizures Low Birth Weight Reduced Head Circumference Tremors Exaggerated startle response High pitched cry Sleep and feeding issues Developmental delays Irritable & difficult to comfort Cog & Bx problems that persist into early school years
Childhood impacts of disorganized/disoriented attachment
Increased risk for: -Hostile and aggressive behavior -Low self-esteem -Low academic achievement
Maternal Depression
Increases child's likelihood of developing emotional/behavioral problems Chronic DEP = less positive, sensitive, and engaged Children display negative physiological signs, are more likely to be passively noncompliant, and perform poorer on linguistic tests.
Cocaine used by pregnant woman:
Increases risk for miscarriage + premature birth, may cause number of serious and persistent probs; babies are excessively irritable, difficult to soothe, + highly reactive to environmental stimulation; smaller than normal head circumference; heart, urinary tract, + other physical defects, + abnormal motor dev;
Effects of age on memory
Increasing age has a greater effect on explicit memory than implicit memory Recent long-term memory and working memory are most greatly impacted by age. Episodic memory more impacted by age than semantic and procedural
Uninvolved
Indifferent or rejecting; children are non-compliant and antisocial; most predictive of delinquency
Self-Interest Orientation
Individuals focus on the behavior that will be in their best interest, with limited interest in the needs of others ("What's in it for me?") (level 1)
Characteristics of individuals with Klinefelter Syndrome
Individuals with Klinefelter Syndrome may be sterile, have below average intelligence, and have a tendency to be passive in their personality. They may experience breast growth and are at an increased risk for breast cancer. Tend to be taller and have somewhat lower intelligence scores (IQ around 90). Have abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics (e.g., partial breast development, small testicles, high pitched voices)
Characteristics of individuals with Turner X Syndrome
Individuals with the condition develop short stature and webbed necks. Other symptoms include stunted sexual development (including infertility and failure to menstruate), cardiovascular anomalies, a shield-shaped chest with wide-spaced nipples, an increased carrying angle of the arms, and mental retardation. Learning disorders are also common. Although people with this disorder tend to have difficulty with mathematics, their verbal abilities are typically average.
Basic trust vs. mistrust
Infancy - A positive relationship with one's primary caregiver during infancy results in the sense of trust and optimism
What is the effect of compensatory preschool programs (e.g. HeadStart) for low SES families?
Initial gains in IQ scores, but they don't last. Long term gains in terms of: - attitudes toward school - less likely to be retained a grade - less likely to be in SpEd - less likely to drop out of high school - more likely to attend college
What is the effect of compensatory preschool programs (e.g., Head Start) for low SES families?
Initial gains in IQ scores, but they don't last. Long term gains in terms of: -Attitudes toward school -Less likely to be retained a grade -Less likely to be in SpEd -Less likely to drop out of high school -More likely to attend college -Reduced rates of pregnancy, drug abuse, and delinquency during adolescence -Higher earnings, higher rates of home ownership, and lower arrest rates in early adulthood
Characteristics of individuals with Prader-Willi Syndrome
Insatiable hunger, which may lead to obesity. Other symptoms of the disorder include delayed motor skills and cognitive abilities, low muscle tone, short stature, and incomplete sexual development. People with the syndrome range from almost normal levels of intelligence to mild mental retardation. In addition, people with the condition may tend to hoard objects and be repetitive in their speech.
Adult attachment interview: Children of dismissing adults often exhibit an ______________ attachment pattern
Insecure/avoidant
Scaffolding
Instruction, assistance, and support. Most effective when involves modeling, cutes, & encourages child to think about alternative plans of action.
Teratogens: Effects of maternal cytomegalovirus
Intellectual disability and hearing and visual impairments
Insecure/avoidant attachment
Interact very little with mother, shows little distress when she leaves, avoids or ignores her when she returns Mothers are impatient and unresponsive, or provide their children with too much stimulation
Mesosystem
Interactions between components of the microsystem (e.g., influence of family factors on a child's behavior in school)
Mesosystem
Interactions btwn components of the microsystem-family factors on child's bx at school
By 3-4 months of age, infants express at least four emotions through their facial expressions:
Interest, sadness, distress, + disgust; by 6-8 months, exhibit anger, joy, surprise, and fear
Associative play
Involves interacting with other children and playing with the same toys but without organization or shared goals
Signs of attachment: Social referencing
Involves looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous situations
Cooperative play
Involves organized group interactions for the purpose of achieving common goals
Children 5-9 gradually develop an awareness of the ___________ of death but tend to ______________ it and believe they can ______________ death
Irreversibility; personify; cheat/escape
John Bowlby's Attachment Theory
John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst, concluded that human infants and parents have a biological predisposition that fosters the development of attachment between them and ensures that infant's safety and survival. According to Bowly, attachment develops in four phases during the first two years of life and as a result of their experiences during these phases, children develop an internal working model about the availability of attachment figures and how they will respond during times of stress. This mental representation then acts as a model for future social relationships.
Zone of Proximal Development
Key concept in Vygotsky's theory; Defined by what the learner can currently accomplish alone and what he or she can do with assistance from a more knowledgeable or skilled person. According to Vygotsky, instruction is most effective when a teacher provides the learner with scaffolding.
Development of depth perception: babies are first sensitive to _____________ cues, then ____________ cues, and finally _____________
Kinetic; binocular; pictorial
Gender Identity: Cognitive Dev. Theory
Kohlberg (1966) By age 2 - 3 children understand that they are male or female and shortly after understand that this is stable over time (boys grow up to be men). By 6 or 7 children understand that gender is consistent across situation.
Gender and Language
Language reflects general gender differences. Boys more likely to use dominant interrupting language.
Kohlberg's Postconventional
Late ad/Early Adult 5. (Morality of Contract, Individual rights, & democratically accepted laws) Consistent with democratically determined laws, which can change if they interfere with basic rights. 6. (Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience) Right & wrong determined on broad, self-chosen, universally applicable ethical principles
Early physical maturation boys
Leads to popularity, superior athletic abilities, but also self-image issues, and increased risk for drug use and delinquency.
Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
Learning occurs when a task is at a level just beyond a person's current knowledge, but still within their ability, particularly when scaffolding is provided.
Montessori method
Learning stems from perception, so instruction is designed to utilize all senses
Montessori method
Learning stems from sense perception, so instruction is designed to utilize all senses Child-centered: the materials and environment are designed to fit the child's abilities Learning is experiential; children receive support and guidance from teachers that helps them advance at their own pace
Vision development in newborns
Least well developed At birth sees 20 ft, where adults see 200-400 ft. by abt 6 mo. visual acuity close to an adult Limited color vision by 2 months & some degree of depth perception by 4-6 mo.. Prefer high contrast patterns & faces (2-5 days after birth), preferring face of mother by 2 mo.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Like Piaget's theory is based on the assumption that moral development depends on improvement both in cognition and social perspective taking, but it includes three levels that are divided into two stages. Kohlberg identified his stages by questioning children and adolescents about scenarios that posed a conflict between two moral values.
Studies of infantile amnesia found that memories for events that occurred prior to age 3-4 are:
Limited but not completely absent; recall of early memories varies across lifespan (older adults typically have later-occurring first mems than younger adults do) and is related to gender, cultural background, type of event, etc.
Vision
Limited depth and color at birth. Depth develops in order: kinetic cues, binocular cues, and pictoral cues.
Effects of parenting style are moderated by several factors, including ethnicity
Link bt authoritative parenting + school success is weaker for African American adolescents who are influenced more by peers - may underachieve in school to avoid being accused of acting white by peers; Asian American adolescents often do well academically even when parents rely on parenting practices associated w authoritarian style
When compared to younger adults, older adults exhibit the greatest age-related declines in ____________ memory followed by the _____________________ of _________________ memory
Long-term (secondary); working memory aspect; short-term
Infant reaction to pain
Long-term reaction to pain is different between full term vs. preterm babies. - full-term: heightened responsivity to pain - preterm: reduced responsivity to pain
Sensitive periods
Longer in duration and more flexible than critical periods, are not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational stage
Sensitive period
Longer in duration and more flexible, not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational stage (e.g., attachment and language acquisition occur during sensitive periods)
Longitudinal Research on Attachment
Longitudinal studies on the four attachment patterns have shown that early attachment is predictive to some degree of later behavior. One study found that 5 year olds who were securely attached as infants got along better than insecurely attached children with their parents and peers and were more independent in pre-school. There is also evidence that disorganized/disoriented attachment in infancy is predictive of hostile/aggressive behavior during the preschool and elementary school years.
Significant characteristics of Piaget's preoperational stage (ages 2-7)
Magical thinking (belief that once has magical powers - result of egocentrism + precausal reasoning); insight learning (learning based on intuition); finalism (belief that every event has a purpose); + centration (inability to mentally hold two dimensions at the same time)
Uninvolved
Low in both demandingness and responsiveness and they either neglect their children or overtly reject them. These parents minimize interactions with their children and consider their parental role as only requiring them to provide their children with food, clothing, and shelter. Children of un-involved parents have the worst outcomes. They are hostile, non-compliant, demanding, and emotionally detached, prone to drug use and anti-social behavior, and do very poorly in school.
Permissive
Low in demandingness, but high in responsiveness. These parents are overindulgent and encourage their children to express their feelings and impulses. They don't clearly communicate rules or enforce them and they tend to ignore or accept inappropriate behaviors. Children of permissive parents have trouble controlling their impulses, are dependent, moody, and overly demanding are are unmotivated in school.
Rejecting-Neglecting (uninvolved)
Low responsivity & demandingness. Mayb overtly hostile to kids Kids have low self esteem, poor self-control, are impulsive, moody & aggressive Predictive of juvenile delinquency
Brain development (regions)
Lower areas of brain developed at birth The cerebral cortex-higher level cognitions, develops across the first 20 years of life First - motor and sensory develops Prefrontal cortex develops through 20s By 30 - brain starts to shrink, atrophy Acceleration of cell death after age 60 Brain compensates by developing new neurons in other places, such as the hippocampus-this is the only time in our life when new neurons actually develop
Brain at birth
Lower centers of brain are fully developed at birth while the cerebral cortex is almost completely undeveloped.
Insecure/Ambivalent
M present-Alternates btwn clinging & resisting M leaves-Disturbed M returns-Ambivalent & may b angry & resist M's attempt at contact M is-Moody & inconsistent in caregiving
Insecure/Avoidant
M present-Minimal interaction with M M leaves-Little distress when she leaves M returns-Avoids or ignores M is-Very impatient & unresponsive OR give overstimulate
Erikson: Intimacy vs isolation
Main task is establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship; if bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result
Internal working model
Mental representations of the self and others that influences future relationships
Information processing theories of cog dev focus on:
Mental rules + strategies; in contrast to Piagetians, not interested in stages of cog dev; focus on mental operations + view cog dev as due to changes in mental capacity and increasing sophistication in the use of relevant rules + strategies
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle adulthood-The people one lives and works with our most important. A generative person is committed to the well-being of future generations
Generativity v. Stagnation
Middle adulthood: ppl you live & work with are most impt. Generative shows commitment to well-being of future generations
Turner Syndrome
Missing one X chromosome in a female - small stature - drooping eyelids - webbed neck - no or few secondary sex characteristics - cognitive deficits (visual-spatial, executive, social-cognitive functioning)
Turner Syndrome
Missing one X chromosome in a female (X) -Short stature -Drooping eyelids -Webbed neck -Other characteristic physical features -Retarded or absent development of secondary sex characteristics -Possible impairment in visual-spatial, executive, and social-cognitive functioning
Maternal Employment
Mixed results but maybe beneficial Children of working mothers have more egalitarian gender-role concept, more positive view of femininity. Daughter = higher self-esteem, academic achievement, and higher career goals Most likely to have negative impact on boys
Kohlbergs cognitive development theory
Model of gender identity development Identity, stability, constancy
Accomodation
Modification of existing knowledge (schemas) to accommodate new information.
Cognitive Development: Accommodation
Modification of existing schemas to incorpora5te new knowledge
Cognitive Development: Accommodation
Modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge
Accommodation
Modification of new knowledge into existing schemas.
Play
Motor play assists in physical dev., rough and tumble play leads to dev. of impulse control, imaginative play leads to cog. dev.
Mothers of children w insecure/ambivalent attachment
Moody, inconsistent, + unpredictable, sometimes indifferent but at other times overly enthusiastic
Mothers of insecure/ambivalent children are often ___________ and ____________ in their caregiving
Moody; inconsistent
Moral Development: Kohlberg - Postconventional
Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws: The right action is the one that fits with agreed upon rules Morality of Individual Principles and Conscience: Right and wrong are based on self-chosen, universally applicable ethics.
Newborns sensitive to pain; newborns not given anesthesia during circumcision have a:
More adverse reaction to routine vaccination 4-6 mo later
Aggressive TV
More aggressive children, increased tolerance Adult disapproval may mitigate effects
Overextension
More common errors; Involves applying a word to a wider range of objects or events than is appropriate. A child is exhibiting overextension when she calls all four legged animals "doggie."
Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
More common than FAS; occurs when mother consumes smaller amount of alcohol during pregnancy; Characterized by less severe sx: less likely to have facial abnormalities and ID, but have many other sx of FAS at milder or less severe level; most sx are permanent
Re: metamemory, older adults are:
More likely than younger adults to overestimate their actual memory deficits
Adults aged 50+ tend to have best recall for:
More recent events followed by events that occurred in adolescence + young adulthood
In response to the cries of an infant:
Most adults (both parents + non-parents) exhibit an increase in HR and BP
Most adults experience problems with hearing by age ___. Significant hearing loss does not occur until after age ___. For those, at least ___ are affected in their daily functioning. Hearing is most affected with ___frequency sounds.
Most adults experience problems with hearing by age 40. Significant hearing loss does not occur until after age 75. For those, at least 1/2 are affected in their daily functioning. Hearing is most affected with high frequency sounds.
Visual changes in adulthood
Most adults-can't focus on close objects by about age 40 After age 65 - most have vision changes that impact reading driving and other aspects of life
Erikson: Industry vs inferiority
Most important influences are people in neighborhood and school; to avoid feelings of inferiority, school-age child must master certain social and academic skills
Effects of remarriage on children based on age
Most negative effects when children are 9 years of age or older, especially difficult during adolescence (probably because it's an additional stressor on top of a transition).
Development of the Brain
Most neurons found in a mature human brain are already present at birth; however, significant brain development, especially of the cerebral cortex, occurs following birth and is due to several factors including an increase in the size of the existing cells, the growth of new dendrites, and increased myelinization.
Effects of divorce on children based on time after divorce
Most profound effects in the first year after the divorce: -Increased misbehavior, aggression, and delinquency -Lower academic achievement -Problems related to psychological and emotional functioning -Lowered self-esteem -Disruptions in interpersonal relationships *Parental conflict is the most important factor that is correlated with poor adjustment
Effects of divorce on children based on time after divorce
Most profound effects in the first year after the divorce: behavior problems, lower academic achievement, lower self-esteem, disruptions in peer relationships. Parental conflict is the most important factor that is correlated with poor adjustment.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Most severe form of FASD Facial anomalies Retarded physical growth Heart, kidney and liver defects Vision and hearing impairments Cognitive deficits Behavioral problems (hyperactivity, impulsivity and social withdrawl)
Polygenic
Most traits are polygenic - meaning that they are the result of multiple genes. Height, weight, IQ, and personality are examples of polygenetic traits.
Effects of divorce on parenting
Mothers: -Frequently socially isolated -Lonely -Experience a decline in income -Tend to be uncommunicative -Impatient -Less warm and loving toward their children (especially sons) -Monitor their children's activities less closely -Are less consistent and more authoritarian in terms of punishment Custodial fathers: -Similar problems but may adjust to their situation sooner Non-custodial fathers: -Tend to be overly permissive and indulgent with their children during visits -After the first few months, visits often decline in number
Socioemotional selectivity theory
Motivational processes that underlie changes in the quality and quantity of social relationships over the lifespan-social motives correspond to the perceptions of time left in life as being limited or unlimited Those with unlimited sense of time prefer more social relationships, those with limited sense of time, usually older, and prefer emotionally close partners
Theories of language development
Nativist approach (Chomsky) - Language acquisition has to do with biology (Language Acquisition Device). There are universal patterns of language development. Interactionist approach - biological and environmental factors. adult responses with EXPANSIONS (add to the child sentence but keeps all the word and word order) adult responses with EXTENSIONS (add new information) (THINK: alphabetical order expAnsions exTensions, order from simpler to more complex.)
Gay and Lesbian Parents
Nature of parent-child relationship appears to be more important. Children of gay parents appear to be similar to those of heterosexual couples - not more likely to be gay.
Gender diff in morbidity + mortality rates among newborns:
Newborn boys have higher morbidity + mortality rates than newborn girls; also less mature, more vulnerable to variety of illnesses
Small-for-gestational age (SGA)
Newborn's weight below the 10th percentile. High risk for asphyxia during birth Respiratory disease Hypoglycemia Learning disabilities ADHD
Hearing at Birth
Newborns are only slightly less sensitive to sound intensity than adults. Within days after birth, they prefer the human voice to other sounds. Newborns also exhibit some auditory localization; they turn their eyes and head in the general direction of a sound. This ability seems to decline between 2 and 4 months of age but re-emerges and becomes well-established by the end of the first year.
Taste smell
Newborns are sensitive to different tastes and smells.
Pain
Newborns are sensitive to pain. Early exposure to pain may lower threshold for pain later.
Infant reaction to pain
Newborns exposed to pain without anesthesia have greater adverse reactions to a routine vaccination 4-6 months later than newborns who received anesthesia for early-life procedures Long-term reaction to pain is different between full term vs. preterm babies who are exposed to early pain: - full-term: later exhibit heightened responsivity to pain - preterm: reduced responsivity to pain later in infancy
Marcia: Foreclosure
No crisis; commitment made; close-minded and accepts and endorses parental choices and values. Adolescents in the Identity Foreclosure category are committed to an identity but not as the result of an identity crisis. Instead, adolescents in this category have adopted the suggestion of a parent, peer, or other influential person. Example: An adolescent might say she has decided to become a lawyer because that's what her parents want her to be.
Marcia: Identity Diffusion
No crisis; no commitment; little self-direction, impulsive, and low self-esteem. Adolescents in the stage have not yet experienced an identity crisis and are not committed to a particular identity.
Use of memory strategies in preschoolers
Sometimes use non-deliberate memory strategies ineffectively
Children of rejecting-neglecting parents are:
Noncompliant, impulsive, + moody and prone to drug use + antisocial bx
Turner Syndrome
Occurs in females and is caused by the presence of a single X chromosome. Results in diminished height, webbed neck, drooping eyes, lack of secondary sex dev. and ID.
A child's first words most commonly refer to:
Objects that change or move; objects that have a dynamic quality (car, ball)
Phenotype
Observed characteristics due to combo of heredity & environment
Passive genotype-environment correlation
Occurs when children inherit genes from their parents that predispose them toward particular traits, and parents provide children with environments that encourage development of those traits (e.g., genetic predisposition to athleticism and sports-oriented environment)
Perception in newborns: Habituation
Occurs when infant's response to a stimulus decreases when the stimulus is repeatedly presented
Perceptions in newborns: Dishabituation
Occurs when infant's responsivity increases following a change in a stimulus
Presbyopia
Occurs when lens of eye loses its ability to focus; begins around mid-40s; difficulty focusing on objects that are close
Habituation
Occurs when the infant's response to a stimulus DECREASES when the stimulus is repeatedly presented.
Dishabituation
Occurs when the infants responsivity INCREASES following a change in stimulus.
What does the research say about birth order? What does the research say about the spacing between siblings as well as family size and academic achievement?
Oldest - higher IQ, higher achievement, more conscientious Younger - more rebellious, better peer relationships, more confident in social situations Lower academic achievement is associated with larger family size and smaller gaps between children
Brain Dev. - Aging
Other changes with age include senile plaques, enlarging ventricles, decrease in blood flow, and decrease in neurotransmitters
Rejected versus neglected children
Outcomes are worse or children who are actively rejected by peers-greater loneliness and peer dissatisfaction, less likely to experience improvement in peer status when they change in social groups
Macrosystem
Overarching enviro influences-cultural beliefs, economic conditions, political ideologies
Macrosystem
Overarching environmental influences (e.g., cultural beliefs and practices, economic conditions, political ideologies)
Authoritative
Parents are high in both demandingness and resopnsiveness. They are warm, nurturing, and sensitive to their children's needs and involved in their children's activities. Although authoritative parents expect their children to comply with rules, they consider each child's desires and individuality in setting rules and explain the rationale for them to their children. Children and adolescents of authoritative parents have the best outcomes. They tend to be self-confident, cooperative, independent, are socially mature, and popular with their peers and they do well in school.
Language Development: Extension
Parents response to children's speech. "Mommy go bye bye." Father - "Yes, Mommy is leaving."
Gerald Patterson et al. attributed _____ as key contributor to Conduct Disorder
Parents' child rearing skills; social learning approach; "coercion hypothesis" focuses on interactions bt parents and their children + identifies parents' child rearing skills as key determinant of nature of these interactions
Symptoms of babies born to mothers with cytomegalovirus (CMV)
Passed through the placenta 10% have symptoms as birth Low birthweight Petechial Rash Microencephaly Enlarged liver and spleen Retinal inflammation Calcium deposits on brain Intellectual disability Hearing and visual impairments
3 types of genotype-environment correlation
Passive genotype-environment correlation - environment happens to help with development of genetic abilities (e.g. athletic parents who provide a sports-rich environment to kids) Evocative genotype-environment correlation - child's genetic make-up evokes reactions in environment to encourage genetic abilities (e.g. children with social dispositions will be given more social opportunities) Active genotype-environment correlation - aka niche-picking. Children actively seek out environments that promote their genetic abilities (e.g. intelligent children seeking activities that are more cognitively stimulating)
Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt corresponds to Freud's
Phallic Stage
Reminiscence bump
Phenonemon that ppl are better able to recall episodic memories from age 10-30.. theories of why include: - more sense of self/identify development during that time - more novel experiences - brain developed such to handle the informaiton and encode it better
Phonemes and morphemes
Phonemes - smallest units of speech sound (one unit, m, o, th) Morphemes - smaller unit of meaningful sound (un, ed, ing, do)
What are phonemes? What are morphemes?
Phonemes - the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language (e.g. English has 45 - b, p, f, v, th...) Morpheme - the smallest units of sound that convey meaning (e.g. -ing, do, go, un-, -ed)
Alcohol-related birth defects
Physical defects (heart and kidney problems, vision and hearing impairments) without other prominent symptoms.
According to Stipek et al., development of self-awareness includes three stages:
Physical self-recognition, self-description + evaluation, + emotional responses to wrong doing (signals beginning of dev of sense of conscience)
Piaget's Pre-Operational Stage - Continued
Piaget proposed that the onset of formal operational thought is accompanied by a new form of egocentricism that involves an inability to distinguish between one's abstract perspective in the abstract perspectives of others. His claim was subsequently expanded on by Elkind who identified several characteristics of adolescent egocentricism.
Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 yrs)
Piaget's first stage; children learn abt themselves + the environment by coordinating sensory experience w motor activity; important accomplishments = object permanence + symbolic thought
Formal operational stage (11+)
Piaget's fourth (final) stage; characterized by abstract thinking, which allows engagement in hypothetico-deductive reasoning + propositional reasoning; adolescent egocentrism in early part of this stage
Autonomous Morality
Piaget's second stage is the stage of autonomous morality which begins at about age 10 or 11. Children in the autonomous stage no longer believe that rules are absolute, but instead recognize that rules can be changed by mutual agreement. When judging an act, they focus more on the actor's intention than on the act's outcomes.
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 yrs)
Piaget's second stage; marked more by its limitations than its accomplishments; can use symbols, but unable to think logically; exhibit precausal (transductive) reasoning; limitations = egocentrism, centration, + irreversibility
Autonomous morality
Piaget's term for the period of moral development from about age 10 to age 12, involving a growing realization that moral rules are social conventions that can be changed if people decide they should be changed.
Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 yrs)
Piaget's third stage; children use logical operations to think abt objects + events; much better than preop at classifying objects, working w #s, dealing w space + time, understanding causality, and distinguishing fantasy from reality; key accomplishment = conservation (due to reversibility + decentration)
Compared to mother-child bond, father-child attachment related more to:
Play activities; father's role as "playmate"
Sociodramatic play
Play that includes imitating adult bx
Contact comfort
Pleasant tactile sensation provided by a soft, cuddly parent; plays an important role in attachment
Harlow: Contact comfort
Pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent; partially accounts for attachment
Early physical maturation girls
Poor self-concept, unpopular, low academic achievement, more likely to be sexually active, and more likely to use drugs.
Empty nest syndrome
Popular belief that adults experience a decline in marital satisfaction after children leave home-in fact, the opposite is true in research
Kohlberg's levels of moral development
Pre-conventional morality- 1. Punishment and obedience orientation (focus on punishments) 2. Instrumental hedonism (focus on rewards) Conventional morality- 1. Goodbye/good girl orientation (based on what others think of them) 2. Law and order orientation (based on rules of authority) Post conventional morality- 1. Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws 2. Morality of individual principles of conscience
Bowlby's Four stages of attachment development
Preattachment, attachment-in-the-making, clearcut attachment, + formation of reciprocal rx; leads to development of internal working model
Limiting factors in preoperational stage
Precausal Reasoning (transductive): incomplete understanding of cause and effect. Magical thinking: outgrowth of transductive thought which results in children believing that thinking something is the same as doing it. Animism: Attributing human traits to non-human objects. Egocentrism and irreversibility
Thomas and Chess: Goodness-of-fit model
Predicts that it is the degree of match between parents' behaviors and their child's temperament that contributes to child's outcomes
Maternal Malnutrition
Prematurity, low birth weight, cog deficits, + weak immune system; malnutrition during third trimester (esp for protein deficiency) is particularly detrimental for developing brain (can lead to reduced # of neurons, reduced myelination, + neurotransmitter abnormalities); good nutrition following birth can reduce some of neg effects of prenatal malnutrition!!!
Moral Development: Piaget
Premoral (0-7 years) is characterized by an absence of rule-awareness Heteronomous (7-10 years) is characterized by understanding of rules as absolute and unchangeable Autonomous (11+ years) is characterized by changeable rules
Adult attachment interview (AAI): Adults are categorized as _______________ on the AAI when they become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parents
Preoccupied
Magical Thinking
Preoperational Stage: belief that thinking about something will actually cause it to occur (thinking bad thoughts about dad will actually cause bad things to happen to him).
At around age 40, many adults have signs of:
Presbyopia and other visual changes (decreased ability to see in dim light, increased sensitivity to glare, + reduced depth perception)
Effects of Divorce on Children: Sleeper Effect
Preschool/elementary girls show no negative consequences at the time of divorce but later dev. problems including: lower self-esteem, and sexual promiscuity. Also more likely to experience depression, anxiety in relationships, divorce, and psychologically unstable spouse.
Memory strategies in childhood - preschoolers, early elementary, by 9 years, and in adolescence
Preschoolers - first use of incidental mnemonics Early elementary - often distracted by irrelevant information, but can apply rehearsal and other memory strategies immediately to a situation 9 years old - use memory strategies regularly (rehearsal, then organization, then elaboration) Adolescence - memory strategies are "fine-tuned," used deliberately Note that memory differences between children and adults are also related to improvements in metacognition.
Memory in Childhood: Memory Strategies
Preschoolers - incidental mnemonics, a non-deliberate learning strategy. 9-10 - Children begin to use memory strategies regularly Adolescence - Memory strategies are used deliberately and selectively
Effects of divorce on children (age)
Preschoolers - initially more problems than older children, however long term consequences are worse for older children
Klinefelter Syndrome
Presence of 2 or more X chromosomes with a single Y chromosome in a male (XXY) -Small penis and testes -Breast development during puberty -Limited interest in sexual activity -Sterile -Possible learning disabilities (Think of D. Kline, kind of feminine)
Decentration
Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one that recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints; move away from one system of classification to another as appropriate.
In context of HIV, "seroconversion" refers to:
Process of converting from antibody negative to antibody positive; often does not occur until several weeks after infected (so infected indiv may develop sx of acute HIV infection while still having a neg HIV antibody test)
Compensatory preschool programs
Programs for economically disadvantaged children Generally, these are good. Especially if parents are involved and the programs are good quality
Attachment: Separation
Prolonged separation at age 9 months or older they develop anaclitic depression (withdrawal)
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Proposed that each of 8 stages of life is associated with a particular psychosocial conflict that can be resolved in either a positive or a negative direction
Genotype-Environment Correlation
Proposes that a person's genetic make-up influences the environments the person is exposed to and that exposure to those environments reinforces the person's genetic make-up
Genotype-Environment Correlation
Proposes that a person's genetic make-up influences the type of environment that they are raised in, which in-turn reinforces their genetic make-up. 3 types
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Proposes that cognitive development is an active process that depends on a combination of biological maturation, and environmental stimulation.
Nativistic Theory
Proposes that humans have an innate predisposition for language. According to Noam Chomsky, a well-known advocate of this approach, people have a language acquisition device which is a brain mechanism that makes the comprehension of language and the acquisition of the rules of grammar possible. Although learning and nativistic theories account for some aspects of language acquisition, neither adequately explains all aspects.
Coercive family interaction model
Proposes that: 1. Children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh discipline, and reward children's aggressive 2. Over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
Attachment
Psychoanalytic perspective relates attachment to oral gratification. Behavioral relates it to reinforcement (e.g., being fed, given affection, etc.)
Adult attachment interview
Questionnaire that identifies parents own early attachment experiences Autonomous-give coherence descriptions of child relationships with their parents-have secure attachments with their children Dismissing -positive description of their relationships with parents, but the descriptions are not supported or are contradicted by their memories - their children exhibit avoidant attachment pattern Preoccupied -very angry or confused when discussing parenting relationships, or passively preoccupied with the parent-children exhibit resistant/ ambivalent attachment
Phenylketonuria
RECESSIVE GENE DX People lack enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine (amino acid in milk, eggs, bread and other foods). Beginning diet low in phenylalanine soon after birth prevents severe intellectual disability
By 4 months, a baby...
ROLLS from abdomen to back
By 24 months (2 years old), a child...
RUNS clumsily Walks up STAIRS 1/2 are potty trained
2013: What percentage of 12-17 yr olds report drinking alcohol in the past month? Using illicit drugs? Using tobacco?
Rates have declined in recent years; 11.6% drinking alcohol, 8.8% illicit drugs (highest percentage reported use of MJ- 7.1%), 7.8% tobacco
Theory of Mind: Major changes after age 5
Realize people's actions are not always consistent with their true thoughts and feelings; understand that people interpret events and that different people may interpret the same event differently
Transductive Reasoning
Reasons from one event to another
In re: memory, older adults exhibit greatest age-related decline in:
Recent long-term (secondary) memory (due to use of less effective encoding strategies); followed by working memory aspect of short-term memory (due to reduced processing efficiency)
Recent Research on Development of the Brain
Recent research indicates that cell loss is not as extensive as was previously believed and that some degree of neurogenesis, a production of new nerve cells does occur in adulthood at least in some regions of the brain.
Gilligan's theory of moral development: From Selfishness to Responsibility
Recognition that one is connected to others
Interactionist Theories
Recognize the roles of both biological and environmental factors are now the most widely accepted explanations. Several versions of interactionist theory, but all share the assumption that biological factors provide a general framework for language acquisition, while individual group differences in language use depend on the social context.
Bell + Ainsworth found that consistent and prompt maternal response to infant crying during first three months of infant's life associated w:
Reduced frequency + shorter duration of crying and fussing in subsequent months; subsequent studies have found both confirming and disconfirming results
Age-related declines in working memory seem to be due primarily to ______________ and a reduced ability to prevent _________________ from entering working memory
Reduced processing efficiency; irrelevant information
Syntactic bootstrapping
Refers to a child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words (e.g., inferring a noun's meaning by the grammatical context in which it occurs)
A sensitive period (vs critical period)
Refers to an optimal period rather than a necessary period; ex: sensitive period for dual language learning
Semantic bootstrapping
Refers to child's use of his or her knowledge of the meaning of words to infer their syntactical (grammatical) category (e.g., learning that words referring to objects or persons are nouns)
Vygotsky: Zone of proximal development
Refers to discrepancy between a child's current developmental level and the level just beyond his current level but can be reached when an adult/more experienced peer provides appropriate scaffolding
Temperament
Refers to person's basic disposition which influences how he or she responds to situations
Surface structure of language
Refers to the organization of words, phrases, and sentences
Deep structure of language
Refers to the underlying meaning of sentences
Vygotsky believed that because of it's interpersonal nature, cog dev:
Reflects the cultural, social, + historical context in which it occurs
Use of memory strategies in adolescents
Rehearsal, organization, and elaboration strategies are fine-tuned and used more deliberately and selectively
Types of rejected and neglected children
Rejected-aggressive children - hostile, hyperactive, impulsive Rejected-withdrawn children - social anxiety, submissive, victims of bullies Note: Rejected children are not likely to change their status when they change social groups. Neglected children - few interactions with peers, no disruptive behaviors, desire being alone
Attachment style related to aggression
Resistant/Insecure attachment
Identity Achievement
Resolved crisis by evaluated alternatives and committing to identity
Cerebral Cortex: Functions
Responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, language, spatial skills, and complex motor activities
Cerebral Cortex
Responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, language, spatial skills, and complex motor movements is almost completely undeveloped at birth.
Mothers of children w secure attachment
Responsive + emotionally sensitive to their baby's cues
Cerebral palsy
Results of brain damage Often a result of lack of oxygen during pregnancy labor and delivery also results from infections, head injury, hemorrhage, and genetic mutations
Social Contract Orientation
Right and wrong is determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute
Rutter's Indicators (6)
Risk factors that are particularly accurate in predicting child psychopathology: - severe marital discord - low SES - overcrowding/large family size - parental criminality - maternal psychopathology - placement of the child outside the home (Think: Rutter of a boat - directs where life is going)
Self-fulfilling prophecy effect AKA
Rosenthal effect or Pygmalion effect; told elementary school teachers that some students were "academic bloomers" - greater gains in IQ scores due to teacher's subtle responses communicated high expectations for them
By 6 months, a baby...
SITS alone, stands with help
By 12 months, a baby...
STANDS alone WALKS alone
Gilligan's theory of moral development: Goodness as self-sacrifice
Sacrifice of one's own desires for those of others
Semantic and Syntactic bootstrapping
Semantic - relying on word meanings to figure out grammatical rules Syntactic - using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning
Semantic and syntactic bootstrapping refers to...
Semantic bootstrapping = using the meaning of words to infer their syntactic AKA grammatical category (e.g. Syntactic bootstrapping = using syntactic knowledge to learn the meaning of new words
Oral stage
Sensation and stimulation, weaning is the primary source of conflict Dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, orally-focused habits (smoking, nail biting).
Gender Identity
Sense of being a male or female
Erikson: Autonomy vs shame and doubt
Sense of self develops out of positive interactions with one's parents or other caregivers
Piaget's 4 stages of development
Sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational (2-7) Concrete Operational (7-11) Formal Operational (11-16)
Piaget's stages of development in order with ages
Sensorimotor: birth-2 Preoperational: 2-7 Concrete Operational: 7-11/12 Formal Operational: 11 or 12+
Freud's Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Sexual energy is centered in the genitals; and the primary task is the the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, which is marked by a desire for the opposite-sex parent and a view of the same-sex parent as a rival. A successful outcome results from identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego. Fixation can produce a phallic character, which involves sexual exploitation of others.
By 30-36 months of age, children exhibit:
Shame, guilt, pride
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stage 3
Shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic outlook and to a concern for good motives. They emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one.
Effects of divorce on children based on age
Short-term consequences worse for younger children (preschool) Long-term consequences worse for older children (early elementary)
How does divorce affect the parenting style of the mother?
Show less affection toward their children, especially sons, whom they may treat more harshly.
Sibling relationships - When does sibling rivalry occur? When is it most intense? How do sibling relationships change into adulthood?
Sibling rivalry occurs during middle childhood (due to paradoxical combination of closeness/conflict and cooperation/competition) It is most intense among same-gender siblings who are 1.5-3 years apart in age, with parents providing inconsistent discipline A close relationship in childhood → even closer in adulthood A poor relationship in childhood → more hostile and rivalrous in adulthood
Sibling relationships - When does sibling rivalry occur? When is it most intense? How do sibling relationships change into adulthood?
Sibling rivalry occurs during middle childhood. It is most intense among same-gender siblings, one and a half to three years apart in age, with parents providing inconsistent discipline. A close relationship in childhood → even closer in adulthood. A poor relationship in childhood → more hostile and rivalrous in adulthood
Compared to children w/o heading deficits, children who are deaf perform:
Similarly to peers on most visual tasks; deafness is not generally associated w superior visual abilities; sign language may lead to some deaf children + adults to exhibit superior vis processing skills on mental rotation, face recognition, + visual attention tasks
Rutter's Indicators
Six family risk factors that are predictors of childhood psychopathology: severe marital discord, low SES, overcrowding or large family size, parental criminal B, maternal psychopathology, placement of child outside of the home.
Effects of divorce on children based on gender
Sleeper effect - girls have a delayed negative reaction to divorce - e.g. divorce happens in preschool or elementary, negative consequences not until adolescence (depression, anxiety, self-esteem, sexual promiscuity, divorce, husband who is mentally unstable)
Teratogens: Effects of Maternal HIV/AIDS
Slowed growth and development, increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, and oral candidiasis
The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen) states that...
Social relationships have 2 functions: -Acquisition of knowledge: prioritized when time is perceived as unlimited; behavior is aimed at pursuing future-oriented, knowledge-based goals, which leads to a preference for new or novel social partners who can provide new information -Regulation of emotion: prioritized when time is perceived as limited; present-oriented, emotion-based goals take priority, leading to a preference for emotionally close social partners, greater partner selectivity, and reduced number of social partners (THINK: Johnny Carson is a social butterfly, but why?)
Interventions for aggression
Social skills training is the MOST EFFECTIVE. Cathartic approach is the LEAST EFFECTIVE.
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
Some critics contend that his theory is most applicable to members of Western cultures and others claim that even in Western cultures, it may apply more to males than to females. Carol Gilligan argued that because of gender differences and the ways that children and adolescents are raised, males tend to base their moral judgments on principles such as justice or fairness, while females are more likely to be concerned about care, compassion, and responsibility toward others.
Common Effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Some degree of facial deformity, delayed physical growth, cognitive impairment, and overactivity. Most symptoms are irreversible. Even with an enriched diet, most children with FAS never catch up to their peers in terms of physical size and they continue to exhibit cognitive symptoms and behavioral problems as adolescents and adults.
Conrad Lorenz' Research
Some of the earliest research on attachment was conducted by ethologists who investigate the behavior of animals in their natural habitats. Research by Conrad Lorenz, the founder of ethology, revealed that baby geese develop a bond with the first moving object they see after hatching which is ordinarily their mother.
Critical period
Specific, predetermined periods of time during biological maturation when an organism is sensitive to certain stimuli that can have a positive or negative impact on development (e.g., for goslings, the first few days after birth are a critical period because they follow and stay near the first moving object they see in order to survive)
Newborns only slightly less sensitive to sound intensity than adults, + are esp sensitive to:
Speech sounds (soon after birth, can distinguish voice of mother from voice of stranger)
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: Stages
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Preconventional level; Morality based on consequences Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. Conventional level; morality based on existing social norms Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. Postconventional level; morality based on self-chosen principles Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. They begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights & values that a society ought to uphold. Stage 6: Universal Principles."theoretical stage"
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Stages of moral dev are universal + invariant and closely tied to both cog dev and soc perspective taking; three levels that each include two stages
Developmental Milestones 10-12 months
Stands alone and walks with help. 12 months, walks alone.
Presbyopia
Starting at around age 40, inability to focus on close objects.
Moro
Startle-flings arms & legs out then toward body in response to loud noise or sudden loss of physical support
Autonomous Morality
Starts arnd 11yo; morality of cooperation; rules are arbitrary & alterable when those governing them agree to change. Focus on intention of act, not consequences
Stepparents
Step fathers are more distant and disengaged Authoritative parenting style has a positive effect and best outcomes
Stepparents
Stepparents are less involved in discipline Stepfathers tend to be less engaged Authoritative parenting style is most effective.
In re: to vision, by 1-mo of age, infants distinguish:
The face of their mother from the face of a stranger
Ainsworth
Stranger Situation: 4 attachment patterns
Effects of remarriage on children based on age
Stress and conflict between parents and children are greatest when children are 9 years of age or older at the time of remarriage; especially difficult during early adolescence (probably because it's an additional stressor on top of a transition)
Remarriage (child's age)
Stress and conflict between parents and children greatest at 9 years of age or older at the time of the remarriage Adolescence is especially difficult
Erikson's theory/stages of psychosocial development
Stresses the role of social, rather than sexual, factors; stages each involve a different psychosocial crisis; greater emphasis on the ego than id; assumption that people are basically rational and behavior is mainly due to ego functioning; personality develops throughout the lifespan; successful completion of each stage results in acquisition of basic virtues (strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises) -Trust vs. Mistrust -Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt -Initiative vs. Guilt -Industry vs. Inferiority -Identity vs. Role Confusion -Intimacy vs. Isolation -Generativity vs. Stagnation -Ego Integrity vs. Despair
According to Bem, indivs who are highly "gender schematic" have:
Strong gender role identification + firmly adhere to gender role norms (likely to have stereotypic view of occupations)
Autobiographical Memory Research - Continued
Studies on autobiographical memory have also found that adults exhibit a predictable temporal pattern in the recall of events. Specifically, the research has shown that adults aged 50-90 remember events that occurred in the previous decade better than events that occurred in earlier years. In addition, for earlier periods of time, their recall is usually best for events that happened during adolescence and early adulthood.
Gender Identity
Studies suggest that gender identity is well established by age 3. Sense of male or female and understanding of correlated behaviors.
Habituation as a Memory Research Tool
Studies using habituation provide information on recognition memory and involve comparing how long an infant pays attention to a new stimulus vs. a stimulus the infant was previously exposed to when infants pay attention to the old stimulus for a shorter period of time, it is assumed they remember it. Habituation studies confirm that newborns show clear signs of recognition memory soon after birth, they habituate to lights and other visual displays as well as to sounds and smells.
Operant Conditioning as a Memory Research Tool
Studies using operant conditioning assess an aspect of memory known as cued recall. In an operant conditioning task, the infant first learns that making a certain response in the presence of a stimulus produces a specific outcome. If, at a later time, the infant emits the same response in the presence of that stimulus, it's assumed that the infant recalls that stimulus. In one study, each infant's foot was loosely attached with a ribbon to a mobile and when the infant kicked his or her leg, the mobile moved. This study found that at two months of age, infants remembered how to move the mobile after a 2 or 3 day delay and at 6 months of age, they did so after a 2 week delay.
Buffering hypothesis
Subjective perception of social support is more critical than actual support (for alleviating feelings of loneliness, reducing effects of stress, and risk of coronary heart disease)
Teratogens
Substances that cause birth defects in a developing fetus.
Teratogens
Substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus and include drugs, chemicals, and certain maternal conditions.
Gender and teacher feedback
Teacher feedback is related to student gender - may account for gender differences in academic achievement Boys get more feedback overall (criticism and praise) Boys are criticized for lack of the Coram, failure to do work neatly, and praised for intellectual accomplishments and task related behaviors Girls are criticized for lack of ability or in adequate intellectual performance, and praised for effort, cooperation, and independent behaviors
Behavioral Inhibition
Temperament trait that has been shown to be stable from 21 months to 7 1/2 years of age. Inhibited children = more reactive and more at risk for social anxiety
Scaffolding
Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process. Example: When teaching statistics to psychology undergraduates, an instructor wouldn't want to introduce z-scores unless the students have already mastered the concepts of a normal distribution and the standard deviation. Without this understanding, the concept of a z-score would be outside the student's zone of proximal development.
Children don't understand that death is irreversible and universal until age:
Ten (years old)
Peer status: Rejected-aggressive children
Tend to be hostile, hyperactive, impulsive and have difficulty regulating negative emotions and taking the perspective of others
Late physical maturation girls
Tend to be viewed as childish, but outperform peers in academics.
Peer status: Rejected-withdrawn
Tend to have a high degree of social anxiety, tend to be submissive, have negative expectations about how others will treat them, and are often victims of bullies
Theory of Mind
The ability to make inferences about another's representation states & predict bx accordingly 2-3 Become aware of other ppls mental states 4-5 understand others may have false beliefs & act on those beliefs By 6, know actions aren't always consistent with true feelings & may interpret events diff. By early ad. Know ppl can have mixed feelings about things
Deferred Imitation
The ability to remember and copy a person's behavior when that person is no longer present. Example: A child mimicking their parents cooking dinner by playing with pots and pans and pretending to cook Example: A child observes another child at preschool throwing a temper tantrum and repeats the behavior for his parents later.
Reversibility
The ability to understand that a transformation can be reversed in order to return something to its original state.
semiotic function
The ability to use symbols—language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Pre-operational children are able to use symbols to represent things that are not present, a major accomplishment; demonstrated through imitation, symbolic play, and language.
Elkind's Personal Fable
The adolescent's belief that he or she is exceptional, unique, and not subject to the natural laws that govern everyone else.
Neurogenesis
The creation of new neurons in the hippocampus and other areas of the brain.
Risk and Resilience
The exploration of how risk and resilience factors interact to create behavioral outcomes. Rutter (1985)
Identity statuses (Marcia) (4)
The degree to which an individual has experienced an identity crisis (toward the goal of achievement of a coherent identity) and is committed to an identity 4 patterns distinguished (do not necessarily occur in order and not everyone will experience each stage): -Identity diffusion: have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives, not committed to an identity -Identity foreclosure: have not yet experienced an identity crisis but have adopted an identity (e.g., occupation, ideology, etc.) that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or other person -Identity moratorium: has experienced an identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities (teens here exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness) -Identity achievement: an identity crisis has been resolved by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity (they are deemed "identity achieved") (THINK: Marcia --> Brady Bunch Movie --> Jan was trying to figure out who she was) (DFMA)
Zone of proximal development
The discrepancy between a child's current developmental level (where they can function independently) and the level just beyond that (requires support to function)
Prevalence of Klinefelter Syndrome
The disorder affects about one in every 500-1,000 males
Effects of Terotogens
The effects of a terotogen depend on the type, amount, and time of exposure but in general, a terotogen is most likely to cause major structural defects when exposure occurs during the embryonic period.
What stage is most susceptible to the effects of a teratogen?
The embryonic stage (weeks 3 to 8).
Chronosystem
The environmental changes that occur over time and have an effect on the child
Freud's theory/stages of psychosexual development
The id's libido (sexual energy) centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development, and personality results from the ways in which conflicts at each stage are resolved; failure to resolve conflict stems from excessive or insufficient gratification of the id's needs, resulting in fixation at that stage -Oral stage -Anal stage -Phallic stage -Latency stage -Genital stage
Infantile or Child Amnesia
The inability of older children and adults to remember events that occurred prior to age 3. Recent research on infantile amnesia suggests that it is not absolute. Many adolescents and adults remember some events that occurred prior to age 3, but these memories are fewer in number and less detailed than memories of events that occurred after age 3.
Egocenticism
The inability to see things from another person's point of view.
Recessive gene disorders are due to _________________
The inheritance of a pair of recessive genes (one from each parent)
Dominant gene disorders are due to ___________
The inheritance of a single dominant gene from one parent
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
The key characteristic of this stage is the development of symbolic (semiotic) thought, which allows children to learn through mental images, language, and symbols. For example pretending to be someone else in play. Still limited by several factors.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
The lack of an enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine, which is an amino acid found in mild, eggs, bread, and other foods.
Code-switching
The practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation; used to better express oneself, establish rapport with the listener, or to more effectively express one's attitude toward a listener
Imprinting
The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. Has a critical period; develops only during the first few days after a gosling hatches. If a gosling is separated from its mother during the critical period and subsequently reunited with her, imprinting on the mother does not occur.
Identity Diffusion
The status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made nor is attempting/willing to make a commitment
Identity Foreclosure
The status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future e.g., allowing a parent to determine a career direction As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.
Attachment
The strong, positive emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her mother and other primary caregivers. Clear signs of attachment in humans become apparent during the second half of the first year of life. Example: Soon after 6 months of age, babies exhibit social referencing.
Ethology
The study of animals in their natural habitats. All species are born with a number of programed behaviors that are products of evolution and are adaptive to their environment.
According to Piaget, the preoperational stage is characterized by the dev of:
The symbolic (semiotic) fx, which permits language use, symbolic play, and deferred imitation
Canalization
The tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to a few outcomes.
Centration
The tendency to focus on only one aspect of an object or situation.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory AKA
Theory of mediated learning; proposes that all learning occurs on two levels: first bt child + another person, and then within child (learning is first social, then individual)
What are Baumrind's parenting styles?
There are two dimensions of parenting: responsivity (acceptance and warmth) and demandingness (control); The parenting styles are predictive of specific personality and behavioral outcomes for children and adolescents -Authoritarian: ↑ Demands ↓ Responsivity -Authoritative: ↑ Demands ↑ Responsivity -Permissive: ↓ Demands ↑ Responsivity -Rejecting-neglecting: ↓ Demands ↓ Responsivity Effects of parenting style may be moderated by child's temperament Consequences of parenting style are influenced by cultural/ethnic background
Reaction range refers to what?
There is a range of reactions for certain traits. An individual's status within the range depends on environmental factors. Genetics determine how broad or narrow the range is. (Think: two R's = two factors: genetic and environmental)
Kohlberg's Postconventional Level
Third level; view laws + rules as useful but changeable; 1) social contract/ indiv rights stage: base their judgements on democratically determined laws and welfare of the majority, often choose course of action that produces greatest good for greatest number of people; 2) indiv principles of conscience stage: base judgements on abstract, universal principles, such as justice, fairness, + equality (rather than on laws or opinions of others) willing to violate laws inconsistent w their principles
Types of temperament (3)
Thomas and Chess's categories of temperament: -Easy: even-tempered, regular sleeping and eating patterns, adaptable, more positive moods -Difficult: irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, unpredictable habits, more negative moods -Slow to warm up: inactive, somewhat negative mood, take time to adjust to new stimuli -Childhood temperament may be able to predict adjustment in young adulthood (not always)
Goodness-of-fit model
Thomas and Chess; the degree of match between parents' behaviors and their child's temperament contributes to adjustment outcomes
Goodness of fit model
Thomas and chess, refers to fit of temperament between infant and parent
Kohlberg's Preconventional
Through age 9/10 1. (Punishment & Obedience) Goodness or badness depends on consequences. Right choice avoids conseq. 2. (Instrumental Hedonism) Consequences still guide, but judge more on obtaining rewards & satisfying needs than avoiding punish
Sensitive periods
Time periods when specific skills develop most easily Like critical period, but more flexible and longer in duration, not as closely tied to age or maturation stage
Polygenic traits
Traits influenced by multiple genes Homozygous traits - inherited a gene from both parents that gives a specific trait (must be for recessive trait) Heterozygous - inherited a gene from one parent (can be a dominant trait)
Alterations in chromosome structure: Translocation
Transfer of a chromosome segment to another chromosome
Symptoms of babies born to mothers with HIV/AIDS
Transmission during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding 20% to 30% of transmission during pregnancy Taking retro viral drugs can reduce to 1% If infant gets HIV then 20% of infants have symptoms in the first 2 years of life. And 80% develop symptoms after age 3. First signs slowed growth and development, increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, and oral candidiasis. Later, immunologic abnormalities with delays in physical and cognitive development.
Treatment for Turner X Syndrome
Treatment and surgical removal of neck webbing. Surgery may be completed to correct cardiovascular issues. Hormonal treatment
Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV)
Type of herpes virus; common sx: ID, hearing + visual impairments; infection during adulthood usually produces no/mild sx, but during prenatal dev or birth can be life-threatening; approx 10% of infants w CMV show sx at birth, 10-15% dev sx in first few years of life
Deep structure
Underlying meaning of a sentence; ex: "striking auto workers can be dangerous" has one surface structure, but three deep structures
Theory of Mind: Major changes during ages 4-5
Understand that another person's thoughts may be false and that people may act on their false beliefs
Theory of mind at age 4-5
Understand that another person's thoughts may be false or inaccurate and that people may act on their false beliefs
Theory of mind after age 5
Understand that people's actions are not always consistent with their true thoughts and feelings; that different people have different interpretations of the same event. In adolescence, recognize that people can have mixed feelings.
Behavioral inhibition refers to... This trait is stable at what age? What are the implications for life outcomes? Can this be modified?
Uninhibited children are chill. Inhibited children have more physiological reactivity to new situations. Kagan's research showed that children are either inhibited or uninhibited at 21 months of age.Inhibited children are more likely to have social anxiety in adolescence, less satisfactory social life in early adulthood. Behavioral inhibition can be modified with warm, supportive parenting for inhibited children and cold, intrusive parenting or overprotective parenting for uninhibited children.
Anxious/Avoidant
Uninterested in the environment, little connection with mom Moms are impatient & overly involved.
Early reflexes: definition
Unlearned responses to particular stimuli in the environment
Play - Nonsocial
Unoccupied - random movements with no goal Onlooker - watching others play w/o participation Solitary - play independently
Although most of growth of cerebral cortex occurs during first two yrs, cortical development continues:
Until late adolescence or early 20s; frontal lobes exhibit greatest amount of restructuring during later teen years
Use of memory strategies in 9-10 years olds
Use memory strategies regularly, beginning with rehearsal, then organization, then elaboration
Holophrastic Speech
Use of a single word to stand for a whole phrase with the meaning being determined by the context. Example: A child points to a picture of a cookie in a book, she probably means "cookie" but when she points to a plate of freshly baked cookies and says "cookie" she probably means, "I want a cookie."
Use of memory strategies in early elementary school age
Use somewhat more effective strategies like rehearsal but are often distracted by irrelevant info
Children w secure attachment
Use their mother as a base and explore the environment but occasionally return to her for reassurance; may cry when mom leaves, but greet her enthusiastically when she returns; may be anxious in presence of stranger, but interact w stranger when mom is present
Sensitive Period
Used in humans b/c there are optimal time for development, but skills can develop earlier or later.
Onlooker play
When a child watches other children play and may make comments but doesn't participate in play behavior
Alterations in chromosome structure: Inversion
When a chromosome breaks in two places and the segment formed by the breaks inverts and reattaches to the chromosome
Parallel play
When child plays alongside other children and shares the same toys but does not interact with them
Precausal (transductive) reasoning
When children in preoperational stage see causal rx that don't exist (manifested in magical thinking + animism)
Adolescent Identity Crisis
When teenagers work on finding a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them into one self; postulated by Erik Erickson (occurs in adolescence) Erikson considered adolescence to be a particularly important time in life for identity formation and he coined the term adolescent identity crisis.
Solitary play
When the child plays alone and independently of others
Research on Changes in Use of Memory Strategies
While children as young as 5 or 6 years of age can be taught to use a memory strategy for a particular task, they don't generalize that strategy to other tasks and its not until about age 7 or 8 that children start to use memory strategies consistently. The studies have also shown that memory strategies develop in middle childhood in a predictable sequence with rehearsal being the first strategy to be regularly used followed by organization and then elaboration. In adulthood, studies have shown that, compared to young adults, older adults require more time to learn and retrieve information and do less well on tasks that are unfamiliar or unrelated to their existing knowledge. In addition, of the various aspects of memory, recent long-term or secondary memory is affected most by increasing age which accounts for much of the increasing forgetfulness that adults begin to notice in middle age. Evidence that the age-related decline in recent long-term memory is due in large part to the fact that older adults use systematic processing and retrieval strategies less often and less effectively than younger adults do. Good news is that training in memory strategies is often effective for older adults who are experiencing normal age-related declines in memory.
differences in Life Expectancies between females and males
White males now have a Life Expectancy of 75 years and females have a Life Expectancy of almost 80 years. Research shows that female hormones may guard them from high blood pressure and heart problems. Females are also less likely than men to have a violent death or accident and are less likely to suffer from the effects of smoking, drinking, and other health hazards.
Bowlby
Widely accepted attachment theory which proposes that infants and mothers are biologically programmed for attachment
Treatment for Prader-Willi Syndrome
Without assistance to control their eating habits, these individuals are likely to die an early death. When their eating is controlled, however, they may live a typical lifespan
Color blindness is a recessive trait carried on the:
X chromosome; for son to be colorblind, would inherit gene from mother; for daughter to be colorblind, would inherit gene from both parents
Males
XY
Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adulthood-establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship
Intimacy v. Isolation
Young adulthood: establishing intimate bonds of love & friendship, otherwise self-absorption & isolation result
Sibling Relationships
Young siblings = prosocial and play Middle Childhood = closeness and conflict - most conflict in same-gender siblings between 1 an 3 years of one another Adolescents = less emotionally close and friction declines Adulthood = close in childhood close in adulthood
According to Vygotsky, symbolic play provides children w:
Zone of proximal development that enables them to practice bx in a situation that requires less precision + accuracy than would be required in reality
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
reminiscence bump
a phenomenon whereby older adults have the strongest and most vivid memories for events and personal experiences that occurred when they were between the ages of 10 and 30.
Erikson's Basic Trust v. Mistrust (Infancy)
a positive relationship with one's primary caregiver during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism.
Kohlberg's preconventional morality stage
a) Punishment and Obedience orientation: the right thing to do is whatever avoids PUNISHMENT b) Instrumental Hedonism: moral decisions are based more on obtaining REWARDS and satisfying PERSONAL NEEDS than on avoiding punishment
Theory of mind
ability to make inferences about others representation stages and predict behaviors accordingly 2-3 YEARS - aware of others mental states, perceptions, desires, emotions and this influences their actions 4-5 YEARS - understand that these thoughts may be false and still influence behavior AFTER AGE 5 - realize that actions are not always consistent with their thoughts, people interpret thoughts differently moving into adolescence, realize that ppl can have "mixed feelings"
Formal Operations Stage (11 or 12+ years)
able to think abstractly and is capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning which means can develop hypothesis and can develop a system for proving or disproving the hypothesis.
Behaviorist Approach to Language Acquisition
acquired through imitation and reinforcement. children learn by watching and imitating others.
Niche-picking is also known as
active genotype-environment correlation
Marcia's Identity Diffusion
adolescents exhibiting diffusion have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives and are not committed to an identity.
Marcia's Identity Achievement
adolscents who have resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity.
Slow to Warm-Up Children
are in active and somewhat negative in mood and take time to adjust to new stimuli.
Overregularization
as children begin to master grammatical rules they apply usual rules to exceptional cases. (ex. child may say tooths instead of teeth or holded instead of held.)
Bem's Schema Theory
attributes the acquistion of a gender identity to a combination of social learning and cognitive development. Children develop "schemas" (cognitive frameworks) of masculinity and femininity as the result of their sociocultural experiences. These schemas then organize how the individual perceives and thinks about the world.
Ainsworth Secure Attachment
baby explores the room and plays with toys in the room while their mother is present. the baby becomes mildly upset when the mother leaves the room and actively seeks to connect with her when she returns. Mothers of these children are emotionally sensitive an responsive to their baby's cues.
How does divorce affect the parenting style of the father?
become more indulgent and permissive
Levinson The Early Adult Transition Age 17 to 22
becoming independent from one's parents, getting into college, getting into the military, or an entry-level job. Leads to the formation of The Dream or the image of an ideal life that guides one's decisions or choices.
Echolalia and Expressive Jargon
beginning at about 9 months of age children will imitate adult language with no meaning.
Behavioral Inhibition and Parenting Style
behavioral inhibition can be modified by parental child-rearing practices, with warm supportive parenting reducing the intense physiological reactions, while cold, intrusive parenting and overprotecting parenting causing and increase in physiological reactions.
Telegraphic Speech
by 18 to 24 months of age children string together two or more words to make a sentence (me go. & more juice.) at this point only nouns verbs and adjectives. by 27 months prepositions and pronouns will be added vocab is about 300 to 400 words.
Adult Physical Changes - Vision
by 40 some presbyopia (difficulty focusing on close objects) by age 65 common to experience vision changes that interfere with reading, driving, depth and color perception, and speed of visual processing.
Social Referencing
by about 6 months of age, infants begin to demonstrate social referencing, which involves looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous situations.(Ex. the "visual cliff pg. 46.)
Stranger Anxiety
by about 8 to 10 months infants become very anxious and fearful in the presence of a stranger, especially when a caregiver is not nearby or when a caregiver does not respond positively to a stranger. Stranger Anxiety continues to about age 2 and then declines.
hypothetical/deductive reasoning/propositional thought
can evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 or 12 years)
capable of mental operations which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information.
Huntington's Disease
caused by autosomal dominant gene disorder and is characterized by a combination of psychiatric, cognitive, and motor symptoms.
Down Syndrome
caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21.
Easy temperament
cheerful, moderate intensity, adaptable, requires schedules
Behavioral Inhibition (by Kagan 1989)
consistent characteristic as the child ages from 21 months to 5 1/2 to 7 1/2 years. related to physiological reactivity and when faced with unfamiliar situations these children had a higher heart rate, greater pupillary dilation, and larger changes in blood pressure.
Exosystem
consists of elements in the broader environment that affect the child's immediate environment and includes the parents' workplace, the school board, community agendas, local industry and mass media.
Recessive Gene Disorders
cystic fibrosis, sickle cell, Tay-Sachs disease and phenylketonuria (PKU)
Death and Dying: Stages of Grief
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Age Related Declines in Working Memory
due to reduced processing efficiency (which is measured in terms of processing speed) and a reduced ability to prevent irrelevant information from entering working memory.
each human cell contains _____ pairs of chromosomes
each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes
Bowlby's Internal Working Model (1980)
exposure of an infant to their mother during the critical period (during the infants first year of life) results in a bond between them that helps ensure the infant's survival. It is the mental representation of self and others that influences the child's future relationships. There are 4 phases: 1.) preattachment 2.) attachment-in-the-making 3.) clearcut attachment 4.) the formation of reciprocal relationships.
Stages of prenatal development
germinal (1st 2 weeks), embryonic (3-8 weeks), fetal (9weeks - birth)
3 stages of prenatal development
germinal - up to 2 weeks. Zygote. embryonic - 3-8 weeks. fetal - 9th week and on.
Reminiscence Bump
greater recall of events that occurred from about 10 to 30 years ago. Explanations: More novel experiences Encoding of information is most efficient during this period Personal Sense of Identity is developed
Retention Function
greater recall of recent events (events that occurred in the last 20 years).
Children who are rejected by their peers have been shown to demonstrate...
higher levels of aggressiveness and other disruptive behaviors, as well as increased feelings of loneliness
Crying
hunger cry, angry cry, pain cry Fussy/irregular cry - 1 - 2 months of age
Object Permanence
important accomplishment of sensorimotor stage recognize that objects and people continue to exist when they are out of sight.
exosystem
it Includes institutions that influence the child. Examples include local government, school administration, and local media.
Sensitive Periods
longer in duration and more flexible that critical periods and they are not tied as closely to chronological age or maturational stage.
Research investigating the effects of maternal employment on cognitive development in children has revealed that ...
maternal employment does not have significant positive or negative effects on the cognitive development or academic achievement of children.
Theories of language development
nativist approach- Chomsky, language acquisition due to biological mechanism, universal patterns of language development Behaviorist approach- language acquired through imitation and reinforcement Interactionist - both biological and social influences interact in language development
Goodness of Fit Model
predicts that is the degree of match between parent's behaviors and their child's temperament that contributes to the child's outcomes.
Syntactic Bootstrapping
refers to a child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words. may infer meaning from the grammatical structure.
Identity statuses (Marcia) (4)
refers to degree to which an adolescent has experienced an identity crisis, is committed to an identity 1. identity diffusion - no identity crisis, not committed to an identity 2. identity foreclosure - no identity crisis, adoption of identity that has been imposed by the same-sex parent 3. identity moratorium - identity crisis, actively exploring alternative identities 4. identity achievement - identity crisis is resolved, commitment to an identity (THINK: Marcia --> Marsh Middle School --> adolescents)
Morphological Bootstrapping
refers to knowledge about morphemes to deduce the syntax or meaning of a word. example. deducing that a word is an action word because it ends in "-ing."
Semantic Bootstrapping
refers to the child's use of their knowledge of the meaning of words to infer syntactical (grammar) category. refer to actions as verbs, and objects or persons as nouns. generally allows the child form correct sentences.
Chomsky (1957) Surface Structure
refers to the organization of words, phrases and sentences.
Slow to warm up temperament
sad or tense, low intensity, slow adaptation, variable schedules
Types of genotype-environment correlations
scare and McCarthy 83 When genetics influence the environment we are supposed to and exposure reinforces genetic makeup Passive gene environment correlations-inherit genes from parents who also share childs genes and exposure children to an environment that encourages development of traits -Evocative gene environment correlations- Child genetics evoke reactions that influence their genetic makeup -Active gene environment correlations- Also called niche picking. Children seek experiences actively that are consistent with their genetics
Self-awareness becomes apparent during:
second year of life
Levinson The Mid-Life Transition Age 40 to 45
significant stress, the deflation of The Dream and marked by the perspective from "Time-since-birth" to "time-left-to-live" as a result of awareness of one's own mortality. research to support "the mid-life crisis" is inconclusive. Levinson found 80% of men in his sample however in other samples only a minority of men did.
Symptoms of Klinefelter Syndrome
small penis and testes develops breasts during puberty limited interest in sexual activity sterile have learning disabilities
Phonemes
smallest units of sound that are understood in a language. the English language has 45.
Morphemes
smallest units of sound that convey meaning which are made up of one or more phonemes.
Race Recognition
some studies suggest infants may exhibit awareness of racial differences as early as 6 months and that children are able to label people in terms of a racial group by the time they are 3 to 4 years old. However, a more sophisticated understanding of race does not develop until about age 10 when children begin to understand the social connotations of racial differences.
Chomsky's Notion of Transformational Grammar
speaking involves transforming deep structure (meaning) into surface structure (grammatical sentences) while listening does the reverse; transforming surface structure into it's deep structure.
Theory of Mind
the ability to make inferences about another's representational states and predict behavior accordingly.
Metalinguistic Awareness
the ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and on themselves as language users. by age 6 or 7 they can use language in humorous and metaphorical ways.
Social Learning Theory and Gender Identity
the acquistion of a gender identity is the result of a combination of differential reinforcement and observational learning.
Ainsworth (Anxious)/Avoidant Attachment
the baby interacts very little with their mother, shows little distress when she leaves the room, and avoids or ignores her when she returns. The babies interact with their mothers and strangers in similar ways. Mothers of these kind of children are very impatient and unresponsive or at the other extreme, provide their children with too much stimulation.
Imaginary Audience
the belief that one is always the center of attention.
Personal Fable
the belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others
Psychodynamic Theory of Gender Identity
the development of gender identity depends on successful resolution of the psychosocial crisis of the phallic stage of development, which results in identification with the same-sex parent.
Zone of Proximal Development
the discrepancy between the child's current level of development and the level just beyond which can be reached with a more experienced other who provides SCAFFOLDING.
Horizontal Decalage
the gradual acquisition of conservation abilities and other abilities within a certain range of development.
Phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Canalization
the narrow developmental path; taken by characteristics that are resistant to environmental forces e.g., sensorimotor development
Contact Comfort (Harlow and Harlow)
the pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft cuddly parent.
Epigenesis
the relationship between genetic and environmental influences as bidirectional and ongoing.
relationship between children and step-fathers
typically unpleasant and disengaged
how girls handle divorce
unaffected until their adolescent years exemplifying the Sleeper effect phenomenon
Baumrind Permissive Parents (Indulgent)
warm and caring but make few demands and are nonpunitive. They allow their children to make their own decisions about what chores to complete, when to go to bed, etc. The children of these parents tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence.
Extension
when a parent adds information to the child's statement. The child says, "Mommy Bye-bye" and the parent responds with "Yes, Mommy is going to work now."
Expansion
when a parent adds to the child's statement. Example: The child says, "Mommie bye-bye" and the parent says, "Yes, Mommy is going bye-bye."
Marcia's Identity Moratorium
when an adolescent experiences an identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities. It is during this period that teens exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent and rebelliousness.
